ENG816

LITERATURE AND GENDER

Course Developer/Writer Professor Mobolanle Sotunsa

Department of English & Literary
Studies
Babcock University,
Ilisan-Remo, Ogun State
sotunsam@babcock.edu.ng
bolasotunsa@yahoo.com

Course Editor Professor Ini Uko

Department of English
University of Uyo
inisnr@yahoo.com

Course Coordinator Dr. Bridget A. M. Yakubu

Department of Languages
Faculty of Arts
National Open University of Nigeria
Abuja
CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………
What You will Learn in this Course
…………………………………………………
Course Aims
……………………………………………………………………………
Course Objectives
……………………………………………………………………
Working through the Course
…………………………………………………………
Course
Materials…………………………………………………………………………
Study
Units…………….…………………………………………………………………
Textbooks and
References………………………………………………………………
Assignment
File…………………………………………………………………………
Presentation Schedule
………………………………………………………………
Assessment……………………………………………………………………………
…
Tutor-Marked
Assignment………………………………………………………………
Final Examination and
Grading…………………………………………………………
Course Marking
Scheme…………………………………………………………………
Course
Overview…………………………………………………………………………
How to Get the Most from this
Course…………………………………………………
Facilitators/Tutors and
Tutorials…………………………………………………………
Summary…………………………………………………………………………
Introduction

ENG816 - Literature and Gender - is designed to acquaint the students with the

conceptualisation of gender issues particularly as it is portrayed in literature. This course is

a one-semester three credit course, and is suitable for beginners and people with

intermediate knowledge of gender.

This course consists of 17 units, comprising gender conceptualisations, feminism,

womanism, masculinities and queer theory. The material has been especially developed for

students in Africa with particular focus on Nigeria.

This course guide tells you briefly what the course is all about, what you are expected to

know in each unit; what course materials you will be using and how you can work your way

through the material. It also emphasizes the need for tutor-marked assignments. Detailed

information on tutor-marked assignment is contained in a file to be sent to you in due

course. There are periodic tutorial classes that are linked to the course.

What You will Learn in this Course

The overall aim of ENG816: Literature and Gender is to familiarise the students with the

various concepts and theories of gender literary analysis. Your understanding of this course

will equip you with both the theoretical and practical approaches to gender issues.

Course Aims
The course is to equip the students with the knowledge of the carrying out literary analysis

using gender theories such as feminism, womanism masculinity and queer theory. This aim

will be achieved by:

 Introducing students to conceptualization of gender;

 Explaining to you to the basis of feminism and other gender concepts in literature;
  Teaching you how to carry out literary text analysis using feminism, womanism,

masculinity and queer theories;

 Explaining to you the process of mounting a play;

 Exposing you to practical literary text analyses using various gender theories, etc.

Course Objectives
To achieve the aims set out above, there are overall objectives. In addition, each unit has

specific objectives. The unit objectives are always included at the beginning of the unit.

You should read them before going through the units. You should always look at the unit

objectives on completing the unit to assure yourself that you have done what the unit

required and acquired the competencies it aimed to inculcate.

Stated below are the wider objectives of this course. By meeting these objectives, you

should have achieved the entire aim of this course. On successful completion of this course,

you should be able to:

 Discuss the concept of gender,

 Explain the difference between gender and sex

 Discuss the history and forms of feminism,

 Explain the evolution and distinguishing features of womanism,

 Discuss the African women writers and critics reactions to feminism,

 Explain masculinity, emasculation and queer theory,

 Analyse literary texts using feminism, womanism, masculinity and queer theory.

Working through this Course

To complete this course, you are required to read the study units, read recommended books

and other related materials you can lay your hands on. Each unit contains self-assessment
exercises, which you are expected to use in assessing your understanding of the course. At

the end of this course is a final examination.

Course Materials
Major components of this course are:

1. Course Guide

2. Study Units

3. Textbooks

4. Assignment File

5. Presentation Schedule

Study Units

There are seventeen units in this course as follows:

MODULE 1: CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATIONS ON GENDER

Unit 1: The Construction of Gender

Unit 2 Gender Concepts

MODULE 2: FEMINISM

Unit 1 Definition of Feminism

Unit 2 History of Feminism

Unit 3 Types and Diversities of Feminism

Unit 4 Feminist Literary Critical Methodology

Unit 5 Major Statements

MODULE 3: WOMANISM AND RACIAL FEMINIST VARIANTS

Unit 1 Evolution and Concept of Womanism

Unit 2 Distinguishing Characteristics of Womanism

Unit 3 African Women and the Rejection of Feminism

Unit 4 Ideological Position of African Female Writers/Critics in Gender Discourse

MODULE 4: GENDER DISCOURSE IN AFRICAN FEMALE FICTION

Unit 1 Gender Politics in African Literature

Unit 2 Common Themes in African Women‟s Writings

Unit 3 African Women Writers and Gender Issues

MODULE 5: MASCULINITY AND QUEER THEORY

Unit 1 The Notion of Masculinity

Unit 2 The Concept of Emasculation

Unit 3 Queer Theory

The first two units in Module 1 provide conceptual clarifications on gender. Units 1 to 3 of

Module 2 give the definitions of feminism, the history of feminism, types and diversities of

feminism. Units 4 and 5 of Module 2 explain feminist critical methodology and provide

summary of major statements of canonical feminist critics. Units 1 to 5 of Module 3 explain

womanism as a racial variant of feminism and discuss African women‟s reactions to

feminism. Units 1 to 3 of Module 4 provide practical engagement with the works of African

women writers. Literary analysis of writers is carried out. Units 1 to 3 of Module 5 explain

the notions of masculinity, emasculation and queer theory.

Textbooks and References

De Beauvoir, S. (1972). The Second Sex. Harmondsworth, UK.: Penguin.

Dobie, B. A. (2009). Theory into Practice: An Introduction to Literary Criticism. Boston,

Wadsworth Centage Learning

Freeman, J. O (1989). (ed.) Women: A Feminist Perspective. 4th edition. California:

Mayfield Publishing Co.
Friedman, Betty (1963). The Feminine Mystique. London: Pengiun Books.
Gayle, Green and Coppella Klian (1985). Making a Difference: Feminist Literary Criticism.
London: Methuen Co Ltd.
Humm, Maggie. (1992). Feminisms: A Reader. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf.

Millet, Kate (1970). Sexual Politics. Urbana: University of Illinois Press

Mills, John Stuart (1963). The Subjection of Women. London: Virago Press Ltd.
Roget‟s II The New Thesaurus (1995). 3rd Edition. Boston &New York, Houghton Milfin
Company, 1995.

Sheila, Ruth (1980). Issues in Feminism: A First Course in Women‟s Studies. Boston:
Houghton Milflin Company.
Showalter Elaine (1999). A Literature of Their Own. U.K: Virago Press
Sotunsa, Mobolanle Ebunoluwa (2018) Gender Matters and the Cultural Dilemma in
African Literature 22nd Inaugural Lecture Thursday May 3, 2018. Babcock
University Press. Ilisan Remo

Sotunsa, Mobolanle. (2008). Feminism and Gender Discourse: The African Experience.
Lagos: Asaba Publications.
Wollstonecraft, Mary (1978). A Vindication of the Rights of Women. Harmondsworth:
Pengium.

Assignment File
This file contains the details of all the assignments you must do and submit to your tutor for

marking. The mark you obtain from these assignments will form part of the final mark you

will obtain in this course.

Presentation Schedule
The presentation schedule included in your course materials gives you the important dates

for the completion of your tutor-marked assignments and when you will attend tutorials.

Remember that you are required to submit your assignments according to the schedule.

Assessment
There are two aspects of assignment in this course. The first aspect includes all the tutor-

marked assignments, while the second is the written examination.

In tackling the assignments, you are expected to apply the information and knowledge you

acquired during the course.

The assignments must be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment in accordance with

the deadlines stated in the Assignment file. The work you submit to your tutor for

assessment account for 30% of the total mark accruing to the course.

At the end of the course, you will sit for a final three-hour examination that will carry 70%

of the total course mark.

Tutor-Marked Assignment
Each unit has a tutor-marked assignment. You are expected to submit all the assignments.

You should be able to do the assignments from the knowledge you derived from the course,

and information you acquired from the textbooks.

When you have completed the assignment for each unit, send it along with your TMA

(tutor-marked assignment) form to your tutor. Make sure that the completed assignment

reaches your tutor on or before the deadline in the assignment file. If you cannot complete

your assignment on time due to a cogent reason, consult your tutor for possible extension of

time.

Final Examination and Grading

The final examination for ENG816 will be for the duration of three hours. The examination

will carry 70%. It will consist of questions that will reflect the type of self-testing practice

exercises and tutor-marked assignments you have come across. All areas of the course will

be examined.

You are advised to revise the entire course after studying the last unit before you sit for

examination. You will find the revision of your tutor-marked assignments equally useful.
Course Marking Scheme
The table below shows how actual course marking is broken down.

Assessment Marks
Assignment 1 - 3 Three assignments will be given which will
count as 30% of course mark
Final Examination 70% of overall course marks
Total 100% of course marks

Course Overview
The table below brings together, the units, the number of weeks you should take to complete
them, and the assignments that follow them.
Unit Title of Work Week’sActi Assessment(End
vity of Unit)
Course Guide 1
Module1 CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATIONS ON GENDER
1 The Construction of Gender 1 Assignment1

2 Gender Concepts 1 Assignment2

Module2 FEMINISM
1 Definition of Feminism 2 Assignment3

2 History of Feminism 2 Assignment4

3 Types and Diversities of Feminism 3 Assignment5
4 Feminist Literary Critical Methodology 4 Assignment6

5 Major Statements 5 Assignment7

Module3 WOMANISM AND RACIAL FEMINIST
VARIANTS
1 Evolution and Concept of Womanism 6 Assignment8
2 Distinguishing Characteristics of Womanism 6 Assignment9
3 African Women and the Rejection of Feminism 7 Assignment 10
4 Ideological Position of African Female 8 Assignment 11
MODULE 4 GENDER DISCOURSE IN AFRICAN FEMALE FICTION
1 Gender Politics in African literature 9 Assignment12
2 Common Themes in African Women‟s Writings. 10 Assignment13
3 African Women Writers and Gender Issues 11 Assignment14

MODULE 5 MASCULINITY AND QUEER THEORY

1 The Notion of Masculinity 12 15

2 The Concept of Emasculation 13 16

3 Queer Theory 14 17
Revision
Examination
How to Get the Most from this Course
In distance learning, the study units replace the university lecture. This is one of the

advantages of distance learning: you can read and work through specially designed study

materials at your own pace, and at a time and place that suit you best. Think of it as reading

the lecture instead of listening to a lecturer. In the same way that a lecturer might set for you

some reading to do, the study units tell you when to read your set books or other materials.

Just as a lecturer might give you an in-class exercise, your study units provide exercises for

you to do at appropriate time.

Each of the study units are written according to common format. The first item is an

introduction to the subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit is integrated with the

other units and the course as a whole. Next is a set of learning objectives. These objectives

guide you on what you should be able to do by the time you have completed the unit. You

should use these objectives to guide your study. When you have completed the units, you

must go back and check whether you have achieved the objectives. This habit will improve

your chance of passing the course.

READING SECTION
Remember that your tutor‟s job is to help you. So, when you need help of any sort, call on

him or her. Do not fail to do so.

1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly

2. Organise a study schedule or time table. Refer to the course overview for more

detail. Note the time you are expected to spend on each unit, and how the

assignments relate to the units.

3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything you can to stick to

it. The major reason students fail is that they lag behind in their course work. If

you get into any difficulty with your schedule, do let your tutor know it before it is

too late for help.

4. Turn to unit one and read the introduction and the objectives for the unit.

5. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need for a unit is given

in the overview at the beginning of each unit. You will always almost need both the

study unit you are working on and one of your books on your table at the same time.

6. Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been arranged to provide a

sequence for you to follow. As you work through the unit you will be instructed to

read sections from your set books or articles. Use the unit to guide your reading.

7. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you have achieved them.

If you feel unsure about any of the objectives, review the study material or consult

your tutor.

8. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit‟s objectives, you can then

start on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to pace your

study so that you keep yourself on schedule.

9. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking, do not wait for

its return before starting on the next unit. Keep to your schedule. When the

assignment is returned, pay particular attention to your tutor‟s comments, both on

the tutor- marked assignment form and also on what is written on the assignment.

Consult your tutor as soon as possible if you have any questions or problems.

10. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for the final

examination. Ensure that you have achieved the unit objectives (listed at the

beginning of each unit) and the course objectives (listed in this Course Guide).
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials
There are eight hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. You will be notified of

the dates, time and location of these tutorials, together with the name and phone number of

your tutor, as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group. Your tutor will mark and

comment on your assignments, keep close watch on your progress and on any difficulties

you might encounter and provide assistance to you during the course. You must mail your

tutor-marked assignments to your tutor well before the due date (at least two working days

are required). They will be marked by your tutor and returned to you as soon as possible do

not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, email, or discussion board if you need help.

The following might be circumstances in which you will find help necessary.

Contact Your Tutor If:

 You do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned readings

 You have difficulty with these lf-tests or exercises

 You have a question or problem with an assignment, your tutor‟s comments on an

assignment, or with the grading of an assignment

You should try your best to attend tutorials. This is the only chance to have face to face

contact with your tutor and ask questions which are answered instantly. You can raise any

problem encountered in the course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from course

tutorials, prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a lot from

participating in discussions actively.

Summary
ENG816: Literature and Gender explains to you the meaning of gender, the history of

feminism, the concept of womanism and other racial variants of feminism, as well as

Masculinity and queer theories.

Gender is a very sensitive issue. Literature and Gender is, in the main, designed to equip the

students understand gender conceptualisations and carry out gender analysis of literary

texts.

Happy reading.
CONTENTS PAGE
MODULE 1: CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATIONS ON GENDER 1

Unit 1: The Construction of Gender 1

Unit 2 Gender Concepts 8

MODULE 2: FEMINISM 18

Unit 1 Definition of Feminism 18

Unit 2 History of Feminism 25
Unit 3 Types and Diversities of Feminism 35
Unit 4 Feminist Literary Critical Methodology 41
Unit 5 Major Statements
50

MODULE 3: WOMANISM AND RACIAL FEMINIST VARIANTS 59

Unit 1 Evolution and Concept of Womanism 59

Unit 2 Distinguishing Characteristics of Womanism 65
Unit 3 African Women and the Rejection of Feminism 71
Unit 4 Ideological Position of African Female Writers/Critics in Gender Discourse 76

MODULE 4: GENDER DISCOURSE IN AFRICAN FEMALE FICTION 89

Unit 1 Gender Politics in African literature 89

Unit 2 Common Themes in African Women‟s Writings. 102

Unit 3 African Women Writers and Gender Issues 114

MODULE 5: MASCULINITY AND QUEER THEORY 133

Unit 1 The Notion of Masculinity 133

14
Unit 2 The Concept of Emasculation 145
Unit 3 Queer Theory 155

15
MODULE 1: CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATIONS ON GENDER

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

This course is generally aimed to help you understand gender, gender concepts and

conceptualisation in literature. This module exposes you to the definition of gender, the

differences between gender and sex, various gender terms and concepts. The module lays the

general foundation of the understanding of gender before we go on to apply it to literature. The

understanding of the notion of gender equips you to assess how a literary text invites its readers,

as members of a specific culture, to understand what it means to be a woman or a man, and so

encourages them to reaffirm or to challenge existing cultural norms.

2.0 Objectives

a. To familiarise you as a student with the notion of gender and its operation in society.

b. To enable you to understand the difference between sex and gender.

c. To help you comprehend and appreciate the various gender terminologies, concepts and

terms

d. To prepare you to recognise the stereotypical representations of women and men in

literature and equip you to critique them.

3.0 Main Contents

3.1 The Construction of Gender

3.2 Differences between Sex and Gender

3.3 Gender Equality, Equity and Gender Gap

3.4 Gender Analysis, Gender Awareness, Blindness and Mainstreaming

3.5. Gender Roles and Gender Stereotypes

16
Unit 1

3.1. The Construction of Gender

Gender, in common usage, refers to the differences between men and women. Encyclopaedia

Britannica notes that gender identity is "an individual's self-conception as being male or female,

as distinguished from actual biological sex." Historically, feminism has posited gender roles to

be socially constructed, independent of any biological basis. Many languages have a system of

grammatical gender. The word gender in English means kind or type. Gender is perceived as

masculinity or femininity. Sex is what you are biologically, while gender is what you become

socially.

Gender refers to the social construction of sex differences. While "sex" is construed to relate to

biological differences, i.e. anatomical, physiological or biological characteristics of an individual

e.g. male and female, gender denotes the social and cultural roles of each sex within a given

society. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines gender as:

…the socially constructed characteristics of women and

men, such as norms, roles, and relationships of and between
groups of women and men. It varies from society to society
and can be changed.

Gender is the socially constructed roles, activities, responsibilities that are attributed to a

particular sex. It also refers to the individual's and society's perceptions of sexuality and the

concepts of masculinity and femininity. While most people are born either male or female, they

are taught appropriate norms and behaviours – including how they should interact with others of

the same or opposite sex within households, communities and work places (WHO). It implies

that the sets of roles and responsibilities which are associated with being girl and boy or women

and men are different. The sets of behaviour, roles and responsibilities attributed to women and

17
men respectively by society are reinforced at the various levels of the society through its political

and educational institutions and systems, employment patterns, norms and values, and through

the family. At the practical level, for instance, it is common to hear a boy being chided for crying

whereas a girl is rebuked for performing feats expected of males because it is unbecoming for a

female to display heroism and courage. Gender roles in some societies are more rigid than those

in others. Gender roles vary greatly in different societies, cultures and historical periods and

depend on socio-economic factors, age, education, ethnicity and religion, among other factors.

Although deeply rooted in tradition, gender roles can be changed over time, since social values

and norms are not static. (WHO)

Gender regulates the relations between women and men through social norms, practices and

institutions. Therefore, gender relations involve a system of power relations between women and

men in the context of socio-cultural definitions of masculinity and femininity. In many societies,

the system of gender relations gives power and privilege to men and discriminates against

women. The gender order determines what is accepted, encouraged and allowed for women and

men. When the gender order privileges men, the social acceptance of male domination and

female subordination may be sustained by many formal and informal institutions and practices.

(www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/.../W2000%20Men%20and%20Boys%20E%20web.pdf)

Gender is a concept and process with multifarious complexities in content and structure. It is

used as an analytical tool across disciplines in and outside the academia. It is a concept imbued

with notions of difference in the forms of hierarchy, opposition and power relations. The use of

gender as an analytical tool in many academic engagements resulted from feminists‟ agitations

concerning the status and role of women, especially in Western countries. Gender is informed by

assumed capabilities, social power, and it varies from culture to culture as a people‟s historical

18
experiences contribute to formulate expectations for individuals in different contexts in the

society. In addition, gender is dynamic and constantly negotiated through the agency of human

activities. Gender is neither timeless nor universal; it is not a fixed concept which is applicable to

all societies at all times in the same way. Rather, it is a process that is constantly negotiated in

content and structure at various levels. This process, however, differs from culture to culture.

In terms of structure, gender is characterized by notions of the differences and oppositions.

This opposition sometimes enlarges the differences between males and females; and at other

times, it translates into the oppression and domination of one gender over the other, but this is

not always the case. It is worthy of note that where these observed differences and opposition

between the two genders do not translate to oppression and domination, some other sociological

structure accounts for the attenuation. Examples of such sociological structures, especially in

African societies, include seniority and economic attainment (Oluwole and Sofoluwe, 2014).

Hierarchy and notions of powers are important to the conceptualization of gender. This implies

that one gender may be considered to be above and superior to the other. In other words, roles

assigned to one gender may be regarded as more important than roles assigned to the other

gender. For instance, the male is always regarded as the head of the home in traditional societies.

In some African societies, this does not mean that he has absolute power in the home but in

terms of hierarchy, he is at the apex of the family structure. Next to him are his wife/ves (sexual

partners) and then the children. Hierarchy and power are closely linked as the person in charge

would demonstrate some form of authority and control.

Gender relations refer to a complex system of personal and social relations of domination and

power through which women and men are socially created and maintained and through which

they gain access to power and material resources or are allocated status within society. (IFAD,

19
2000, p. 4). Daily experiences reflect notions of gender relationships in the society. There are

various ideas about appropriate and desirable masculine and feminine identities. From birth

different expectations are assumed and assigned to males and females. For instance, pink

coloured gifts are given to baby girls while blue are given to baby boys. One is tempted to ask

whether the babies already have preferred colours. More so, children learn that boys grow up to

be Dads and girls grow up to be Moms. This is the standard pattern that children incorporate,

even when they know these rules have exceptions. The basic stereotypes seem somehow branded

on their psyche in the daily course of growing up.

3.2 Differences between Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the biological aspects of being male and female. Gender typically refers to

behavioral, social, and psychological characteristics of men and women. Sex is considered a

natural phenomenon, which is determined by biology, anatomy and reproductive functioning.

On the other hand, gender is determined socially; it is the societal meaning assigned to male and

female.

Sex refers to the biological characteristics (including genetics, anatomy and physiology) that

generally define humans as female or male. People are born with their sex, that is, they are either

male or female (Although there are very few people born with the physical characteristics of

both male and female. Such people are referred to as hermaphrodites). Unlike notions of gender

which varies in different cultures and can differ in different historical periods, sex is natural and

universal. It does not vary from culture to culture. This means that the physical characteristics of

a boy born in India are the same with a boy born in America or Nigeria. At birth, the difference

between boys and girls is their sex. Sex cannot be changed, except by a high technological

medical procedure.

20
Gender is oftentimes context and culture bound. Whereas sex is biologically determined because

an individual is born (in most cases) either a male or a female, gender is ascribed through the

process of socialisation. Gender classification prescribes expected roles for biological female and

male but individuals do not always obey these prescriptions. Also, gender classifications are

premised on the maintenance of order and/or ideologies in a particular society.

21
Unit 2 – Gender Concepts

3.3.1 Gender Equality

Gender equality is the state or condition that affords women and men equal enjoyment of human

rights, opportunities and resources. It allows both sexes the same opportunities and potential to

contribute to, and benefit from, all spheres of society (economic, political, social, and cultural).

At the practical level, an example of gender equality is demonstrated if in a family with limited

funds, both daughter and son need to attend school in a particular year, but only one can go to

school for that year. If the family decides which child will go to school for that year based on

the child‟s NEED, and not on the child‟s sex, gender equality is demonstrated.

3.3.2 Gender Equity

Gender equity refers to justice and fairness in the treatment of women and men in order to

eventually achieve gender equality. Equity may request differential treatment of women and men

or specific measures in order to compensate for the historical and social disadvantages that

prevent women and men from sharing a level playing field. An example of differential treatment

may be the provision of leadership training for women or establishing quotas for women in

decision - making positions in order to achieve the state of gender equality. It is important to note

that equity is meant to lead to equality. In other words, there may be a need to continue taking

differential actions to address historical inequality among men and women and achieve gender

equality. (www.ekvilib.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/01_Gender_Concepts.pdf)

3.3.3 Gender Gap

The gender gap is the difference in any area between women and men in terms of their levels of

participation, access to resources, rights, power and influence, remuneration and benefits.

Women are often underrepresented in formal decision-making structures, including

22
governments, community councils, and policy-making and even academic institutions.

Moreover, women tend to be more often victims in domestic violence, they experience sexual

exploitation through trafficking and sex trade, in wars by an enemy army as a weapon of

attempted „ethnic cleansing‟ etc. In addition, there are differences in legal status and

entitlements between men and women. (www.oecd.org/social/gender-development/1896320.pdf).

There are many instances in which equal rights to personal status, security, land, inheritance and

employment opportunities are denied women by law or practice. Gender, and particularly the

roles of women are widely recognized as important to international development issues. This

implies a focus on gender equality to ensure participation and an understanding of the different

roles and expectations of the genders within the community.

Directly addressing inequality and paying attention to gender issues are fundamental to the

success of development programmes. Some organizations working in developing countries and

in the development field have incorporated into their work the advocacy and empowerment for

women.

3.4. Gender Analysis, Gender Awareness, Blindness and Mainstreaming

3.4.1 Gender Analysis

Gender analysis is the study of differences in the conditions, needs, participation rates, access to

resources and development, control of assets, decision-making powers, etc., between women and

men in their assigned gender roles. In literature it is achieved through the portrayal of male and

female characterisation, including foregrounding or backgrounding of female and male

characters. This is achieved through the application of gender theories such as feminism(s) and

its variants and masculinities.

23
Gender Awareness is the recognition of the fact that life experience, expectations, and needs of

women and men are different; that they often involve inequality and are subject to change while

Gender Blindness is ignoring or failing to address the gender dimension. Gender Mainstreaming

refers to the systematic integration of the respective needs, interests and priorities of men and

women in all the organisation‟s policies and activities.

Gender mainstreaming rejects the idea that gender is a separate issue and something to be tackled

as an afterthought. Achieving greater equality between women and men will require changes at

many levels, including changes in attitudes and relationships, changes in institutions and legal

frameworks, changes in economic institutions, and changes in political decision-making

structures. (www.ekvilib.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/01_Gender_Concepts.pdf

Self-Assessment Exercise 1

Does gender inequality exist in your community? Give reasons for your answer.

3.5 Gender Roles and Gender Stereotypes

3.5.1 Gender Roles

Gender role is the cultural stereotype of what are masculine and feminine. Gender roles vary

greatly in different societies, cultures and historical periods, and they depend also on socio-

economic factors, age, education, ethnicity and religion. Although deeply rooted in cultural

norms, gender roles can be changed over time, since social values and norms are not static.

Example of sex roles is that only women can give birth and breastfeed. Examples of gender

roles are the expectation of men to be economic providers of the family, and for women to be

caregivers in many cultural contexts. However, women prove able to do traditionally male jobs

24
as well as men (e.g. men and women can do housework; men and women can be leaders and

managers).

Elements of gender role include clothing, speech patterns, movement, occupations and other

factors not limited to biological sex. Gender role is often abbreviated to gender in literature,

without leading to any ambiguity in that context. Most societies have only two distinct gender

roles - male and female - and these correspond with biological sexes. Contemporary sociological

reference to male and female gender roles typically uses masculinities and femininities in the

plural rather than singular, suggesting diversity both within cultures as well as across them.

The essential point you need to note is that at birth, the difference between boys and girls is their

sex; as they grow up, society gives them different roles, attributes, opportunities, privileges and

rights that in the end create the social differences between men and women.

3.5.2 Gender Stereotypes

Gender stereotypes are sets of cultural expectations popularly adopted by the mass majority.

Common gender stereotypes and norms include the following examples:

1. A man is socially superior to the woman.

2. A man has a right to assert power over a woman,

3. A man has a right to “correct” or discipline female behaviour.

4. A woman‟s freedom should be restricted.

5. Physical violence is an acceptable way to resolve conflicts within an inter-gender

relationship.

6. A woman is responsible for making a marriage work.

7. Intimate partner violence is a taboo subject and reporting abuse is forbidden.

25
Stereotyping of women has been a huge disadvantage for the advancement of women socially.

Common gender-stereotypical qualities of women are: submissive, quiet, weak, passive,

dependent and incompetent. Since social pressures to fulfil these expectations are strong and

typically enforced by parents, friends, teachers and the media, many women conform to these

qualities. They refrain from speaking their minds, become passive in strength-related activities

and do not progress and thrive at work because of insecurity and the pressure of wifehood and

motherhood. It is noteworthy that women who do not conform to gender roles are often

considered harsh, controlling or manly even in the place of work.

Men also have strict gender stereotypes that typically enforce the idea that men do not have any

feminine qualities. Essentially, this means that it is culturally unacceptable for men to display

qualities of being emotional, weak, caring or nurturing. This leaves the male stereotypical

qualities of athleticism, loudness, strength, dominance and being in complete control of

emotions. While this can negatively affect men's mental and emotional growth, it also

encourages men to excel in active sports and in the place of work for fear of being considered

feminine or weak. Financially, gender stereotyping seems to affect men positively, but gender

stereotyping tends to restrict men's creativity and emotional growth.

Male stereotyping promotes masculine norms and principles. These include statements such as:

“Take it like a man.” “Be a man about it.”- These imply do not display emotions. Be strong

willed. In other words, men should be tough in both body and spirit. Physical toughness means

never shirking from the threat of physical harm; while displaying emotional toughness requires

that men conceal such emotions as fear, sadness, nervousness, and uncertainty. Outward displays

of anger, confidence, or stoicism are considered to be far more socially acceptable for men. Even

in professional settings, showing emotional toughness is often seen as a key leadership attribute.

26
“Avoid all things feminine.” is another masculine principle. This implores men never to be

identified with any feminine norms or traits. It appears to be a core rule of masculinity.

Furthermore, “Be a winner” is another masculine norm that concerns the attainment of status

wealth, social prestige, and power over others. Men gain the approval of others when they make

their careers a priority and pursue occupational fields such as corporate management and politics,

which offer opportunities to increase their social and economic status. Finally, “Be a man‟s

man,” which is also implies being “one of the boys,” as a rule of masculinity calls on men to win

the respect and admiration of other men and to appear to enjoy a special sense of camaraderie

with male peers. Being a “man‟s man” means visibly complying with all masculine norms.

Men who are creative and emotional, who don't meet the stereotype, tend to be seen in a negative

light. Male gender stereotype results in dilemma and crises for the male. If a man is judged as

having acted in ways that are consistent with any or all norms prescribed for women - that is,

feminine norms - he will often experience criticism, ridicule, and rejection, and his status as a

man may be called into question. This “policing” often occurs within male peer groups

beginning at an early age and continuing into adulthood.

While many people tend to fit into their gender stereotypes to a certain degree because of socialization

and the need to belong to one's culture, there are still many men and women who deviate from their

stereotypes. Many people have misguided ideas about the submissiveness of women, the dominance of

men and the relative intelligence and aptitude of different genders and even races. These stereotypes

affect relationships both in the domestic realm and at work.

Many people have internalised stereotypical views of men and women, and they often bring

those views into their relationships. For instance, wives might expect their husbands to be

unsentimental and rational, while husbands expect wives to let their emotions rule. In reality,

27
men and women, to an extent, are not born with these characteristics, but societal expectations

lead to confusion and resentment within relationships.

Being stereotyped results in dilemma, stress and spill over violence. Men also miss out on a

whole range of emotions and experiences that are immensely rewarding and socially valued due

to gender stereotyping. For example, in most cultures men are not expected to play a significant

role in caring for children and sick parents, or to show affection and express their vulnerabilities

in distress. Societal pressure to uphold stereotyped notions of masculinity means that men must

often suppress this aspect of their human persona

Self-Assessment Exercise 2

1. What are the gender roles that men are expected to perform in your community?

2. What are the gender roles that women are expected to perform in your society?

3. To what extent do you as an individual abide by these norms and expectations?

4.0. Conclusion

Gender has become a widely used theory which is applied to the understanding of male and

female roles in society. It is a cross cutting theory which is used across various academic

disciplines including literature. In this unit, we have discussed the meaning and

conceptualization of gender. We have also differentiated between sex and gender. Moreover, we

have defined various gender concepts such as gender equality, gender equity, gender analysis,

28
awareness, blindness and mainstreaming. We have explained gender roles and the fact that they

may vary from society to society and in different historical periods.

Finally, we have discussed gender stereotypes and how they affect males and females.

Understanding gender helps you to examine literary texts from feminist, masculinist and queer

theory perspectives. With your knowledge and understanding of gender, as a student of literature,

you will be able to determine how a text represents men and women, what it says about gender

relations and how it defines sexual difference.

Gender studies question the qualities of femininity and masculinity and in feminist literary criti-

cism; gender scholars ask questions about the nature of the female imagination and female

literary history. In literature, gender scholars probe whether there is really a female aesthetic? Do

women use language in ways that are different from that of men? Do women have a different

pattern of reasoning from men? Do they see the world in a different way from the man?

Several significant studies have tried to answer such questions. They do not all agree, but in

general, they have challenged assumptions about how males and females use language, view

reality, solve problems and make judgments. They all suggest that women and men have

different conception of self and different modes of interaction with others. Some of the findings

call for recognition of the differences, because ignoring them inevitably leads to a suppression of

women's ways of understanding and acting.

Summary

In this unit, we have learnt:

- The definition of gender

- The differences between sex and gender

- The definitions of various gender concepts

29
 - The phenomenon of gender roles

- Meanings and effects of gender stereotypes

In the next unit, we shall learn about feminisms and how they relate to gender

5.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

1. Gender is a social construction. Discuss

2. Define the following: (a) Gender Awareness, (b) Gender Mainstreaming, (c) Gender

Blindness; (d); Gender equality; (e) Gender equity.

3. Explain gender roles as they operate in your society.

4. Discuss how some of these institutions (family, universities, media, religion,

government, law, or educational system) create and maintain gender stereotypes?

Give examples of stereotypical behaviours, practices, and policies in these

institutions.

30
 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Encyclopaedia Britannica

Oluwole, Sophie B. and Sofoluwe. J. O Akin. (2014), African Myths and Legends of Gender.
Lagos: Ark Publishers.

Sotunsa, Mobolanle Ebunoluwa (2018) Gender Matters and the Cultural Dilemma in African
Literature 22nd Inaugural Lecture Thursday May 3, 2018. Babcock University Press.
Ilisan Remo

UNESCO‟s Gender Mainstreaming Implementation Framework Baseline Definitions of Key

Concepts and Terms

http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/BSP/GENDER/PDF/1.%20Baseline
%20Definitions%20of%20key%20gender-related%20concepts.pdf

The World Health Organization (WHO)

http://www.who.int/gender-equity rights/understanding/gender-definition/en/
www.ekvilib.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/01_Gender_Concepts.pdf
www.oecd.org/social/gender-development/1896320.pdf
www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/.../W2000%20Men%20and%20Boys%20E%20web.pdf
www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/.../W2000%20Men%20and%20Boys%20E%20web.pdf)

31
MODULE 2: FEMINISM

1.0 Introduction

In the last module, you were introduced to the concept of gender. In this module, you will

become familiar with the basis of feminism as a theory. You will learn about the history of

feminism as well as types or varieties of feminism. You will also be introduced to canonical

feminist thinkers and their works. This module will further equip you to carry out feminist

literary criticism as you will be exposed to feminist literary techniques and methods of analysis.

2.0 Objectives

a. To understand feminism, the history of feminism and the various forms of feminism

b. To introduce canonical feminist critics and writers.

c. To introduce feminist methodology for further research.

d. To impart the skills of carrying out feminist analysis of literary texts, by both male and

female writers.

3.0 Main Contents

3.1 Definition of Feminism

3.2 History of Feminism.

3.3 Types and Diversities of Feminism

3.4 Feminist Literary Critical Methodology

3.5 Major Statements

32
Unit 1

3.1 Definition of Feminism

Feminism is a cross cutting theory in contemporary scholarship. It is intertwined with the

question of woman. Feminism began in Europe and America in the nineteenth century when

women became conscious of their oppression and marginalization, and took steps to redress

these forms of treatment. At present, feminism has spread all over the world although in many

countries it has become tagged with different labels. Feminist ideas constitute aspects of current

global thinking. As Maggie Humm (1992:1) asserts, while most writers agree that feminism as a

group of political and social movements probably dates from the seventeenth century, feminism

as a body of answers to the 'question‟ of woman‟ has a more diffuse and considerably long-

standing existence.

Feminism is a historically diverse and culturally varied international movement that probes the

"question of woman". It has been variously defined and described by many critics. Since

feminism means various things to different people, it becomes difficult to have a concise

universal definition of the term. While recognising the implications of a sweeping definition, the

following definitions throw light on the concept of feminism.

According to Barrow and Milburn (1990:128), “Feminism is a label for a commitment or

movement to achieve equality for women." J. A. Cuddon (1991:338) also defines feminism as

"an attempt to describe and interpret (or reinterpret) women‟s experiences as depicted in

various kinds of literature/‟‟ Maggie Humm (1992:1) asserts that “the word feminism can stand

for a commitment to transform society.”

33
Essentially, feminism is a theory which seeks that men and women be equal politically,

economically and socially. This is the core of all feminism theories. Sometimes this definition is

also referred to as "core feminism" or "core feminist theory."

Notice that this theory does not subscribe to differences between men and women or similarities

between men and women, nor does it refer to excluding men or only furthering women's causes.

(https://www.mheducation.co.uk/openup/chapters/0335204155.pdf )

Ruth Sheila (1980:4) observes that feminists do not agree among themselves on one all-inclusive

and universally acceptable definition of the term. According to her, what feminism means to

various people depends on one's political leanings or observations and goals, one's understanding

or interpretation of the word 'woman' and several other factors. Feminism, she emphasizes, may

be a perspective, a world-view, a political theory, or a kind of activism.

Feminism originates from the Latin word 'femina'. Femina is a term which describes women's

issues. It is clear from the above definitions that whatever feminism means to different people, it

revolves primarily around the female experience! Feminism is concerned with females not just as

a biological category, but the female gender as a social category.

Feminists share the view that women‟s oppression is tied to their sexuality. This is so because

the biological differences between women and men are reflected in the organization of the

society. Based on these differences, women are treated as inferior to men. Whether as a theory, a

social movement or a political movement, feminism focuses on women's experiences and

highlights various forms of oppression which the female gender is subjected to in the society.

In what appears to be a manifesto for feminism, Ruth Sheila (1980:4-5) expresses some beliefs,

values and attitudes which constitute some of the aims and aspirations of feminism as a theory

and socio - political movement. According to her:

34
 i. Feminists value woman in and of themselves and for themselves not in the

hypocritical fashion of male dominated cultures.

ii. Feminists value and prize the act of being women as much as being human. They

see themselves as strong, capable, intelligent and successful ethical human beings.

iii. Feminists value autonomy for themselves as individuals and for women as a

group who are developing their own political, social, economic and personal

destinies.

iv. Feminists reject separation of human qualities into two categories - one for men

and one for women and the valuing of one of those categories better than the

other. For instance male characteristics of aggression, power and competition is

celebrated while female characteristics of compassion, tenderness and

compromise is termed weak and ridiculed.

v. Feminist recognise that attitudes regarding women in many cultures are false and

wrong-headed based on myth, ignorance and fear. Thus, they believe in the

necessity of replacing these myths with reality and ignorance with knowledge

created by women, first for women and finally for all people.

vi. Feminists point out the denial of their rights as humans for centuries. Rights such

as voting, earning a substantive living commensurate with their work, freedom to

determine whether to bear children etc.

vii. Finally, feminists recognise women's strength in the true face of oppression and

are optimistic about the possibilities of a change.

Since feminists are of the view that male domination is found in virtually all important aspects of

life, this male domination is seen as the source of social inequalities and injustice which affect

35
the lives of women. Feminists, therefore, seek to eliminate all the barriers to equal social,

political and economic opportunities for women. They object to the notion that a woman‟s worth

is determined principally by her gender and that women are inherently inferior, subservient or

less intelligent than men. Feminist scholarship is aimed at 'deconstructing' the predominant male

paradigms and constructing a female perspective which foregrounds the female experience.

36
Unit 2

3.2 HISTORY OF FEMINISM

For many centuries, Western culture assumed that women were inferior to men. Leading

thinkers, including Aristotle reiterated that women were lesser beings. There are several quotes

traced to eminent writers, theologians, and other public figures that ridicule and degrade women.

The Greek ecclesiast John Chrysostom (ca. AD 347-407) called women “a foe to friendship, an

inescapable punishment, a necessary evil.”

The Roman theologian Tertullian (ca. AD 160-230) stated about women that “the judgment of

God upon your sex endures even today; and with it inevitably endures your position of criminal

at the bar justice. You are the gate way to the devil.” Alexander Pope (1688-1744) declared,

“most women have no character at all,” and John Keats (1795-1821) explained, “the opinion I

have of the generality of women - who appear to me as children to whom I would rather give a

sugar plum than my time – forms a barrier against matrimony which I rejoice in.”

In the face of the widespread acknowledgement of the inferiority of the female, some women

accepted their lesser status. For example, the French Writer Madame de Steal (1766-1817) is said

to have commented, “I am glad that I am not a man, as in should be obliged to marry a woman.”

When women did recognize their talents, they sometimes worked to conceal them. Jane Austen

(1775-1817), for example, advised, “A woman, especially, if she has the misfortune of knowing

anything, should conceal it as well as she can.‟ According to Mae West (1893-1980), “Brains are

an asset, if you hide them.” (Dobie 2009: 105)

However, Mary Wollstonecraft took exception to the popular opinion about women. In 1792 she

published A Vindication of the Rights of Women, a book in which she depicted women as an

oppressed class regardless of social hierarchy. Her views were radical in a place and time that

did not recognize women‟s political or legal rights, offered them few opportunities for

37
employment, and, if they married, gave their property to their husbands. From personal

experience, Wollstonecraft recognized that women are born into powerless roles. As a result, she

declared that women are forced to use manipulative methods to get what they want.

Wollstonecraft argued for women to be “duly prepared by education to be the companions of

men”. She recommended that women should take charge of their lives by recognizing that their

abilities were equal to those of men, define their identities for themselves, and carve out their

own roles in society. According to Wollstonecraft:

I earnestly wish to point out in what true dignity and human

happiness consist - I wish to persuade women to endeavour
to acquire strength, both of mind and body, and to convince
them that the soft phrases, susceptibility of heart, delicacy
of sentiment, and refinement of taste, are almost
synonymous with epithets of weakness, and that those
beings who are only the objects of pity and that kind of
love which has been termed its sister, will soon become
objects of contempt…. I wish to shew that elegance is
inferior to virtue that the first object of laudable ambition is
to obtain a character as a human being, regardless of the
distinction of sex.

Her stand earned her severe criticism, for example, Horace Walpole, called her a "hyena in

petticoats”. Nevertheless, Wollstonecraft's works were already published and they contributed

significantly to the stirrings of feminist thinking.

In 1929, Virginia Woolf published A Room of One‟s Own. The book questioned why women

appear so seldom in history and as writers. Woolf pointed out that literary works are full of

women‟s depictions, but in real life they hardly seem to have existed. In other words, in reality.

women are invisible. In the chapter entitled "Shakespeare's Sister," Virginia Woolf gave an

example of what may have happened to a female in Shakespeare‟s age.

If she had the ability, creativity and talent to write, she would have been discouraged, always

laden with household and domestic chores, not given her own privacy to develop intellectually

38
such that her potentials are stifled by the family and society. Woolf emphasised that a gifted

female writer of Shakespeare‟s era did not have „a room of her own‟. Without an adequate

education or a room of her own, "whatever she had written," Woolf concluded, "would have

been twisted and deformed, issuing from a strained and morbid imagination."

Woolf went on to argue that if we [women] have the habit of freedom and the courage to write

exactly what we think; if we escape a little from the common sitting room and see human beings

not always in their relation to each other but in relation to reality; and the sky too.... when she

[Shakespeare's sister] is born again she shall find it possible to live and write her poetry. (Dobie,

2009:106)

As a group of political and social movements, feminism probably dates from the seventeenth

century, but as a body of answers to the 'question of woman‟, feminism has a more diffuse and

considerably long-standing existence. Feminism has its origin in the struggle for women's rights.

It began in Europe in the late eighteenth century. According to the World Book Encyclopedia,

Mary Wollstonecraft (1792), and John Stuart Mills (1809) publications were the early major

contributions to feminist literature.

The suffrage movement at the beginning of the twentieth century carried out the campaign for

achieving women's rights. After achieving voting rights in 1920, it seems feminism in Europe

and America suffered a lull until it was revived in the 1960‟s through Betty Friedan‟s The

Feminine Mystique (1963). As a result of the lull in the feminist movement and a shift in

emphasis, feminism has been divided into first wave feminism and second wave feminism."

Second wave feminism started with the politics of reproduction, while sharing first wave

feminism‟s political of legal, educational and economic equal rights for women. (Humm ed.,

1992: 53).

39
According to Ruth Sheila (1980:444), the first stirrings of women‟s movement were felt in the

publication of Mary Wollstonecraft‟s A Vindication of the Rights of Women in 1792. The

Women‟s Right Movement in the United States was born during the agitation for the abolition;

particularly in the activities and writings of the Grimke sisters in the 1830‟s. It culminated in the

winning of the vote in 1920 and then because women had exhausted themselves in the fight for

suffrage, it died until Betty Friedan‟s The Feminine Mystique brought it back to life in 1963.

From late 1980's, third wave feminism came into existence.

According to Kate O'Connor at http://writersinspire.org/content/feminist-approaches-literature,

Elaine Showalter divided the history of feminism into three phases, the feminine phase (1840-

1880), the feminist phase (1880-1920), and the female phase (1920-present). The major focus of

first wave feminism is men‟s treatment of women; as such feminist critics in this era reassess

male novelists' condescending treatment or marginalization of female characters. Another

attribute of the first phase of feminism is that female writers imitated the literary tradition

established by men, taking additional care to avoid offensive language or subject matter.

Ann Dobie (2009:107) explains that in second wave feminism, which is the feminist phase, the

central theme of works by female writers was the criticism of the role of women in society and

the oppression of women. In the second phase, according to Showalter, women protested their

lack of rights and worked to secure them. In the political realm, Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth

Cady Stanton, and others pushed to secure equality under the law, and some of the more radical

feminists envisioned separate female utopias. In the literary world, they decried the unjust

depictions of women by male writers.

Similarly, Dobie (2009:107) further explains that the third wave feminism is what Showalter

terms „The Female Phase‟. During the 'female' phase, women writers were no longer trying to

40
prove the legitimacy of a woman's perspective. Rather, it was assumed that the works of women

writers were authentic and valid. The female phase lacked the anger and combative

consciousness of the feminist phase. It involved gynocriticism.

Elaine Showalter pioneered gynocriticism with her book A Literature of Their Own (1977).

Gynocriticism involves three major aspects. The first is the examination of female writers and

their place in literary history. The second is the consideration of the treatment of female

characters in books by both male and female writers. The third and most important aspect of

gynocriticism is the discovery and exploration of a canon of literature written by women.

With gynocriticism, feminist critics concentrated on exploring the female experience in art and

literature. For female writers, this implied turning to their own lives to become subjects. Feminist

critics interrogated the depiction of women in male authored texts in an effort to reveal the

misogyny (negative attitudes toward women) lurking there.

The British feminists, according to Showalter, largely take a Marxist position. British feminist

critics work to change the economic and social status of women. They analyse relationships

between gender and class and show how power structures, which are male dominated, influence

society and oppress women. Like Marxists in general, they see literature as a tool by which

society itself can be reformed (Dobie, 2009:107).

Betty Friedan‟s The Feminine Mystique (1963) attacked the image of the happy, mid-twentieth

century, American, suburban housewife and mother. Kate Millett, in Sexual Politics (1970),

objected to the repressive stereotyping of women by probing the differences between biological

(sexual) and cultural (gender) identities. Millet also pointed out that power in both public and

domestic lives is held by males, and literature is a record of the collective consciousness of

patriarchy. That is, much literature is the record of a man speaking to other men, not directly to

41
women. At about the same time, Germaine Greer documented images of women in popular

culture and literature in The Female Eunuch (1970) in an attempt to free women from their

mental dependence on the images presented by males.

Aside Britain, feminism also grew in America. Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, authors of The

Madwoman in the Attic (1979), have been influential in American feminist criticism. They called

for a recognition that male writers have too long stereotyped women as either "the angel in the

house” (the woman who lives to care for her husband) or "the madwoman in the attic" (the

woman who chooses not to be the angel). They call for writing by women that will more

accurately capture the complexity of women‟s lives and nature. (Dobie, 2009).

In the French society, feminism also had some unique tones. Simone de Beauvoir in The Second

Sex (1949) argued that French culture and Western societies in general, are patriarchal. In those

societies, the males define what it means to be human. Lacking her own history, the female is

always secondary or nonexistent. Beauvoir believed that women are not born inferior but rather

are made to be so. She called for women to break out of being the "other" and to realise their

possibilities.

According to Showalter, French feminist are primarily psychoanalytic. They rely heavily on

Jacques Lacan for their theoretical basis. They are, consequently, concerned with language,

particularly with how women in the Symbolic Order (a phase of development) are socialized

into accepting the language (and law) of the father and are thereby made inferior. Helene Cixous

asserts that there is a particular kind of writing by women, which she calls I'ecriture feminine

that has as its source, the wholeness of Lacan's Imaginary Order, the prelinguistic domain of

the infant characterized by freedom from laws and a sense of "other”.

42
Other French feminist including Julia Kristeva, Hélène Cixousx, and Luce Irigaray, rely heavily

on Freudian psychology and the theory of penis envy. French feminists postulate the existence of

a separate language belonging to women that consists of loose, digressive sentences. (Feminist

Approaches to Literature by Kate O'Connor at http://writersinspire.org/content/feminist-

approaches-literature

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Unit 3

3.3. TYPES AND DIVERSITIES OF FEMINISM

Feminism has been referred to in the plural form. This is as a result of differences in the

methodologies, concepts and practices of feminism. Many forms of feminism have been

identified. They include Marxist/ Socialist feminism, Humanist feminism, Liberal feminism,

Radical feminism and Analytic feminism, among others. In this section, we shall briefly discuss

some of the major forms or schools of thought of feminism.

Marxist Feminism

This brand of feminism believes in the interlocking relationship between class gender

oppression. Marxist feminists extend the critique of class developed by Marx and Engels into a

feminist history of material and economic subordination of women. They highlight the sexual

division of labour and the implications of this division for the differences in power between men

and women. Marxist feminism seeks to determine the way in which the institution of the family

and women‟s domestic labour are structured and how this structure contributes to the subjugation

of women. Marxism offers an explanation of capitalism‟s subordination of women but Marxist

feminism goes a little further. It highlights the fact that women‟s work count as productive

labour. Reproduction constrains many women workers. Very often, they take part-time or less

skilled employment in order to care for children. The economic and cultural significance of

women's domestic work is a major concern of Marxist feminists. Marxist feminists believe that

economic power is the only way proletarian culture can effectively mitigate subjugation.

Humanist Feminism: Humanist feminists believe in the universality of women's oppression

regardless of class and race. They argue for a concept of self which is unified despite the

44
fragmentation resulting from the cultural violence of oppression. In the humanist feminist's view,

all women are oppressed because they are women despite class and racial distinctions. To them,

the exploitation of women is neither a racial or class phenomenon but a gender phenomenon. In

other words, women's subjugation is gender based. Marxist feminists have pointed out that

humanist feminist assumed that the specific concerns of white middle class heterosexual woman

virtually represented those of all other women.

Liberal Feminism: Liberal feminism aims at achieving equal legal, political and social rights for

women. It strives to bring all women equally into public institutions and extend the creation of

knowledge about women so that issues concerning women would no longer be ignored. The

most important goal of liberal feminism is equality of opportunity for women.

Radical Feminism: Radical feminism argues that women's oppression stems from being

categorized as inferior to men on the basis of gender. Therefore, radical feminism aims to

destroy this sex classed system. It focuses on the roots of male domination and claims that all

forms of oppression are extensions of male supremacy. Radical feminism claims that patriarchy

is the defining characteristics of our society. Therefore, it aims at overthrowing patriarchy. Very

often, radical feminism argues for radical ways of ending female subjugation. It is usually man-

hating in orientation and sometimes encourages androgyny. Androgyny is the mixture of

traditional masculine and feminine virtues in an individual. It is this type of feminism that C.O.

Ogunyemi (1988:64) discourages African women from. According to Ogunyemi, radical

feminism smacks of rebelliousness, fearlessness, political awareness of sexism, and an

unpardonable (from the male viewpoint) drive for equality and equity between the sexes ... The

radical feminist can go as far as doing without the macho male to enjoy her liberty. Radical

45
feminists are those who have made people imagine that feminists are bearers of female anger, as

female incendiaries. They challenge male control and encourage homosexuality.

Analytic Feminism: This is a feminism which is rooted in analytic philosophy. Analytic

feminists are considered by some people to be non-feminists because their interest is not limited

to feminist issues alone. Analytic feminists are in pursuit of notions of truth, logical consistency,

objectivity, rationality, justice and the good despite the fact that the pursuit of these notions has

often been dominated and perverted by androcentric. Analytic feminists insist on seeing how

sexism, androcentrism, and the domination of the profession of philosophy by men distort the

philosopher‟s pursuit of truth and objectivity.

Analytic feminists are of the opinion that the social constructions of gender create a

fundamentally unjust imbalance in contemporary social and political arrangements. They hold

that there is a sex/gender distinction and explore the moral and political implications of this.

Analytic feminism attempts to reclaim notions dominated and perverted by androcentrism. Its

argument is that when properly analysed, these concepts can be used to undermine unjust

gendered social institutions.

Lesbian Feminism: Lesbian feminists comprise mainly women who have sexual relationship

with other women. They hold that heterosexism that is male/female sexual relationship, is basic

to women's oppression and tends to support male supremacy. Therefore, lesbian feminism

challenges heterosexuality as being compulsory for all women. Andriene Rich (1983:177), a

lesbian feminist, challenges the assumption that most women are innately heterosexual. She

believes that the assumption that most women are innately heterosexual stands as a theoretical

and political stumbling block for many women. She also suggests that for many women,

46
heterosexuality may not be a preference, but something that has had to be imposed, managed and

organised. In her opinion, it is a propaganda maintained by force. Lesbian feminism involves a

belief that women identified women, committed together for political, sexual and economic

support, as an approach to life for women which is a better alternative than the male-female

relations.

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Unit 4

3.4 FEMINIST LITERARY CRITICAL METHODOLOGY

The section will equip you to read literary texts, by both male and female writers, from a

feminist perspective. In other words, it furnishes you with the necessary skills to become a

„feminist reader‟. The feminist reader assumes that there is no innocent or neutral approach to

literature and that all interpretation is political. The feminist reader might ask, among other

questions, how the text represents men and women, what it says about gender relations, how it

defines sexual difference. A feminist does not necessarily read in order to praise or to blame, to

judge or to censor. More commonly s/he sets out to assess how the text invites its readers, as

members of a specific culture, to understand what it means to be a woman or a man, and so

encourages them to reaffirm or to challenge existing cultural norms.

It is not easy to designate a literature as feminist literature even if it is written by a female. This

is because not all works written by females are women-centred and some works written by males

may treat feminist issues. For this reason, critics are divided in their opinion about what really

constitutes feminist literature. Despite the obvious lack of agreement on what constitutes

feminist writing among critics, the general consensus is that feminist literature is a work written

in a prejudiced way to favour the status of women.

According to Green Gayle and Kahn Coppelia (1985:1-2), feminist literary criticism is one

branch of interdisciplinary enquiry which takes gender as a fundamental organising category

based on two premises: inequality of the sexes is neither a biological nor a divine mandate but a

cultural construct. Male perspectives assumed to be universal have dominated fields of

knowledge. Hence feminists' scholarship serves to correct these and restore a female perspective

by extending knowledge about women's experience and contributions to culture. Feminist

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literary criticism confronts patriarchal values and aims to combat female oppression and

repression as depicted in literature. Feminist literary criticism is based on the belief that the

social structure that priviledges the male is reflected in religion, philosophy, economics,

education and all aspects of the culture, including literature. Feminist critics work to expose such

ideology and deconstruct it.

Although feminist criticism has many strands, most critics hold some general notions in

common. Some feminist critics re-examine literary history to discover „forgotten texts‟ written

by females. Feminist critics attempt to assert the quality of texts produced by female writers who

have been generally undervalued by an androcentric, which is male centred culture by

questioning the values that underlie the literary cannon. Similarly a feminist critic attempts to

make alternative readings of traditional works by males.

Other feminist critics analyse the male/female power structure that makes women the other (the

inferior), in male or female authored works and they reject it. Feminist critics attempt to expose

limiting stereotypes of women; they seek to expose patriarchal premises and the prejudices that

the writers have created. Such critics challenge traditional, static ways of seeing gender and

identity. From the foregoing, it is possible to group some of the different feminist perspectives

into several overlapping approaches. Dobie (2009:114) identifies three major groups of feminist

critics as those who study difference, those who study power relationships, and those who study

the female experience.

According to Dobie (2009: 114), feminist critics who are interested in determining the

differences in male and female writings work from the assumption that gender determines

everything, including value systems and language. More often, feminist critics are interested in

studies of power between men and women as depicted in texts. Such critics are more interested

49
in the sociological aspects of texts and have a political intent. Many of the English feminist

critics who work from a Marxist perspective belong to this group.

In carrying out a feminist criticism, you may find it helpful to focus on the characters in the text

because through character analysis, you will identify the author‟s attitude and ideology.

Answering the following questions outlined by Dobie (2009:121-124) will help you to carry out

a feminist criticism of a work authored by either a male or female:

 What stereotypes of women do you find? Are they over-simplified, demeaning, untrue?

 Examine the roles women play in a work. Are they minor, supportive, powerless,

obsequious? Or are they independent and influential?

 How do the male characters talk about the female characters? How do the male characters

treat the female characters? How do the female characters act toward the male

characters?

 Who are the socially and politically powerful characters?

 Who is primarily responsible for making decisions in the society depicted: men or

women?

 Do the female characters play an overt part in decision making? Or do they work behind

the scenes?

 Who holds positions of authority and influence?

 Who controls the finances? Do the female characters play traditional female roles? Or do

they assume some unusual ones? Are there any instances in which women are unfairly

treated or ill-treated?

 What kind of accomplishments do the female characters achieve?

 Are the female characters honoured for their accomplishments?

50
  Do the male characters consult the female characters before taking action, or do they

merely inform them of it?

 Does the story approve or disapprove, condemn or glorify the power structure as revealed

by your answers to these questions?

 How is the female reader invited to reject the images of women presented in the work?

 Are images of the female body important in the text?

 Does motherhood, or do those attitudes and behaviours characteristic of motherhood,

feature significantly in the text?

 Can you find instances in which the traditional binaries of male/female,

intellectual/emotional, objective/subjective, and active/passive are reversed? What new

circumstances do the reversals suggest?

 What generalizations about the uniqueness of the female experience can you make based

on the answers to these questions?

In order to write any essay, you need to have an introduction, the body of the essay as well as the

conclusion. When writing a feminist criticism of a text, it is not different. You should begin your

discussion with an interesting introduction before going into the body of your work and finally

concluding your work. Dobie (2009:122) counsels that one interesting way to open your

discussion is to point out why a feminist critique is particularly appropriate for the text you are

analysing. For example, many established works have acquired traditional readings that can be

challenged from a new point of view. You can easily explain that you intend to show why the

accepted understanding is not the only possibility. Other rationales for a feminist analysis may

lie in the characters, the situation, the cultural context in which a text was produced, or the

51
author. Whatever your reason for making a reading based on feminist theory, explaining why it

is a fitting one will help your reader follow the analysis more easily. Another style of introducing

your work is to connect the characters or events in the text to a similar situation that has actually

occurred in life. This is based on the premise that literature is a reelection. or „mirror of life.

The body of your work will be an attempt to answer the questions outlined above in a coherent

order. You do not necessarily have to answer all the questions, neither do you have to arrange the

body of your work in the order which the questions appear. Depending on the thrust of your text

and the emphasis of your approach, you should examine issues about female characterization,

power, stereotyping of males and females, among others, in a coherent manner.

It is very useful for you to understand and apply some of the feminist concepts and terminologies

in the body of your essay. You should attempt to situate these concepts in the context of the

text(s) you are analyzing. The following are few of feminist terminologies you should be familiar

with:

Androcentric: A term used to describe attitudes, practices, or social organisations that are based

on the assumption that men are the model of being. In other words, androcentric means male

centred.

Gynocriticism: This implies female centredness. It is a movement that examines the distinctive

characteristics of the female experience, 'in contrast to earlier methods that explained the female

by using male models. As applied to literature, gynocriticism is concerned with developing new

ways to study the writing of women'. Elaine Showalter designated four such perspectives. These

are biological, linguistic, psychoanalytic, and cultural.

Misogyny Misogyny means the hatred of women.

52
Oedipal attachment Sigmund Freud's theory that around the age of five a boy perceives his

father to be a rival for the love of his mother.

Patriarchal A term describing one who approves of a social system that is headed and

directed by a male. Patriarchy favours male domination and female subordination

In the concluding part of your paper, you need to state the generalizations and conclusions drawn

from your answers to the questions and analysis. You should be able to make deductions from

the text about what is particularly female (or male) about the way the work was written, about

the power relationships depicted in it, or about its presentation of the nature of the female

experience.

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Unit 5
3.5. MAJOR STATEMENTS
In order to afford you as a student and upcoming scholar the opportunity of being introduced to

notable feminist writers and their canonical works, this section attempts to quote at length what

is considered major statements of some of these writers. We also endeavour to summarize the

contents of the selected quotes and provide relevant information about the writer and / or works

quoted. We hope that these will wet your appetite for reading, broaden your knowledge about

gender issues and motivate you as a leaner to search for and read the works of these writers,

among others. We have provided the link or other information you need to have access to these

canonical feminist writings

A Vindication of the Rights of Women by Mary Wollstonecraft

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENTS

A Vindication of Right of Women is one of the oldest feminist books that exist. Written in 1792, it

remains one of the most forceful arguments for the rights of the woman. Wollstonecraft attempts

in her work to decry the low educational status of majority of women in her society. She affirms

that if women are not encouraged to embrace reason which is viewed as the prerogative of man,

then they cannot be equitable with the men and marriage which is considered the primary role of

women will also be threatened because of the wide intellectual gap which will result from the

ignorance of women. Mary Wollstonecraft also criticises the shallowness and vanity which

women are encouraged to indulge in rather than true virtue which reflects the true worth of the

individual.

54
A VINDICATION OF RIGHTS OF WOMEN

To render women truly useful members of society, I‟ll argue that they should be led, by
having their understanding cultivated on a large scale, to acquire a rational affection for
their country, founded on knowledge, because it is obvious that we are little interested
about what we do not understand. And to render this general knowledge of due
importance, I have endeavored to show that private duties are never properly fulfilled
unless the understanding enlarges the heart; and that public virtue is only an aggregate
of private. But the distinctions established in society undermine both…

To prove this, I need only observe that men who have wasted great part of their lives with
women, and with whom they have sought by pleasure with eager thirst, entertain the
meanest opinion of the sex. Virtue, true refiner of joy! If foolish men were to fight thee
from earth in order to give loose to all their appetite without a check- some sensual wight
of taste would scale the heavens to invite thee back, to give a zest to pleasure!

That women at present are by ignorance rendered foolish to vicious, is, I think, not be
disputed; and the most salutary effects tending to improve mankind might be from a
REVOLUTION in female manners, appear, at least with a face of probability, to rise out
of the observation. For as marriage has been termed that parent of those endearing
charities which draw man from the brutal herd. The corruption intercourse that wealth,
idleness, and folly produce between the sexes, is more universally injurious to morality
than all the other vices of mankind collectively. . . But that noble simplicity of affection
which dares to appear unadorned, has few attractions for the libertine, though it be the
charm, by cementing the matrimonial tie, secures to the pledges of a warmer passion the
necessary parental attention; for children will never be properly educated till friendship
subsists between parents. Virtue flies from a house divided against itself- and a whole
legion of devils take up their residence there.

Let women share the rights that she will emulate the virtue of man; for she must grow
more perfect when emancipated, or justify the authority that chains such a weak being to
her duty. If the latter, it will be expedient to open a fresh trade with Russia for whips: a
present which a father should always make to his son-in-law on his wedding day, that a
husband should always keep his whole family in order by the same means; and without
any violation of justice reign, wielding this sceptre, sole master of his house, because he
is the only being in it who has reason: - the divine, indefeasible earthly sovereignty
breathed into man by the master of the universe. Allowing this position, women have not
any inherent rights to claim; and by the same rule their duties vanish for rights and
duties are inseparable. . .

55
 ON LIBERTY AND THE SUBJECTION OF WOMEN: JOHN STUART MILL

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENTS

It is interesting to note that John Stuart Mill is a man, yet this phenomenal essay On Liberty and

the Subjection of Women remains one of the best statements for the cause of feminism ever

written. In his work, Mill establishes the basis for which everyone deserves liberty. He

particularly highlights the basis for which society subjugates women. The reasons highlighted

are then de-constructed to expose the contradictions and illogicality of the continual subjugation

of women in the society. According to Mill, one of the greatest hindrances in achieving progress

in the society is the subjugation of women.

THE SUBJECTION OF WOMEN

It will be well to commence the detailed discussion of the subject by the particular branch
of it to which course of our observations has led to the condition which the laws of this
and all other countries annex to the marriage contract. Marriage being the destination
appointed by society for women, the prospect they are brought up to, and the object
which is intended should be sought by all of them, except those who are too little
attractive to be chosen by any man as his companion; one might have supposed that
everything would have been done to make this condition eligible to them as possible, that
they might have no cause to regret being denied the option of any other. Society,
however, both in this, and, at first, in all other cases in which it has substantially
persisted in them even to the present day. Originally women were taken by force, or
regularly sold by their father to the husband.
Until a late period in European history, the father had the power to dispose of his
daughter to marriage at his own will and pleasure, without any regard to hers. The
church, indeed, was so far faithful to a better morality as to require a formal „yes‟ from
the woman at the marriage ceremony; but there was nothing to shew that the consent was
other than compulsory; and it was partially impossible for the girl to refuse compliance if
the father persevered, except perhaps when she might obtain the protection of religion by
determined resolution to take monastic vows. After the marriage, the man had anciently
(but this was anterior to Christianity) the power of life and death over his wife. She could
invoke no law against him; he was her soul tribunal and law. For a long time he could
repudiate her, but she had no corresponding power in regard to him. By old laws of
England, the husband was called the lord of the wife; he was literally regarded as
sovereign, inasmuch that the murder of a man by his wife was called treason (petty as
distinguished from high treason), and was more cruelly avenged than was usually the
case with high treason, for the penalty was burning to death. Because these various
enormities have fallen into disuse (for most of them were formally abolished, or until they

56
 had long ceased to be practiced) men supposed that all is now as it should be in regard to
the marriage contract; and we are continually told that civilization and Christianity have
resorted to the woman her just rights. Meanwhile the wife is actual bond-servant of her
husband; no less so, as far as legal obligation goes, than slave commonly called. She
vows a lifelong obedience to him at the altar, and is held to it all through her life by law.
Casuist may say that the obligation of obedience stops short of participation in crime, but
it certainly extends to everything else. She can do no act whatever but by his permission,
at least tacit. She can acquire no property but for him; the instant it becomes hers, even
by inheritance, it becomes ipso facto his.

A Literature of Their Own By Elaine Showalter

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENTS

The original title of the work was “The Female Literary Tradition and the English Novel” This

was changed to the current title by publishers. According to Showalter in the introduction, the

new title emanated from John Stuart Mill‟s statement, “If women lived in a different country

from men, and had never read any of their writings, they would have a literature of their own”.

However many critics believe that the title echoes Virginia Woolf‟s prized book A Room of

One‟s Own. A literature of their own was first published in 1977. The book attempts to access

the contributions of famous and obscure women writers of the English Victorian Age. It provides

a record of how the women writers such as George Eliot, Virginia Woolf, Doris Lessing, The

Bronte sisters, among many others, reflected the social changes of their societies in their works.

It also reviews the critical standards by which the women‟s works were judged. Below we quote

chapter three titled „The Double Critical Standard and The Feminine Novel‟

THE DOUBLE CRITICAL STANDARD AND FEMININE NOVEL

To their contemporaries, nineteenth-century women writers were women first, artists

second. A woman novelist, unless she disguised herself with a male pseudonym, had to
expect critics to focus on her feminity and rank her with the other women writers of her
day. No matter how diverse their subject or styles, the knowledge that their individual
achievement would be subsumed under a relatively unfavorable group stereotype acted
as a constant irritant to feminine novelists.

57
 . . . One form of male resistance … was to see women novelists as being engaged in a
kind of aggressive conspiracy to rob men of their markets, steal their subject matters, and
snatch away their young lady readers, to see them as “dominating” because of superior
abilities. As late as 1851, there were hardy souls who continued to deny that “there
certainly have been some cases women possessed of the properly masculine power of
writing books, but these cases are also truly and obviously exceptional, and must without
the least prejudiced to the soundness of our doctrine.”
Some reviewers found the situation so embarrassing that they had to treat it as an
unfortunate accident. In 1853 J. M. Ludlow glumly advised his reader, “we have to
notice the fact that at this particular moment of the world‟s history the very best novels in
several great countries happen to have been written by women.” By 1855, even before
appearance of George Eliot, the emergence of the woman‟s novel was so striking that
readers and reviewers would have agreed with Margaret Oliphant in “this, which is the
age of so many things- is quite as distinctly the age of female novelists.”
Even those critics who disapproved of changes in the doctrine of two sexual spheres were
far from advocating women‟s retirement from the literary field. The new question of
women‟s place in literature proved endlessly fascinating … Although most periodical
criticism, especially between 1847 and 1875, employed a double standard for men‟s and
women‟s writing and seemed shocked or chagrined by individual women‟s failure to
conform to stereotypes, a few critics, notably G. H. Lewes, George Eliot, and R. H.
Hutton, were beginning to contribute to the art of the novel.
Most of the negative criticism tried to justify the assumption that novels by women would
be recognizably inferior to those by men. When the Victorians thought of woman‟s body
and its presumed afflictions and liabilities, they did so, first, because the biological
creativity of child birth seemed to them directly to rival the aesthetic creativity of writing.
The metaphors of childbirth familiarly invoked to describe the act of writing directed
attention towards the possibility of real conflict between these analogous experiences. . . .

American Feminism: A Contemporary History by Ginette Castro

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENTS

This work was originally published in France as Radioscopie du feminism American in 1984. It

was translated into English by Elizabeth Loverde-Bagwell. In the work, the author attempts to

trace the history of the contemporary women‟s movement in America. It discusses the variety

and diversities in the American feminist movements and ideologies. It also attempts to capture

58
the underlying similarities in the movements. Below is a quote from the chapter titled “Feminist

Literary Criticism.”

FEMINIST LITERARY CRITICISM

Feminist literary criticism is one of the latest manifestations of feminism to arrive on the
scene. A frankly political approach, it arises because of the emergence of feminist school
of literature, and it gives rise in turn to a literature of commitment, for which it defines
criteria. . . .
Feminist literary criticism is a daughter of women‟s movement. It is engaged in political
action, since it is inseparable from feminist philosophy, like any other demonstration for
“Women‟s Lib.”
Having perceived the underlying foundation of the patriarchal society, that is , the power
relationship between the sexes by which the male group officially enthroned as
“superior” exercises its domination over the female group classified as “inferior,”
feminists became aware that existing literature and literary criticism, up to that point,
were based on substratum of sexual politics.
Consequently, according to the editors of female studies, the feminist approach to
literature and to literary criticism needs to serve two essential functions. The first is to
awaken women to the fact that literature is a masculine institution, which throughout
history has never ceased transmitting a patriarchal image to women. This image, which
is ever more sophisticated, is the ultimate objectification of the mystery of the menstrual
cycle and manna of fecundity, and therefore, as being strange and disturbing- in a word,
other. Therefore, literature as a masculine institution must be denounced as an institution
of socialization, responsible for offering to both sexes, behavioral models and roles that
match the sexual hierarchization and polarization of our patriarchal societies.
This primary function of feminist literary criticism is therefore founded on a double
refusal typical of feminist philosophy. It is first a refusal of the alienating conformity that
for centuries has condemned women to a sexually defined identity and to an essential
impoverishment as a consequence of the arbitrary polarization of human traits into
sexual stereotypes and role. The second refusal is even more radical: it is a rebellion
against women‟s status of “otherness,” in the sense that this “otherness” has been
spread throughout every aspect of life, and is synonymous with inferiority in patriarchal
terms, since to be other than man is to be less than human. Particularly interesting here,
as Bonnie Zimmerman suggests, would be the views of lesbian feminist critics, as both a
woman and homosexual, has been as doubly „other “other” in the patriarchal
stereotyping and mythology.
A second function of feminist literary criticism will be, at some future time, to raise the
fundamental issue of generic human consciousness. It is true, feminist critics admit, that
at present there exist specifically masculine and feminine perceptions; but, they ask
aren‟t these precisely the result of social biased socialization?
Feminist criticism raises implicitly that fundamental question to which we are just
beginning to address ourselves - need women and men have distinctly different

59
 consciousness? The answer is obviously yes insofar as we are socialized human beings -
two genders separated experientially from birth, given different attitudes and several
images. But whether the differences in our reproductive organs are accompanied by
natural differences in temperament and consciousness is a question to ask, if not yet to
answer.

Self-assessment

Read the full text of the essays and write a 250 words summary of each of the canonical

works mentioned above.

4.0. CONCLUSION

In the world today women's issues dominate discussions in many areas of life like economics,

politics and labour. Women's roles in many aspects of life are being re-examined. Feminism has

succeeded to a large extent in creating awareness of the oppression of women. It has also helped

to check to a great degree these oppressions. As a literary theory, feminism is contributing its

quota in shaping knowledge about women and gender roles cross culturally.

5.0. SUMMARY

1. Feminism has its origin in the struggle for women's rights which began in Europe in the late

eighteenth century.

2. Feminism means different things to various people; but it revolves primarily around female

experiences.

3. Feminism has been referred to in plural form because of differences in its methodologies,

concepts and practices.

4. Feminism's major aim is to combat female oppression and repression in all forms.

60
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSESSMENT

1. In the light of the failure to have a concise universal definition of feminism, discuss the aims

and objectives, origin and forms of feminism.

2. In not more than 250 words maximum made up of two paragraphs, summarise the major

statements of the following critics:

A. Mary Wollstonecraft – A Vindication of the Rights of Women

B. John Stuart Mill – On Liberty and the Subjection of Women

C. Elaine Showalter – A Literature of Their Own

3. Carry out a feminist literary criticism of ANY ONE of the following texts: Charlotte Bronte‟s

Jane Eyre, Jane Austen‟s Pride and Prejudice, Emily Bronte‟s Wutthering Heights, Loisa

May Alcott‟s Little Women, George Elliot‟s Middle Match

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REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Andrienne, Rich (1983). “Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence”.in E. Abel and E.K. Abel
(eds.) The Signs Reader; Women Gender and scholarship Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.

Barrow, Robin and Geoffrey Milburn (1990). A Critical Dictionary of Education Concepts. 2nd
edition. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
Breen Jennifer (1990). In her Own Write: Twentieth Century Women‟s Fiction. Hampshire:
Macmillan.
Castro, Ginette (1984). American Feminism, a Contemporary History. Translated from the
French by Elizabath Loverde-Bagwell: New York University Press.
Cuddon, J.A (1991). A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory 3rd edition. Oxford:
Blackwell.
De Beauvoir, S. (1972). The Second Sex. Harmondsworth, UK.: Penguin.
Dobie, B. A. (2009). Theory into Practice: An Introduction to Literary Criticism. Boston,
Wadsworth Centage Learning

Freeman, J. O (1989). (ed.) Women: A Feminist Perspective. 4th edition. California: Mayfield
Publishing Co.
Friedman, Betty (1963). The Feminine Mystique. London: Pengiun Books.
Gana, Jerry (1991). “Transition to the Third Republic: The Challenges of Women II”. Nigerian
Women and the Challenges of our Time. Chizea, Dora Obi & Njoku, Juliet eds. Lagos:
Malthouse Press.
Gayle, Green and Coppella Klian (1985). Making a Difference: Feminist Literary Criticism.
London: Methuen Co Ltd.
Gilbert, Sandra M and Gubar, Susan (1979) The Madwoman in the Attic The Woman Writer and
the Nineteeth Century Literary Imagination. New Haven: Yale University Press

Greer, Germaine (1970). The Female Eunuch. London: MacGibbon & Kee.

Humm, Maggie. (1992). Feminisms: A Reader. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf.

Millet, Kate (1970). Sexual Politics. Urbana: University of Illinois Press

Mills, John Stuart (1963). The Subjection of Women. London: Virago Press Ltd..
Roget‟s II The New Thesaurus (1995). 3rd Edition. Boston &New York, Houghton Milfin
Company, 1995.

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O'Connor, Kate at http://writersinspire.org/content/feminist-approaches-literature Accessed on
Tuesday, May 29, 2018. licensed as Creative Commons BY-NC-SA (2.0 UK)

Ogunyemi, Chikwenye Okonjo.(1988). “Women and Nigerian Literature” in Perspectives on

Nigeria literature 1700 to the Present. Vol. 1. Ogunbiyi Yemi (ed.) Lagos: Guardian
Books Ltd.
Sheila, Ruth (1980). Issues in Feminism: A First Course in Women‟s Studies. Boston: Houghton
Milflin Company.
Showalter Elaine (1999). A Literature of Their Own. U.K: Virago Press
Sotunsa, Mobolanle E (2009). Feminism and Gender Discourse: The African Experience. Lagos:
Asaba Press.

Wollstonecraft, Mary (1978). A Vindication of the Rights of Women. Harmondsworth: Pengium.

World Book Encyclopedia (1984)

https://www.mheducation.co.uk/openup/chapters/0335204155.pdf Accessed on Tuesday, May 29,

201

63
MODULE 3: WOMANISM AND RACIAL FEMINIST VARIANTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This module presents other variants of feminism particularly among blacks, African Americans

and indigenous Africans. Feminism is mainly a socio-political movement which focuses on

women's issues. It concentrates on eradicating the oppression of women in male dominated

societies. However, because feminism as a movement originated in Europe and America and was

first organized by middle class white women, it tended to focus on the concerns of this group of

women to the exclusion of other groups. This has led to the domestication of feminism by

different cultures and classes. You will learn about the concept and evolution of womanism, an

African American variant of feminism. You will also study about the reception of and response

to feminism and womanism in Africa.

2.0. OBJECTIVES

1. To highlight the weaknesses of feminism.

2. To understand the evolution of womanism as a racial variant.

3. To assess the response to feminism and womanism in Africa.

3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 Evolution and Concept of Womanism

3.2 Distinguishing Characteristics of Womanism

3.3 African Women and Feminism

3.4 Ideological Positions of African Female Writers/Critics in Gender Discourse

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Unit 1
3.1 EVOLUTION AND CONCEPT OF WOMANISM

Prior to the 1980's, the voices of black females were muted both as writers and activists.

Although feminism claimed as its goal the emancipation of all women from sexist oppression, it

failed to take into consideration the peculiarities of black females and other women of colour. In

practice, feminism concentrated on the needs of middle class white women in Britain and

America while posing as the movement for the emancipation of women globally. Patricia Collins

(1990:7) contends that even though black women intellectuals have long expressed a unique

feminist consciousness about the intersection of race and class in structuring gender, historically,

black women have not been full participants in white feminist organizations.

Bell Hooks (1998:1844), the African American literary critic, accuses feminism of excluding

blacks from participating in the movement. According to her, feminism in the United States has

never emerged from women who are most victimized by sexist oppression; women who are daily

beaten down, mentally, physically and spiritually; women who are powerless to change their

own condition in life. They are the silent majority. Hooks further criticiSes Betty Friedan's The

Feminine Mystique (1963) because though it is heralded as paving the way for contemporary

feminist movement, it was written as if the black/ lower class women did not exist. In Hook's

opinion racism exists in the writings of white feminists. As a result, female bonding is difficult in

the face of ethnic and racial differences. The deficiencies of feminism as practised by middle

class white women and the need to evolve a theory or an ideology that caters specifically for the

needs of black women folk later led to the development of another variant of feminism called

womanism.

65
The term womanism was coined by Alice Walker in her collection of essays titled In Search of

Our Mothers' Gardens: Womanist Prose (1983). Womanism sums up the aesthetics of black

female literary experience. According to Julia Hare quoted by Hudson Weems (1998:l812),

“women who are calling themselves black feminists need another word to describe what their

concerns are ....Women of African descent who embrace feminism do so because of the absence

of a suitable existing framework for their individual needs as African women.”

According to Alice Walker (1983: xi - xii), a womanist is:

A black feminist or feminist of color... A woman

who loves other women, sexually and/or non
sexually. Appreciates and prefers women's culture,
women's emotional flexibility (values tears as a
natural counterbalance of laughter), and women's
strength. Sometimes loves individual men sexually
and/or non- sexually, committed to survival and
wholeness of entire people, male and female. Not a
separatist, except periodically for health.
Traditionally universalist. Loves music. Loves
dance. Loves the moon. Loves the spirit. Loves love
and food and roundness. Loves struggle. Loves the
folk. Loves herself. Regardless: Womanist is to
feminist as purple is to lavender.

A similar term “Africana-womanism was used by Hudson Weems (1991:24), she claims:

Africana-womanism is an ideology created and designed for all women of African descent. It is

grounded in African culture, and therefore, it necessarily focuses on the unique experiences,

struggles, needs and desires of African women. It critically addresses the dynamics of the

conflict between mainstream feminist, the black feminist, the African feminist and the Africana

womanist.

66
The ideology of womanism is now extending beyond the frontiers of Black America. It is being

embraced by many women from several African countries and other third world countries as the

ideology that defines the experiences of black women in gender discourse.

The term womanism was also used by Chikwenye Okonjo Ogunyemi in 1985 to describe the

African female experience. Ogunyemi, as quoted by Mary Kolawole (1997:24), defines

womanism as “a philosophy that celebrates Black roots, the ideal of Black life, while giving a

balanced presentation of Black womanism. It concerns itself as much with the Black sexual

power tussle as with the world power structure that subjugates Blacks.” African Americans in

advocating womanism as a black outgrowth of feminism, present womanism as a global ideology

that defines the experiences of blacks in the Diasporas, as well as, those residing in the continent.

The use of the term black is somehow elastic. Some critics have applied the term black to mean

all those people who are nonwhite by descent. Such people may be black Africans or not.

67
Unit 2
3.2 DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF WOMANISM
Womanism as an alternative theory is distinguished by its focus on the black female experience.

Benard Bell (1987: 242) observes that the preoccupations of African American female writers

include:

Motifs of interlocking racist, sexist and classist

oppression, black female protagonists, spiritual
journeys from victimization to the realization of
personal autonomy or creativity, a centrality of
female bonding or networking, a sharp focus on
personal relationships in the family and community,
deeper, more detailed explorations and validation of
their epistemological powers of emotions,
iconography of women's clothing and black female
language.

Three things are central to womanist writings. They include racial issues, classist issues and

sexist issues. These are not central to feminist writings. Bell Hooks (1998: 1845) insists that

“racism abounds in the writings of white feminists reinforcing white supremacy and negating the

possibility that women will bond politically across ethnic and racial boundaries.”

To womanist writers, racial and classist oppression are inseparable from sexist oppression.

Many womanist writers even portray racial and classist oppression as having precedence over

sexist oppression. This is because the womanists believe that the emancipation of black women

folk cannot be achieved apart from the emancipation of the whole race. Womanists therefore

believe in partnership with their menfolk. This characteristic distinguishes womanism from

feminism which is mainly a separatist ideology.

The Combahee River Collective (1982), a black feminist group states:

We believe that sexual politics under patriarchy is

as pervasive in black women's lives as are the
politics of class and race. We also often find it
difficult to separate race from class or sex
oppression because in our lives they are most often

68
 experienced simultaneously. We know that there is
such a thing as a racial-sexual oppression which is
neither solely racial nor solely sexual, e.g. the
history of rape of black women by white men as a
weapon of political repression ...We struggle
together with Black men against racism, we also
struggle with Black men about sexism.

The core themes of black feminist and womanist writings revolve around the history of struggle

of black womenfolk in the United States. In attempting to analyze the position of the black

woman, Zora Neale Hurston depicts the black woman as "de mule of the world” Nanny, a

character in Their Eyes Were Watching God (1937:16) states:

de white man is the ruler of everything as far as Ah

been able tur find out. May be its someplace way
off in de ocean where de black man is in power, but
we don't know nothing but what we see. So de
white man throw down de load and tell the nigger
man tur pick it up. He pick it up because he have to
but he don't tote it. He hand it to his women folks.
De nigger women is de mule uh the world so fur as
ah can see.
Also central to womanist writings is the focus on family relationship and the importance of

motherhood. Feminism, on the other hand, tends to derogate the women's role as mothers.

Radical feminism views motherhood as a limiting imposition on women. Womanists celebrate

motherhood while insisting that women be treated with more respect and that motherhood be

valued rather than derogated. Alice Walker's In Search of our Mothers' Gardens: Womanist

Prose (1987:237) is an attempt to "look at and identify with our lives the living creativity some

of our great-grandmothers were not allowed to know".

Family relationship in African American womanist writings is seen not only in the light of the

nuclear family, but the entire community is considered as a family unit. The slave trade in the

Americas affected the stability of family relationships. Very often, black children were sold off

as slaves to far places at a very tender age. Many of them were too young to know their

69
biological parents or form any relationship with their parents before being sold off. As a result of

this and the carryover of the traditions from Africa where the whole community is usually

regarded as a family unit, African Americans developed a sense of communal living where every

member of the society is considered a family member.

In addition, womanism is aimed primarily at achieving self-definition and self-actualization for

black women. As a result of centuries of racial and sexist oppression black women have been

abused. Williams Fannie (1984: 150) opines that “the colored girl... is not known and hence not

believed in. She belongs to a race that is best signated by the term 'problem' and she lives

beneath the shadow of that problem which enveloped and obscures her.”

Hudson Weems' (1998:1815) agenda for Africana womanism is an apt description of the aims of

womanism as an ideology. Weems contends that “the Africana womanist names and defines

herself and her movement... She is family centered. The Africana womanist is more concerned

with her entire „family‟ than with just herself and her sisters even though genuine sisterhood is

also very important to her reality.” Since womanism is accommodationist in nature she

continues: that “the Africana womanist also welcomes male presence and participation in her

struggle as her destiny is often intertwined with his in their broader struggle for humanity and

liberation for Africans people. She has demonstrated and continues to demonstrate enormous

strength both in a physical and psychological sense. Moreover the Africana womanist desires

positive male companionship.”

Hudson Weems further affirms the centrality of motherhood in her ideology. She writes about

the Africana womanist that “her role as homemaker, as it has always been is much relaxed. She

demands respect and recognition in her incessant search for wholeness and authenticity The

70
Africana womanist is committed to the art of mothering and nurturing her own in particular and

humankind in general.”

The search for a black female ideology brought about womanism. Womanism is still essentially

aimed at alleviating women's multiple oppression. This feature it shared with feminism.

However, the issues addressed in womanism concerns mainly black womenfolk. Womanism

differs from feminism because as we have mentioned earlier on, it recognizes the triple

oppression of black women. Racial, classist and sexist oppression are identified and fought

against by womanists as opposed to feminism which is concerned mainly with sexist oppression.

Womanism makes it clear that the needs of the black women differ from those of their white

counterparts.

By recognising and accepting male participation in the struggle for emancipation, womanism

again differs from feminism in its methodology of ending female oppression. Womanism is

rooted in black culture. This fact accounts for the centrality of family, community and

motherhood as key issues in womanist discourse. These features of black culture differentiate

womanism from feminism.

71
Unit 3
3.3 AFRICAN WOMEN AND THE REJECTION OF FEMINISM
In 3.2 we examined African American women‟s response to feminism, the evolution of

womanism and its distinctive features. In this segment, we shall consider the African women‟s

reaction to feminism and by extension, their position on womanism.

Gender discourse evolved with the theory of feminism. However, many African women feel

uneasy about using the term feminism to denote the African female experience in gender

discourse. This is so because there are glaring differences in the perception, world-view and

experiences of African women and their Euro-American sisters who evolved the concept of

feminism. The awareness that the west (Euro-America) cannot speak authoritatively for Africa,

forms the basis of the search for alternative terminologies which adequately address the

specificity of African female experiences.

The search for a different theory or concept which is peculiarly African is criticized by some

African women while others feel that the quest for a different terminology that more adequately

addresses the specificity of African women's yearning as opposed to an imposed or dogmatic

position is a wholesome one (Kolawole, 1997:22).

The reasons why some African women tend to reject feminism as the concept which denote the

African female experience in gender discourse are many and varied. One of the reasons is the

fear of the appropriation of the voices of African women by the existing feminist discourse. A

number of African women recognize the fact that self-assertion by African women did not begin

with their knowledge of feminism. Mary Kolawole (1997:10) speaks of her maternal

grandmother whom she says "was not a feminist but simply a strong African woman. This is

because the history of female self-assertion in Africa goes beyond feminism.”

72
Similarly, some African women are opposed to the use of the term feminism because of the

tendency of regarding them as merely imitating their Euro-American counterparts. This rejection

of feminism is based on what some scholars describe as 'parroting‟ (Kolawole: 1997). Parroting

will negate attempts by African women to inscribe themselves in gender discourse

The issue of cultural relevance is an added major reason for the rejection of feminism by several

African women. Many issues that are of primary importance to western feminists have no

cultural significance to the African woman. In fact, some proposals of western feminists actually

negate cultural values which many African women consider positive. Kolawole (1997:12-13)

observes that the role of patriarchy as it undermines women's sexuality is dominant in radical

feminist discourse. Many such scholars have proposed very overt demonstrations of sexuality

and sexual freedom. They often probe conventional concepts of biological and reproductive

roles. Shalsasmith Firestone suggests a neutralization of reproductive role in line with lesbian

calls for in vacuo reproduction. Others like Marge Pierson envision a Utopia, in which male and

female have the option of "agendered" childbearing. It is obvious that 'agendered' child bearing,

lesbianism and vacuo reproduction are not issues that are of immediate concern to African

women in addition to the fact that such issues are considered culturally negative and irrelevant in

the African world.

Besides these reasons, many African women prefer a different terminology from feminism

because of the need to gain the support and acceptance of the African for their ideology and

social movement for the emancipation of the African women. Either correctly or erroneously,

many African men regard feminism as an imperialistic imposition, or as a rebellious posture

which teaches African women to revolt against cultural norms at the same time that it sets them

against their men folk. Since many African women realise the need for the support of their men

73
folk in realising any true emancipation from all forms of oppression, they seek to adopt a

conciliatory position that does not whip up negative sentiments in the men.

74
Unit 4
3.4 IDEOLOGICAL POSITIONS OF AFRICAN FEMALE WRITERS/CRITICS IN
GENDER DISCOURSE
African women were portrayed as a „voiceless' lot who as a result of patriarchal subjugation

remained silent victims of oppression. However, this portrayal is no longer the case as the

imagery of 'voicelessness' of African women no longer holds true. In recent years the number of

African women engaged in gender discourse has increased noticeably. African females are

engaged in creative writing, literary criticism and theory. All the genres of literature are being

explored as avenues for the African female writers to add their voices to gender discourse. Buchi

Emecheta, Bessie Head, Nawal El Saadawi, Zaynab Alkali, Marima Ba, Ifeoma Okoye,

Chimamanda Adichie, Akachi Ezeigbo are among the numerous African women engaged in

fiction writing. Tess Onwueme, Micere Mugo, Zulu Sofola, Efua Sutherland and Ama Ata Aidoo

are the foremost African female dramatists while 'Molara Ogundipe Leslie, Abenia Busia, C. O.

Acholonu, Maagoye M. Oluche are engaged in delineating African women's experiences in

poetry, among others. African women are also actively involved in the field of literary criticism

and theory. The leading African female critics and theorists include 'Molara Ogundipe Leslie,

Chikwenye Okonjo Ogunyemi, Katherine Frank and Mary E. Kolawole.

Although many African women evolve a concept that is relevant to the needs of African

womanhood, there is a big problem with generating an all-embracing concept which takes care

of the vast field of the African women's experiences. Any attempt to generalise all women on a

continent as vast and diverse as Africa really poses a big challenge because of many reasons. The

reasons which shall be examined presently are responsible for the difficulty which African

women are facing in having to lend their voices to gender discourse. African women are still

speaking in different voices although their sole aim is the emancipation of the African women

75
from all kinds of oppression. The multiple voices of African women in gender discourse can be

attributed to various reasons

African culture is not homogeneous. It is as varied and diverse as the number of ethnic groups

which makes up the continent. Each ethnic group has a culture that is peculiar to it, although it

shares similarities with other cultures in the continent. The difference in the cultural backgrounds

of African women necessitates a difference in their outlook and world-view. This difference in

turn affects the ideological positions and attitudes toward the problems that confront women in

Africa.

Aside the differences in cultural background, African females are again influenced by the

variation in religious beliefs and background. The three major religions practised on the

continent are Christianity, Islam and traditional African religions. The last is in the plural form

because the deities worshipped, the beliefs and modes of worship differ. Although the three

major religions entrench patriarchal values and contribute to the oppression of women in Africa,

they do so through different means.

Another important factor which contributes to the split in the ideological position of African

women is the difference in the colonialism which the various regions of African were subject to.

Mary Kolawole (1997:4) observes that colonialism brought different kinds of affiliation to the

continent. National, ethnic and regional idiosyncrasies, predominant religious influences, modern

and post-colonial traditional values intercept the writers‟ perception and consciousness.

In addition to communal factors which militate against evolving an all-embracing concept in

gender discourse by African women, personal factors also play a crucial role in entrenching

differences in the ideological positions of African women. It is well known that no two people

think exactly alike. Individual differences occur as a result of differences m the experiences.

76
Even when experiences of people are similar, reactions to similar situations differ. The role

which individual differences play in influencing how African women respond to their challenges

and oppression is well exemplified in Mariama Ba's So Long A Letter (1980) where Ramatoulaye

and her friend Aissatou respond to similar situations differently.

In the light of these differences African female writers, scholars and critics speak with multiple

voices in gender discourse.

These multiple voices can be classified into three broad groups. The first group consists of

African female writers, scholars and critics who identify themselves with feminism. The group

deems that the term feminism is adequate to express issues pertaining to women everywhere. As

such they see no reason for evolving an alternative concept to substitute feminism. Nonetheless

African women in this group often assert their indigenous African world view.

The second group comprises those who are cautious of the implications of the feminist tag. It is

noteworthy that some members of this group eventually subscribe to the use of the term in the

absence of an appropriate alternative concept to articulate their ideological position. Members of

this group are quick to point out the differences between their African brand of feminism and the

mainstream feminism of the west. Usually, members of this group append African to feminism to

delineate what they consider peculiar to African women from women of other global regions.

This gives rise to the term African feminism.

The third group consists of African women who choose to proffer alternative concepts to the

theory of feminism. These new concepts are an attempt to indigenize the theory of women in

gender discourse. Such concepts are rooted in the peculiar experiences of the African women.

Indigenous concepts that have been suggested include Womanism by C. O. Ogunyemi;

77
Motherism by C. O. Acholonlu, and Stiwanism by Omolara Ogundipe Leslie. These concepts

shall be examined in detail later on.

Ama Ata Aidoo is one of the foremost versatile African female writers. Her writings include

fiction, poetry, drama, as well as essays and reviews. Ama Ata Aidoo identifies boldly with

feminism. She sees nothing wrong in being regarded as a feminist because feminism is basically

concerned with the emancipation of womenfolk from all forms of oppression. In her view, the

betterment of African women is a prerequisite to the complete independence of the African

continent from imperialist domination. Ama Ata Aidoo declares:

When people ask me rather bluntly every now and then

whether I am a feminist, I would not only answer yes but I
go on to insist that every woman and every man should be a
feminist especially, if they believe that Africans should
take charge of our land, its wealth, our lives and the burden
of our own development because it is not possible to
advocate independence for our continent without also
believing that African women must have the best the
environment can offer. For some of us, this is the crucial
element of our feminism (Criticism and Ideology,
1988:183).

She believes also that "the position of a woman in Ghana is no less ridiculous than anywhere

else. The few details that differ are interesting only in terms of local color and family needs

(Morgan (ed.) 1984:259). Although Aidoo identifies boldly with feminism, she feels that the

legacy of African women's struggle for emancipation is rooted in the African heritage and is not

an imposition from the Western world. According to her, “African women's struggling both on

behalf of themselves and the wider community is very much a part of our own heritage. It is not

something new and I really refuse to be told I am learning feminism from abroad” (Criticism and

Ideology 1988: 183).

78
Abena Busia is another African female scholar who does not shy away from feminism. In the

interview with Mary Kolawole (1997: 8) she is quoted as saying “I am comfortable with the term

'feminism'. If we concede the term feminism, we've lost a power struggle. As a strategy, we

might be conceding grounds that we shouldn't ... Feminism is an ideological praxis that gives us

a series of multiple strategies (of reading, of analysis) and what those strategies have in common

is that the woman matters.”

Abena Busia nevertheless admits that "her way of conceptualizing her world as an African is

different from that of North American women." (Kolawole 1997: 8-9) Another African female

scholar, Aduke Adebayo (1996:3) is of the opinion that feminism is an adequate term for

describing women's experiences both in Africa and elsewhere. She contends that the term

"feminism" when shorn of its variegated cultural attachments and excesses- still possesses a core

programme that adequately synthesises women's experiences worldwide...Feminism is superbly

able to describe issues pertaining to Women.

Nawal El Saadawi, the Egyptian medical doctor and writer is among African females who are

able to clarify the points of similarities and differences between African feminism and western

feminism. She credits western feminist movements for devoting great efforts to the cause of

women everywhere. However she maintains that although there are certain characteristics

common to these movements all over the world, fundamental differences are inevitable when we

are dealing with different stages of economic, social and political development. (The Hidden

Face of Eve 1980 : ix). For Saadawi, these differences are rooted mainly in the gap between the

developed and underdeveloped worlds; in underdeveloped countries liberation from foreign

domination often still remains the crucial issue and influences the content and forms of struggle

in other areas including women's status and role in society (ix).

79
Saadawi does not endorse the depiction of the African women's oppression by western feminists

as being worse off than that of Euro-American women. Western feminists portray women in

African and Arab countries as suffering from a continual submission to medieval systems. They

point vehemently to rituals and traditional practices such as female circumcision as evidence of

the barbaric oppression to which only women in Arab and African countries are subjected. This

attitude leads to a kind of superiority complex in Euro-American women who feel they are better

than their sisters in Africa or Arab nations.

Although she condemns female circumcision, Saadawi quarrels with such feelings of

superiority on the part of western feminists. She argues, "Women in Europe and America may

not be exposed to surgical removal of the clitoris. Nevertheless they are victims of cultural

and psychological clitoridectomy." (xiv).

The only viable manner which African and Arab women can achieve their emancipation in

Saadawi's opinion is through the formation of a formidable political force. She affirms that

freedom for women will never be achieved unless they unite into an organized political force

powerful enough and conscious enough and dynamic enough to truly represent half of society.

(xv)

Buchi Emecheta, the prolific African female writer, appears wary of being called a feminist.

However, by reason of the tendencies in her works and critics' insistence that she is a feminist,

she reluctantly accepts the tag of feminism. In the interview with Umeh, as quoted by Kolawole

(1997:11) Emecheta avers:

I am a feminist with a small „f. I love men and good men

are the salt of the earth. But to tell me that we should
abolish marriage like the capital 'F (feminist) women who
say women should live together and all that, I say no.
Personally I'd like to see the ideal, happy marriage. But if it
doesn't work, for God's sake, call it off.

80
Obviously Emecheta is horrified at the idea" of lesbianism which some western feminists

propose as a viable weapon of female bonding. Although Buchi Emecheta believes in marriage,

she thinks that a bad marriage should be terminated. This position is opposed to some writers

like Zaynab Alkali and Mariama Ba who through the topicality of their works would rather have

women remain in the bond of their marriage till death separates a couple.

Chinkwenye Okonjo-Ogunyemi, a literary critic and theorist has proposed the use of the term

womanism to replace feminism in African gender discourse. In Ogunyemi's view, womanism is a

more authentic term expressing the African woman's experiences. According to Ogunyemi as

quoted by Mary Kolawole (1997:36), Black womanism is a philosophy that celebrates black

roots, the ideal of black life, while giving a balanced presentation of black womandom. It

concerns itself as much with the black sexual power tussle as the world power structure that

subjugates blacks.

Like the African-American women and other none-whites, Ogunyemi's rejection of feminism is

based on certain tendencies in white feminism which she considers unacceptable to the

black/African women. Ogunyemi in 'Women and Nigerian Literature' asserts that as an ideology,

feminism smacks of rebelliousness, fearlessness', political awareness of sexism and an

unpardonable (from the male viewpoint) drive for equality and equity between the two sexes

(Ogunbiyi (ed) 1988:64). She further explains that womanism is black-centered. It is

accommodationist. It believes in the freedom and independence of women like feminism. Unlike

radical feminism, it wants meaningful union between the black women and black men and black

children and will see to it that men begin to change from their sexist stand. It is also interested in

communal wellbeing thus extending its ideology, towards a Marxist praxis.

81
There have been other efforts to posit a theory that is indigenously African in gender discourse.

Catherine Acholonu's concept of motherism arose from African women‟s attempt to indigenize

the gender theory. In her book Motherism (1995) Acholonu posits the concept of motherism as

an African alternative to feminism. Implicit in the concept is the centrality of motherhood in the

African female experience.

Omolara Ogundipe-Leslie (1994:1) proposes another term as the African variant of feminism.

She names this ideology Stiwanism. In her words:

Stiwa means “Social Transformation Including Women of

Africa." I wanted to stress the fact that what we want in
Africa is social transformation. It is not about warring with
men, the reversal of role, or doing to men whatever women
think that men have been doing for centuries, but it is trying
to build a harmonious society. The transformation of
African society is the responsibility of both men and
women and it is also in their interest.

Ogundipe realises that the radical or militant posture of Western feminism has no place in the

African context. To effectively rid the African society of all forms of oppression especially sexist

oppression, diplomacy is essential for African women. It is this diplomacy she attempts to

display in evolving her concept. Ogundipe states:

I have since advocated the word "Stiwanism" instead of

feminism, to bypass ... the combative discourses that ensue
whenever one raises the issue of feminism in Africa. The
new word describes what similarly minded women and
myself would like to see in Africa. The word "feminism"
itself seems to be a kind of red rag to the bull of African
men. Some say the word by its very nature is hegemonic or
implicitly so. Others find focus on women in themselves
somehow threatening ... Some who are genuinely
concerned with ameliorating women's lives sometimes feel
embarrassed to be described as 'feminist' unless they are
particularly strong in character... (22-23)

82
The new term describes my agenda for women in Africa without having to answer charges of

imitativeness or having to constantly define our agenda on the African continent in relation to

other feminisms, in particular white Euro-American feminisms which are, unfortunately, under

siege by everyone. This new term allows me to discuss the .needs of African women today in the

tradition of the spaces and strategies provided in our indigenous cultures for the social being of

women (23).

African women are presently speaking with multiple voices in feminine discourse. In spite of

them the ideological positions of African females there are basic featuress linking all of them

together. They recogniSe the uniqueness of the African female experience. Furthermore they

seek to establish a theory that is culturally and socially relevant to African women. According to

Kolawole (1997:6), "they are dealing with African women's questions in different ways but there

is room for each in the collective 'compound.'

African females who identify cautiously with feminism, as well as, those who prefer other

terminologies recognize the uniqueness of the African woman's experience. Even those who

identify boldly with feminism do not deny the fact that there are some differences in the

experiences, conception and world view of Africans and other races.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The intersection between theoretical gender analysis and practice continues to generate inquiries

and animate scholarship. The challenge of practical application of the gender discourse has

resulted in attempts to domesticate feminism as evidenced in the evolution of womanism among

black women, as well as other gender concepts in Africa. While it is undesirable to build gender

83
boundaries indiscriminately, it is important to recognise diversities in the applications of gender

theories.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have learnt that:

1. Although feminism claimed as its goal, the emancipation of all women from sexist

oppression, it failed to take into consideration the peculiarities of black women and other

women of colour.

2. The search for a black female ideology brought about womanism. Womanism is

distinguished by its focus on the black female experience.

3. Racial, classist and sexist issues are central to womanist writings.

4. Family, community and motherhood are key issues in womanist discourse.

5. Many African women feel uneasy about using the term feminism to denote the African

female experience.

6. The awareness that the West (Euro-America) cannot speak authoritatively for Africa,

forms the basis for the search for alternative terminologies which adequately address the

specificity of African female experiences.

7. There are three broad groups representing the ideological positions of African female

writers and critics in gender discourse. These are:

i. African women who identify boldly with feminism.

ii. African women who are cautious of the feminist tag.

iii. African women who proffer alternative concepts to the theory of feminism.

84
8. The fear of being viewed as „parroting' white feminists is a major reason for the rejection

of feminism by some African women.

In order to make feminism as a theory and practice to fit into the African world it is essential that

the concept be made to undergo cultural transformation and indigenization. In the next unit, we

shall explore African female fiction in order to elicit the feminist/womanist stance of the writers

as evidenced in their works.

4.1 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Account for the evolution of womanism as an alternative theory to feminism.

2. Highlight the distinguishing characteristics of womanism as it differs from feminism.

3. Discuss the three major ideological positions of African females in gender discourse.

Substantiate your discussion with examples of famous African female writers and critics.

4. Examine the factors that contribute to the split in the ideological position of African

women.

5. Evaluate the reasons for the rejection of feminism by some African females.

85
 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Achonolu, C. O (1995). Motherism: The Afro.-Centric Alternative to Feminism. Owerri: Afa

Publication.
Aidoo, Ama Ata. (1970). No Sweetness Here and Other Stories. New York: The Feminist Press.
_____ (1984.). ”To Be a Woman” in Sisterhood is Global. Morgan Robin (ed.) New York:
Anchor.

______ (1988).”To Be an African Woman – An Overview and a Detail” in Criticism and Ideology
Kirsten Holst Petersen (ed). Uppsala, Sweden: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.
_______ (1993.). Changes: A Love Story, New York: The Feminist Press
Alkali, Zaynab (1984). The Stillborn. Lagos: Longman Nigeria Ltd.

Ba, Mariama (1981.). So long a Letter. Trans. Modupe Bode-Thomas, Ibadan: New Horn Press
Ltd.
Bell, Bernard (1987). The Afro-American Novel and its Tradition. Amherst: The University of
Massachusetts Press.
Collins, Patricia Hills (1991). Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness and the
Politics of Empowerment. New York: Routledge.
Emecheta, Buchi (1971). Second Class Citizen. London: Flamingo (Fontana).
_____ (1971). The Bride Price. London: Fontana/ Collins.
_____ (1977). The Slave Girl. London: Fontana.
_____ (1980). The Joys of Motherhood. London: Heinemann.
_____ (1986). Head Above Water. London: Flamingo/ Fontana.
Hooks, Bell (1998). “Black Feminism: Historical Perspective” in Call and Response: the
Riverside Anthology of African American Literary Tradition (eds.) Liggings Hills et al.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. (1812-18150).
Hudson- Weems, Clenora (1994). African Womanist: Reclaiming Ourselves, 2nd rev. ed. Troy:
Nedford.
_____ (1998) “Africana Womanism” in Call and Response: the Riverside Anthology of African
American Literary Tradition. (eds.) Liggings Hills et al. Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Company.
Hurston, Zora Neal (1996). Their Eyes Were Watching God. Greenwich: C. T. Fawcett.

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Kolawole, Mary E.M (1997). Womanism and African Consciousness. New Jersey: African
World Press.
______ (1998). Gender Perceptions and Development in Africa: A Socio- Cultural Approach.
Lagos: Arrabon Academic Publishers.
Ogini, Elizabeth (1996). “Feminism Then and Now: A Historical Perspective” In Feminism and
Black Woman‟s Creative Writing: Theory, Practice and Criticism. Adebayo Aduke (ed.)
Ibadan: AMD Publishers (11-20).
Ogundipe-Leslie, „Molara. (1993) “African Women Culture and Another Development” in
Theorizing Black Women. (eds.) Stanlie, M. James and Abena Busia. London: Routledge,
(102-117).
______ (1994). Recreating Ourselves. Trenton, N.J: Africa World Press.
Ogunyemi, Chikwenye Okonjo (1985).. “Womanism: The Dynamics of the Contemporary Black
Female Novel in English.” Signs, 11, 1 (61-80)
______ (1988). “Women and Nigerian Literature” in Perspectives on Nigeria Literature 1700 to
the Present. Vol. 1. Ogunbiyi Yemi (ed.) Lagos: Guardian Books Ltd.
Walker, Alice (1984). In Search of Our Mothers‟ Gardens: Womanist Prose. New York:
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Williams, Fannie Barrier (1984). “The Coloured Girls” In Invented Lives of Black Women 1860-
1960. Mart Helen Washington (ed.) New York; Anchor, 1987. 9150-159). World Book
Encyclopaedia W-X-Y-2, Vol. 21, World Bookinc. Chicago (318-323).

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MODULE 4 - GENDER DISCOURSE IN AFRICAN FEMALE FICTION

UNIT 1 GENDER POLITICS IN AFRICAN LITERATURE

CONTENTS

1.0 . Introduction

This module is designed to provide you with both a specific and a general view of the

status, achievements and experiences of African women in fiction. In this module, we will

explore various African women writers and examine the central thrusts and themes of their

writings. We will also determine their positions and feminist/ womanist stance from their

writings. We will consider the issues of gender politics, the characterization of female and male

characters in their work. Using African female fiction, we will endeavour to understand how

women‟s literary expression has been shaped by history, culture, and their experiences, as well

as see how they address issues of gender in their respective societies. Our discussions will focus

on issues of gender politics, oppression, resistance, domestic violence, marital challenges and

male and female characterisations in the novels.

2.0 Objectives:

1. Introduce you to the different female writers of African fiction from various regions.

2. Help you to carry out literary analyses of gender issues in African women fiction.

3. Understand the major thematic thrusts of African female writers

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3.0 Main Contents

3.1 Gender Politics in African literature

3.2. Common Themes in African Women‟s Writings.

3.3. African Women Writers and Gender Issues

3.1. GENDER POLITICS IN AFRICAN LITERATURE

Contemporary society is gender sensitive; hence gender portrayal is a critical and sensitive issue

in the writing and interpretations, construction, and deconstructions, of works of literature.

Several female critics have condemned what they consider as the image of the weak woman

presented by many male African writers. The woman‟s role in male works is often seen within

the bonds of relationships only. Female characters are made marginal to the plot of stories while

only a few emerge as powerful and credible protagonists. According to Gloria Chukukere

(1995:7), the ideal female created by male writers in fiction often acts within the frame work of

her traditional roles as wife and mother. So strong are social values that the respect and love

which a woman earns are relative to the degree of her adaptation to these roles.

The pioneer African male writers mirrored patriarchy in their works. The man is often the

protagonist and antagonist who dominate other people, while the women are made peripheral and

their characters hardly developed. Chinua Achebe‟s Things Fall Apart provide the classic

example of his trend where the man is active but the women are docile and helpless, playing no

part in shaping their fate.

In Things Fall Apart, Okonkwo beats up his wife for failing to provide his meal. In The

Concubine by Elechi Amadi, Ekwueme attempts to discipline his wife Ahurole to curtail her

independent spirit. Cyprian Ekwensi in People of the City and the Jagua Nana series presents

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women as prostitutes that are used by men as distraction from the stress of life. Ekwueme often

presents the woman as dependent on the man for her survival.

According to Chukukere (1995), the few outstanding exceptions where women are protagonist in

African male writings are the socialist novels of Ngugi wa Thiongo comprising Petals of Blood

(1974), Devil on the Cross (1982) and Ousmane Semebene‟s historical novel God‟s Bits of Wood

(1975). In Petals of Blood Ngugi portrays women of strong character like Wanja, Penda, Ndege

Touti, among others, who contribute to the success of the revolution. Semebene Ousmane

similarly presents women like Penda and Ramatoulaye who defy all odds to liberate their

families and societies from the poverty, suppression and subjugation they experience.

In spite of the exceptional portrayal of some politically active and morally strong women, the

dominant characters in African male writings are men.

Little wonder Chikwenye Ogunyemi (1988:60) describes Nigerian literature as “Phallic,

dominated as it is by male writers and male critics who deal almost exclusively with male

characters and male concerns, naturally aimed at a predominantly male audience”. Similarly

Femi Ojo-Ade (1983:158-159) posits that African literature is a male created, male oriented

chauvinistic art. An honor roll of our literary giants clearly proves that point…. Men constitute

the majority and women the minority.”

The unfavorable portrayal of women by African male writers ignited a literary outburst which

culminated in female writers‟ attempt to counter the impaired picture of African womanhood by

reversing the roles of women in African fiction written by men. African female writers began to

present female protagonists who are pitted against all odds, yet emerge liberated and determined

to exist without the man.

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In a typical African female writing, the woman is the protagonist. She is often industrious,

dynamic and resourceful rather than weak, docile and dependent. Female characters are imbued

with qualities of independence, dynamism and industry which the society and writers hitherto

associated with the male. This is the case in Buchi Emecheta‟s Second Class Citizen, Nawal

EL Saadawi‟s Woman at Point Zero Mariama Ba‟s So Long a Letter, Zaynab Alkali‟s The Still

Born, among many others. It is noteworthy that in recent works, female writers reveal some of

their heroines‟ weaknesses, thus making their works credible and realistic.

One reason for the foregrounding of female experiences is that female-authored work is usually

concerned about the women‟s experiences in the society. Although, many female writers focus

on the domestic experiences of their female characters, others depict women in politics,

commerce, economy and administration. Women writers in Africa generally criticize the

negative atmosphere created by the uneven socio-cultural setting of the society which hinders the

woman‟s complete happiness and self-fulfillment.

In all, African female writers have succeeded in reversing the patriarchal image of women as

docile helpless beings with no control over their own fate.

The tendency of the over-glorification of the African woman is often accompanied with a

corresponding demonisation of man in African female writings. Male characters in many early

African female writings were mostly villains, often strong physically but morally weak. They

appear as tyrants, chauvinists who have no regard or respect for the feelings of the women.

Sometimes they are even physically weak, yet possess a domineering disposition and myopic

chauvinist attitude. Nevertheless, the trend in recent writings appears to be more tolerant of men,

allowing for general human weaknesses.

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Many African women have come to the realization that an over glorification of the woman,

compounded by a demonization of the male, rather than advance their aims of liberating African

womanhood might jeopardize the goal since it re-echoes the radical feminist stand, which many

African female writers and critics condemn.

In addition, this inclination reduces the value of their writings and readers tend to dismiss their

works as unrealistic, lacking authenticity and mere biased writings of women with personal

domestic problems and literature of women who have a grouse to pick with men. In recent

African female writings, particularly Nigerian literature, there appears to be an attempt to correct

the lopsidedness in previous female writings by a conscious refrain from demonizing the male.

Nevertheless, in African female writings, female characters and experiences are fore-grounded

while the male characters and experiences are back-grounded.

To facilitate your deeper understanding of gender politics in African literature, we shall carry out

an analysis of Ifeoma Okoye‟s Behind the Clouds with the aim of exploring gender politics in the

text.

Gender Politics in Ifeoma Okoye’s Behind the Clouds

In Behind the Clouds, Ifeoma Okoye presents Ije, the heroine as a loving, hardworking, devoted,

dynamic and mortally strong woman. Prior to her marriage to Dozie, she worked tirelessly to pay

his school fees while in England. Despite her childlessness, „she loved Dozie dearly…” (Behind

the Clouds: 22). Although desperate for a solution to her apparent childlessness, Ije rejects

Apostle Joseph‟s outrageous suggestion that she sleeps with him and have a child as did her

friend. Ije resolves never to visit Apostle Joseph again. This action suggests that she would rather

remain childless. For Ije, immorality was not an option.

Furthermore, Ije is resolute, brave and strong in decision making. According to the narrator:

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 Ije had been the brains behind his successes. When he vacillated
between resigning his job in the ministry and striking out on his
own, it was Ije who came to his aid and urged him to take the
plunge... Ije had kept her job and of her own free will had given
him all her salary… through dint of hard work she had helped
Dozie into becoming a rich successful architect (Behind the
Clouds: 63)

In contrast to his brave and adventurous wife, Dozie, although, loving, hard working and

successful had a weakness:

He was a hardworking and intelligent man who knows his job

well. His only flaw was his inability to take decisions easily and
stick to them. Every change was a risk and he hated taking risks
(Behind the Clouds: 70)

Dozie‟s flaws extend beyond his professional life. His weakness becomes apparent in his failure

to check his mother‟s excesses in his running down, embarrassing and insulting his wife Ije.

Moreover, after his one night affair with Virginia, he claimed to be handling the matter such that

Virginia bagged into his house and affirmed “I‟ve made up your mind for you” (Behind the

Clouds: 77).

To worsen the situation Dozie also fails to handle Virginia‟s excesses and stop her from

harassing Ije, his rightful wife. This, in fact, is the last straw that broke the proverbial camel‟s

back for Ije, coping with Dozie‟s infidelity was hardly tolerable since she thought herself barren

but, her fragile world shattered completely when Dozie fails to resolutely defend her in the face

of Virginia‟s false accusation that she intended to poison Dozie.

By portraying Ije‟s emotional weakness at this point, Ifeoma Okoye paints for us an unbelievable

picture of a superwoman, but an authentic portrayal of a feminine character although strong,

adventurous and dynamic, nevertheless prone to tears and emotional disturbance when sorely

tried. Ije fails to fight for her right as Ugo advises but allows the crisis to overwhelm her until

she breaks down completely and becomes an emotional wreck. Thanks to the survived.

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Besides the portrait of the heroine Ije and her husband Dozie, the portrayal of the other

characters in the novel is important for the total understanding of the intrigues of gender politics

in Behind the Clouds. In the novel, other female characters comprise the good, the bad and the

ugly. Ugo Ushie epitomizes all the qualities of a healthy friendship between women. Ije and Ugo

are childhood friends who are separated after their graduation from secondary school. While Ugo

attends the Teachers Training College in Umahia, Ije travels to England to further her education.

They kept up their friendship and become reunited when Ije returns and both of them settle down

in Enugu. Unlike Ije, Ugo birthed three children and enjoys a happy marriage. She however

sympathizes with her friend who has challenges in her marriage because of her perceived

barrenness.

Ugo Ushie as a sensitive and understanding friend is skilled in stabilizing Ije‟s erratic moods.

She subtly maneuvers discussions such that when Ije is moody “Ugo Ushie could detect the

glitter of tears in her friend‟s eyes. She tactfully changed the topic of their discussion” (Behind

the Clouds: 31)

Faced with the shocking betrayal of her husband, Ije runs to Ugo who advises her against leaving

her home. A touching scene which exposes the bond between the two women is unraveled

below. Referring to Ugo, the narrator reveals:

She led her friend into the bathroom and made her wash her tear-
stained face with cold water. Then she took her into the bedroom
and made her powder her face (Behind the Clouds: 76)

Furthermore when Ije breaks down emotionally and takes ill, the house maid summons Ugo.

Then Ugo and her husband take Ije to the hospital and care for her. She also helps to reunite Ije

and Dozie as she tactfully prods her friend to forgive and accept Dozie back. The relationship

between Ugo and Ije exemplifies Alice Walker‟s definition of a womanist:

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 …A woman who loves other women; sexually / or non sexually,
appreciates and prefers women‟s culture, women‟s emotional
flexibility (values tears as natural counter-balance of laughter) and
woman‟s strength… (Alice Walker 1982:2)

Another female character, Beatrice also happens to be Ije‟s secondary school mate. However it is

their search for children that really brings the two barren (?) women together when they meet at

the Blest Clinic. Beatrice confides in Ije that if Dr. Melie fails to solve her problem she would

visit the faith healers. Dr. Melie fails and later Beatrice visits Ije with a four month pregnancy-

the apparent fruit of faith.

Beatrice persuades Ije to try the option of Apostle Joseph who solves her problem, when fasting

and prayers again fail in Ije‟s case. Apostle Joseph suggests she sleeps with him like Beatrice,

her friend. Ije is disgusted and confirms from Beatrice that she is really carrying Apostle

Joseph‟s baby. Despite the revelation, Ije refuses to condemn Beatrice since that was the only

apparent way to save her marriage.

Here the play of gender politics also becomes apparent as the author does not vilify Beatrice for

her unfaithfulness. Although Ije‟s dignity is held up against Beatrice‟s ignominy Beatrice‟s

position is explained and deemphasized.

Dozie‟s mother (mama) is another character who represents the ugly among the female

characters. Her persona is described thus:

She was a domineering woman. When her husband was alive, it

was she who ruled the house. Her husband was a man of few
words who hated scenes, allowed her to have her way if only to
have some peace in the house (Behind the Clouds: 42).

It was mama who harassed Ije the most for failing to give her a grandchild. She consistently

abused, embarrassed and insulted Ije, and called her a prostitute among other ugly names. Mama

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did not only harass Ije she constantly pushed her son Dozie to marry a second wife and wholly

supported Virginia‟s plot to hijack Dozie‟s matrimonial home.

Virginia epitomises all that is ugly in women. She is a schemer, manipulator and a gold digger.

She takes advantage of Dozie‟s predicament to impose on him a pregnancy not sired by him in

order to extort money from him. Ifeoma Okoye does not make any attempt to excuse mama or

Virginia; this authenticates her work as realistic because men or women, there are the good and

the bad among both men and women.

Okoye also makes realistic portrayal of male characters in Behind the Clouds. Apostle Joseph is

portrayed as a hypocrite who justifies adultery in the name of helping women to bear children.

Ayo, Ugo Ushie‟s husband appears to be a complete gentle man. Dozie too despite his weakness

is represented as a “night‟s mistake” resulting from drunkenness. Unlike most men he consults

Ije‟s opinion before taking any decision on family and business. It is a note-worthy that Dozie

admits his sterility. It takes a real man to admit such a short coming. Many African men in his

shoes would discountenance the result of the medical test and keep blaming the wife for the

infertility. Such men would likely keep Virginia for the simple reason of making their masculine

failure a secret.

Ifeoma Okoye attempts a realistic portrayal of male and female characters in Behind the Clouds.

She depicts both positive and negative characters, strengths and weaknesses of both male and

female characters and achieves authenticity. Nevertheless, it is obvious that the writer is not

totally immune from the feminine bias of her gender. In the fashion of womanist writers, she

focuses on the female experience. In addition, although she tried to portray male characters with

their strengths and weaknesses, the weaknesses are more obvious than the strengths. Similarly,

she fore grounded the strength of her female characters and makes some attempt to excuse some

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of their actions. An instance is her excusing Beatrice, arguing that “My infidelity saved my

marriage for my husband was on the verge of sending me out and taking a new wife” (Behind the

Clouds: 61). On the other hand Apostle Joseph is not given any credit for salvaging Beatrice‟s

marriage but castigated for his hypocrisy and adultery.

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Unit 2

3.2 COMMON THEMES IN AFRICAN WOMEN’S WRITINGS

This section gives a general overview of common or recurrent themes found in African female

fiction. It provides you with illustrations from several literary texts authored by African women

from the various regions.

One of the common themes treated in female authored-African fiction is the lack of choice of

husbands for women. In most cases, the challenges of the African woman in marriage begin even

before the marriage is contracted. It is customary in most indigenous African communities for

parents/ guardians to decide or at least approve the proposed spouse of their children or ward.

Where the parents make the choice, often times, the feelings of the woman are completely

ignored. She is pushed into a loveless marriage with consequent problems. In contemporary

times the practice of choosing a husband for a girl appears to have reduced considerably,

nevertheless it is imperative for the parents to sanction their children‟s choice. Where the

families withhold their blessings, the marriage usually becomes moot able. This is the case with

Buchi Emecheta‟s The Bride Price (1976).

Loneliness is another serious challenge facing many married women in Africa. It would appear a

contradiction since one of the major reasons for marriage is to avoid loneliness. However in most

loveless marriages, the woman is subject to acute loneliness. Li in The Still Born (1984) and

Ramatoulaye in So Long a Letter (1981), are fictional examples of the lonely married syndrome.

The agony of women in polygynous marriages is also a familiar theme of African women‟s

writings. Polygyny is a phenomenon sanctioned by most African communities. The traditional

African religion promotes its practice, the Islamic faith supports polygyny, and the Christian

faith which supposedly forbids it, turns blind eyes to the common situation in Africa where a

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man legally marries a wife but keeps concubines who bear children for him outside the

matrimonial home. Faku‟s experiences in The Still Born (1984) reveal the misery of the

predicament of many women entrapped in polygynous marriages. The feelings of rejection,

betrayal and abandonment suffered by many women are adequately captured by Miriama Ba in

So Long a Letter (1981).

In addition, child-rearing burdens often fall solely or heavily on the women if the husband is

irresponsible. In many instances of polygynous marriages, each woman caters solely for her

children. Child rearing responsibilities are heavy burdens for women when not shared by the

man. Li and Awa in The Still born (1984), Adah in Second Class Citizen (1974) provide fictional

illustrations of the frustrating experiences of women bearing almost single-handedly child

rearing responsibilities

The woes of barren women are also commonly catalogued by African female writers. Flora

Nwapa, one of the earliest African female writers, explores this theme in Efuru (1984). In

addition, this is the main theme of Ifeoma Okoye‟s Behind the Cloud (1982). Akachi Ezeibgo

also captures this in The Last of The Strong Ones (1991).

Though forbidden by law, wife-battering, a global problem, is still a common practice among

many Africans today. Most women tolerate these inhuman violations of their persons in order to

avoid a divorce or separation. Beatrice in Purple Hibiscus is a case in point. Usually, where

women take legal actions (where they are aware of their rights) the marriage ends in divorce.

What then are the solutions to the various challenges facing women in marriage? It is obvious

that there is no single solution. Various solutions have been proffered as evidence by the

positions of different writers and critics. Some of the solutions include divorce, separation,

remaining single, rebellion and revenge in the form of prostitution and other forms of anti-social

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behaviours. In extreme cases some women physically harm or kill their husbands and other

people regarded as responsible for their oppression.

Many of the above solutions have proved unsatisfactory. Rebellion and revenge often lead to

lack of self-fulfillment and ultimately self-destruction. This is the case with Firduas in Woman at

Point Zero (1975). Similarly Adaku in Joys of Motherhood (1980) takes to prostitution and

becomes a threat to many happy homes.

Divorce and separation which may sometimes provide an escape for many women also have

their set-backs. Very often the woman still suffers (perhaps less) and the children suffer more.

Where the woman remarries, she may be faced with similar problems. Esi in Changes (1993)

divorces her husband on the excuse that she does not love him; she marries Ali, an already

married man and again divorces him. She ends up as Ali‟s mistress- a miserable solution since

she finds no.

In order to illustrate some of the common themes in African female writings, we shall explore

the theme of domestic violence in Chimamanda Adichie‟s Purple Hibiscus.

Domestic Violence in Purple Hibiscus

“Things started to fall apart at home” These words open the story of Kambali‟s domestic setting

as the heroine (Kambali) unfolds the mood of her prison-like home where violence, lack of

freedom, religious fanaticism and solid silence define the atmosphere in the home. The reader is

introduced to Kambali‟s family where her father, Eugene dominates every aspect of the home.

Eugene is a wealthy businessman and a fighter for democracy through his newspaper, The

Standard. He is also a human rights award winner, a devout catholic and church financier, a

famous philanthropist and a community leader. Fifteen year old Kambali and her elder brother

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Jaja are restricted by their father‟s fanaticism. They know and do very little beyond the schedules

that their father evolves for sleeping, eating, reading, studying and attending services, which they

must adhere to absolutely, even when they are away from home. Any deviation from strict

adherence to the schedule draws a heavy punishment. Jaja‟s refusal to attend mass and go for the

confession of his supposed sins causes Eugene to fling his heavy missile at him. Kambili‟s

transgression of keeping her grandfather‟s portrait incurs her a near- mortal beating which lands

her in the hospital for months. Kambili and Jaja have hot water poured on their feet for not

confessing to their father that his father (their grandfather, Papa Nnukwu) slept under the same

roof with them at aunty Ifeoma‟s house. Papa Nnukwu‟s offence is that he refuses to abandon his

inherited indigenous religion in favour of the Catholic religion which his son embraced and

promotes.

This singular offence makes Eugene refuse to visit or take care of his father. It is at the

community‟s intervention that he seldom sends money and allows the children to visit Papa

Nnukwu once a year for not more than fifteen minutes with strict orders never to eat or drink at

their grandfather‟s house. Kambili‟s lapse of disobeying this order earns her a slap. Papa

Nnukwu‟s punishment does not end at this. Eugene threatens to deny his father a befitting burial

if he remains a traditionalist. He carries out his threat by refusing to attend the burial and

forbidding his family members to do so. He however sends money, only when aunty Ifeoma

spited him and decided to give their father a befitting burial despite Eugene‟s refusal. Eugene‟s

rigidity makes no room for human compassion as Kambili, Jaja and their mother receive heavy

battering for breaking the Eucharistic fast because Kambili was experiencing menstrual pain and

needed to eat and take some medications to enable her attend to the service.

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Beatrice, Eugene‟s wife, watched helplessly as her husband inflicts injuries on their children in

the name of discipline or love after which she nurses them. She fares even worse than her

children as she receives battering that cause several miscarriages. Her offences include her

reluctance to visit the reverend father after church service because she was feeling weak and

nauseated from early pregnancy symptoms. For an unnamed wrongdoing, Eugene breaks a heavy

mahogany table on her stomach, which causes another miscarriage of her six week pregnancy.

Eugene‟s violence in the home transcends physical violence to physiological violence. He

publicly embarrasses Kambili by asking her if the girl who came first had two heads. In the

current term Kambali came second in class. Jaja also has his fingers mutilated for not coming

first in his class.

In the home Eugene not only has the final say but also all the say. Every one depended on his

decision so much that when the family needed new curtains, Beatrice commented “Papa would

decide the colors” (Purple Hibiscus: 94). When invited to spend their holidays with aunty

Ifeoma, Jaja immediately replies “if papa said it is alright” Beatrice‟s roles are simply to

supervise the house girl, prepare meals, serve the food and nurse the children back to health after

battering from their father. Her relationship with her husband is more of a slave-master

relationship.

The paradoxical twist is the sharp contrast between Eugene‟s public personality and his

behaviour at home. The irony in the situation is Eugene‟s reasons for being the domestic despot

that he turns out to be. He claims that love and the desire to discipline his children account for

the torture he subjects his family to. In order to demonstrate his love for his family, he makes

them to take what he describes as „love sips‟. They each take a sip from his tea but Kambili

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comments „the tea was always too hot, burned my tongue but it didn‟t it matter because I knew

when the tea burned my tongue, it burned papa‟s love into me” (Purple Hibiscus: 8).

In other words his supposed love is forceful and harmful, yet cannot be rejected despite the

suffering it causes. In the church Eugene is completely engrossed in the sermons, cutting the

image of a living saint, seeming more pious than the Pope himself. According to Kambili “papa

always sat in the front pew for mass… most people did not kneel to receive communion but papa

did (Purple Hibiscus: 4). Furthermore, Father Benedict usually used Eugene to illustrate the

gospels. He always referred to Pope, papa and Jesus in that order. Papa always wore a blank face

while accolades are poured on him, and then he goes home to batter his wife and throw missiles

at his children.

On the international scene Eugene wins a human rights award by amnesty world yet the faintest

principles of human freedom are not observed in his home. His wife and children are never free

to express their opinion or make choices. The slightest resemblance of independent thinking is

severely punished as rebellion. His family members are forced to live according to his rules and

rigid schedules. When Jaja refuses to go for mass, Eugene throws the missiles at him. Beatrice is

forced to visit the priest though she was very sick and afterwards she received severe beatings for

her initial reluctance. Jaja and Kambili are forced to confess whatever their father perceives as

sin in spite of their convictions otherwise. The priest is given early information about such

„offences‟ and he connives with Eugene to ensure his children confess staying under the same

roof in aunty Ifeoma;s house with their grandfather, a pagan.

More so, for his generosity Eugene won the title omelora “the one who does good for the

community”. He gives out money to the villagers like a money god. At charismas, he feeds the

whole village, except his father to whom he sends paltry sums through the driver merely at

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charismas only after his relatives pleaded with him to allow his children greet their grandfather.

Similarly, his widowed sister, aunty Ifeoma struggles alone with her children and receives no

help from her affluent brother. In the face of Eugene‟s seeming deep, religious experience, the

reader is constrained to conclude that Eugene is a great hypocrite.

After examining the depiction of violence, it is important to evaluate the reactions to violence in

the novel. Beatrice‟s passive posture in the face of oppression, violence and tyranny is perhaps

not surprising as it speaks of the larger situation of severe women in the nation. According to

Ezeigbo (1990:16), women have a tendency to keep quiet and suffer in silence. This is because

society has always prescribed silence, reticence, complaisance, patience and gentleness as the

greatest virtues of the feminine gender.

Beatrice displayed tolerance and stock resignation to her family‟s oppression. She hardly speaks.

According to Kambili, Beatrice spoke the way birds eat, in small amounts (Purple Hibiscus: 20)

and there was so much that she did not mind” (Purple Hibiscus: 19) when challenged by aunty

Ifeoma to emancipate herself even if it meant leaving Eugene and she replies “where would I go

if I leave Eugene‟s house? Tell me, where would I go. Do you know how many mothers pushed

their daughters at him? Do you know how many asked him to impregnate them even and not

bother paying the bride price?”

Beatrice‟s stoic acceptance of Eugene‟s irrational behaviour is rooted in her perception and

myopic world view. She feels indebted to her husband because he did not take another wife

despite the fact that she has only two children and several miscarriages caused by his battering.

Similarly, Kambili and Jaja experience stunted maturation in their emotional and psychological

development. It was not until their visit to Nsukka with their aunt‟s family that they discovered

their voices and asserted themselves. Kambali and Jaja were affected so much by the violence

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and restrictions in their home that they could not speak at home and also found themselves

reticent among their peers outside the home. The children were so maladjusted that their cousins

in Nsukka initially found them „strange‟, very strange indeed.

There are glaring differences in the attitudes of Jaja and Kambili when compared to their cousins

– Amaka and her siblings. Aunty Ifeoma‟s children are assertive. They are able to speak their

minds without fear because they have been raised in a truly democratic and free family

atmosphere. While not condoning indiscipline, aunty Ifeoma allows her children to mature and

hold opinions of their own. In addition, the children know their duties and perform them from a

sense of responsibility and not fear. The children are allowed to contribute to decision making in

the family.

While Beatrice and her children are reticent, aunty Ifeoma is assertive. She speaks up and never

allows Eugene to intimidate her. Surprisingly, despite the fact that she challenges Eugene she is

often able to have her way with him. Aunty Ifeoma succeeds in making Eugene release Kambili

and Jaja to spend their holidays with her, she is able to persuade him allow them to watch the

traditional festivities against his fanatical religious convictions and even release money for Papa

Nnukwu‟s burial. It is in Nsukka, with aunty Ifeoma‟s family that Kambali and Jaja are able to

experience freedom of speech and action coupled with responsible behaviour. At last they mature

and are able to assert themselves and get rid of their father‟s domination.

For many readers, the disclosure at the end of the story that Beatrice poisoned Eugene is a bolt

from the blue. All the years of forbearance and silence in the face of heavy battering, mauling,

mutilations, oppression and subjugation had built up in Beatrice the deadly poison of revenge.

Possibly, her action results from mere desperation to be free. However, it is a pity that she

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eventually succumbs to a state of mild insanity after her supposed liberation. This may be due to

the fact that Jaja, her son chooses to suffer imprisonment for his mother‟s crime.

Following the practice of many African women writers, domestic issues are fore-grounded in

Purple Hibiscus. It is obvious that there is an intertwining of the domestic with the lager socio-

political issues in Africa, particularly Nigeria. The novel is a testimony that the home is merely a

microcosm of the society as Eugene‟s tyrannical actions parallel those of African political

despots. Eugene like many male characters in African female fiction is the bigot, chauvinist

oppressor per excellence. Beatrice, on the other hand, is an icon of the tacit, voiceless subjugated

African woman who accepts her oppression in a stoic spirit. Aunty Ifeoma models the

contemporary liberated African who knows exactly what she wants and how to get it without

being unnecessarily domineering and aggressive. Papa Nnukwu mirrors the traditional African

values devoid of abuse, bastardizations and misrepresentations. Kambili emerges at last as a

budding young woman who like the purple hibiscus, opens up and matures despite her hostile

environment. It appears she is the one who would not let all things fall completely apart.

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Unit 3

3.3. AFRICAN WOMEN WRITERS AND GENDER ISSUES

In this section, we shall examine the works of Buchi Emecheta, Ama Ata Aidoo, Nawal El

Saadawi, Mariama Ba and Zaynab Alkali to determine the various positions taken by these

writers on gender issues as they affect the African woman. This will help you to have practical

engagements with gender issues in African literature.

BUCHI EMECHETA

In her works, Buchi Emecheta presents the African woman as a helpless victim of tradition.

Since African tradition is largely based on the patriarchal structure, it is often considered a

veritable means of oppression against the African woman. In Emecheta‟s fiction, African

women who attempt to break free from the noose of the rigid, oppressive culture and tradition

eventually end up in self-destruction or get estranged in the process.

The Bride Price (1976) is the telling tale of the victimisation of the African woman through the

man centered African tradition. Aku-nna, the heroine is a young orphaned girl who attempts to

live a life free from the shackles of tradition by marrying the man of her choice despite her

family‟s objection. Aku-nna‟s family opposes her marriage to Chike because he is an „osu‟

descendant (slave). This has serious cultural implications. For example, the free-born is

forbidden to marry or interact with the „osu‟ because the latter, a slave, is dedicated as sacrificial

beings to some divinity. But this was long ago. At the time Emecheta‟s story is set, it is no longer

a popular practice even though the dust of the taboo is yet to completely clear. This is because

the idea of slavery is no longer topical. It is largely a custom stigma for a free-born to marry an

„osu‟. This explains why the huge bride price by Chike‟s father to Aku-nna‟s family is rejected

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regardless of the deep love Aku-nna has for Chike. As far as her family is concerned, Chike is an

„osu‟ and as such the proposed union is not sanctioned by tradition.

While the young lovers are awaiting the consent of Aku-nna‟s family, she is kidnapped in

marriage to Okoboshi a hated classmate of hers. Aku-nna escapes sexual interaction with

Okoboshi on the wedding night through guile and deception. She elopes with Chike to whom she

finally gets married, legally, in court.

According to the custom of the land, a young girl whose bride price is not paid but gets married

against the tradition suffers death during her first delivery. Aku-nna gets married to Chike legally

but the bride price was rejected by her family. She nevertheless lived happily with Chike. The

marital bliss is short-lived. Aku-nna falls ill during her first pregnancy and finally dies during the

delivery even though Joy, the baby girl, survives. The authorial remark is opposite here:

So it was that Chike and Aku-nna substantiated the traditional superstition they had unknowingly

set out to eradicate… If a girl wished to live long and see her children‟s children, she must

accept the husband chosen for her by her people, and the bride price must be paid. If the bride

price was not paid, she would never survive the birth of her first child. It was a psychological

hold over every young girl that continues to exist… why this is so is as the saying goes is

anybody‟s (The Bride Price: 168).

In The Bride Price, Emecheta seems to warn against defying tradition. Buchi Emecheta further

portrays how the patriarchal structure deprives women of self-actualization. A father is regarded

as the head and master of the home. Everyone, including the wife, looks up to the father of the

home for sustenance. This explains why at the death of Ezekiel Ochia, his family had to return to

the village in order to be re-absorbed into his extended family. This is because “a fatherless

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family is a family without head, a family without shelter, a family without parents, in fact a non-

existing family” (28).

Nnado‟s education up to secondary school is insured even after Ezekiel‟s death, but no such

provision is made for Aku-nna because she is a girl. Fortunately, Aku-nna is allowed to stay on

in school until she completes standard six after her father‟s death because the longer she stays in

school, the higher the bride price that is expected on her. Women submit to this kind of

deprivation because according to auntie Uzo, “This is the fate of us women. There is nothing we

can do about it. We just have to accept it” (38).

In The Slave Girl (1977), Emecheta again depicts the tyrannical hold of tradition on African

woman. Ogbanje Ojebetta is sold into slavery by her brother. After her mistress‟s death, Ojebetta

finds the courage to break the yoke of slavery which her mistress‟s children desire to continue to

impose upon her. She returns to her village, Ibuza, only to be entrapped by the cultural norms

and tradition. In Head Above Water (1986:3), Buchi Emecheta writes to Ojebetta:

My mother, Alice Ogbanje Ojebetta-Emecheta…

that slave girl who had the courage to free herself

and return to her people in Ibuza and still stooped

and allowed the culture of her people to reenslave

her, and then permitted Christianity to tighten the

knot.

Ojebetta marries Jacob because the tradition dictates that she gets married at the time she does.

Ojebetta‟s marriage to Jacob is presented as another kind of slavery. The story ends with

“Ojebetta, now a woman of thirty-five, is changing masters” (The Slave Girl: 190).

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In Second Class Citizen (1974), Buchi Emecheta presents a different picture of women. As a

result of education, women can confront unjust patriarchal customs and break free even if it costs

them their marriage. Adah, the protagonist of the novel is believed by some critics to be a

fictional representation of Buchi Emecheta herself. Adah refuses to submit herself to continuous

exploitation and abuse at the hands of an indolent husband and his selfish family members.

Although Adah is reluctant to end the marriage, she is forced to leave her husband and she later

finds fulfillment in a writing career. Adah‟s marriage to Francis limits her creativity and

potential for developing herself. Francis refuses to allow her fulfill herself in writing. He does

not want a writer for a wife because his family would object to such a thing. Apart from

debarring Adah from writing, Francis sexually abuses her, beats her, maltreats her and spends

her income selfishly while he fails in his responsibility to provide for his home.

In Emecheta‟s fiction, marriage is presented as a kind of slavery for women. This is why

Ojebetta in The Slave Girl (1977) is said to be changing masters when her husband returns the

money initially paid on her as a slave to Clifford.

In The Joys of Motherhood (1980), Nnaife, who is a servant, attempts to dominate and enslave

his wivies. Emecheta‟s fictional characters often opt out of oppressive marriages. Adah divorces

Francis in Second Class Citizen (1974) while Adaku moves out of Nnaife‟s house and later

becomes a prostitute in The Joys of Motherhood (1980). According to Jennifer Breen (1990:11):

Although the world of a novel is not an embodiment of the author‟s beliefs about

her actual world, a fictional world often implies a world view that can be deduced

from the way the behavior of the characters is constructed in the fictional world.

Emecheta through her fictional works, as well as in real life clearly believes that if marriage

becomes unbearable for the woman, she should opt out of it.

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AMA ATA AIDOO

Ama Ata Aidoo like Buchi Emecheta explores the influence of the tradition on the African

woman in her works. However, in her fictional works considered in this study, Aidoo does not

present women as victims of tradition in the same way that Buchi Emecheta does. Even though

the women in Aidoo‟s works are prone to male denomination, they are able to chart the course of

their own lives.

In Changes (1991), Esi, the protagonist, decides to divorce Oko, her husband on the ground that

she feels gratitude for him, not love. She also complains that her husband makes enormous

demand on her time, and that interferes with her activities as a career woman. Finally, she

accuses him of committing “marital rape.” Despite the disapproval of her family members and

warnings from her friend Opokuya, Esi goes ahead to divorce Oko. She gives up her only

daughter to the care of her mother-in-law although the decision is against her will.

Esi falls in love with Ali Kondey and becomes his second wife. In contrast to her first husband,

Ali does not give Esi adequate time and attention. He buys her expensive gifts to compensate for

the lack of attention. Esi is dissatisfied with the arrangement since she is lonely most of the time.

She ends up separating from Ali and “they became, just good friends who found it convenient

once in a while to fall into bed and make love” (164). Esi refrains from criticism from her family

and the society.

Through Esi, Aidoo presents the plight of both single and career women in the African society. A

career woman chooses between putting her best into her career and losing her family. When Esi

claims that she competes effectively with her male colleagues by attending all meetings and

conferences, and that she gives extra time to her job, Opokuya points out that her male

colleagues still have their families while she has lost hers. According to Opokuya “we can‟t have

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it all. Not if you are a woman” (49). Esi chooses to be single but she realizes that “our societies

do not admit that single women exist … yet single women have always existed here too” (47).

Aidoo juxtaposes the perceptions and world view of the older generation against the modern

generation. The values of modern women are different from those of the more conservative older

generation. In response to Esi‟s confession that she is not divorcing her husband because of his

infidelity or his abuse of her person, but because she only feels gratitude to him instead of love,

Esi‟s grandmother admonishes her;

And who told you that feeling grateful to a man is not enough reason to marry him? My

lady, the world would die of surprise if every woman openly confessed the true reason

why she married a certain man (4).

Esi‟s grandmother further declares:

Love? … Love? … Love is not safe… love is dangerous. It is deceitfully sweet like the

wine from a fresh palm tree at dawn. Love is fine for singing about and love songs are

good to listen to and sometimes even to dance to. But when we need to count on human

pennies for food for our stomachs, and clothes for our back, love is nothing … The last

man any woman should think of marrying is the man she loves (42).

In contrast to Esi, Fusena, Ali‟s first wife decides to abide by the traditional dictates. She

remains married to Ali despite his decision to take Esi as a second wife. Though the decision for

Fusena is an unhappy one, but she thinks it wise to make the best of a bad situation. Fusena

attempts to dissuade Ali from marrying Esi by asking the elders to intervene on her behalf. But

the elders eventually support Ali‟s decision. They send elderly women to persuade Fusena to

consent to her husband‟s second marriage. The elderly women realize with Fusena that “It was a

man‟s world. You only survived if you knew how to live in it as woman” (107).

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Like Esi, Fusena is educated although she is not a University woman. She is also economically

self-sufficient yet she chooses to remain in her marriage to Ali despite his second marriage. At

the end of the story, she is not a complete loser since Ali still regards the place where Fusena

stays with her children as „home‟.

In Changes (1991), the female characters know the importance of motherhood and esteem its

institution. Nevertheless, they are not prepared to subjugate their lives to those of their children.

While Opokuya enjoys her role as a mother, Esi sometimes seeks escape from mothering and

agrees to leave her daughter in the care of her mother-in-law because it is much more convenient

for her and the child. Again, Esi uses family planning devices despite Oko‟s objection to them.

She does not want to give birth to children that she will have no time to bring up.

Tuzyline later in the novel comments:

Indeed as Changes vividly demonstrates, the cult of motherhood has no fanatical

following among Aidoo‟s female characters – another of the author‟s distinctive

characteristics. Far from lacking maternal instinct, the women in the novel

nonetheless show no signs of yielding to its culturally enforced power (186).

Esi realises “she could never be as close to her mother as her mother was to her grandmother

(174). One might add that Esi‟s daughter could never be as close to her as she was to her own

mother.

Again, Tuzyline Allan notes:

Aidoo‟s creative imagination has no room for the drama of victimization believed

to preoccupy African women writers. Missing from the work is the painstaking

delineation of oppression by such writers as Buchi Emecheta and Flora

Nwapa…(185).

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In the critic‟s opinion:

Emecheta‟s fiction ….. is ubiquitous and deterministic. The process of women‟s

subjugation is often overwhelming, and escape from the prison house of gender is

virtually impossible (185).

No Sweetness Here and Other Stories (1970) similarly expresses Ama Ata Aidoo‟s artistic

vision. In the series of stories, Aidoo depicts the conflicts between traditional societies and

modern postcolonial societies in contemporary Ghana. She demonstrates how gender problems

are intersected with national issues.

The lead story “Everything Counts” tells the story of Sissie, a young University graduate who

recently returns from abroad to take up a teaching appointment in the University of Ghana. Sissie

experiences a great shock at the current mentality of the post-colonial Ghanaians. The women

take to wearing wigs and bleaching their skins in imitation of the Europeans. This is a sign of the

rejection of the traditional values in favour of foreign ones. The trend is seen by Aidoo as a

major psychological effect of post-colonialism on the psyche of Ghanaian women.

In the story titled “In the Cutting of a Drink”, the negative impact of urbanization on Ghanaian

womenfolk is presented. As a result of mass migration from villages to cities, prostitution

becomes prevalent since most of the women who migrate to the cities are not gainfully

employed. Mansa, the girl who runs away to the city tells her brother who comes in search of her

after several years “any kind of work as a prostitute”. Similarly, in “Two Sisters” Mercy gets into

a sexual relationship with “Big men” who are able to give her money, fame and power. Aidoo

censures both the “Big Men” and girls like Mercy who prostitute themselves for money. In

contrast to Mercy, Connie her elder sister remains married to her husband despite his infidelity.

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Although Aidoo censures prostitution, it is depicted as a byproduct of urbanization. The women,

who engage in prostitution, Aidoo seems to argue, cannot really be blamed.

The title story of the collection “No sweetness Here” recounts the trials of a woman as a wife and

mother. Mami Ama is a woman with an only child, Kwesi, whom she deeply treasures. She

struggles to bring up her child in spite of the suffering which she experiences in the hands of her

husband, his other wives and his family. Mami Ama is victimized and abused by her husband.

She tells “Chicha” that she was told by her mother that “in marriage a woman must sometimes

be a fool” (61). However, Mami Ama is no longer prepared to be a fool. She decides “I have

been a fool for too long” (61).

Mami Ama agrees to a formal divorce by her husband and even allows him to have the custody

of her treasured son since that was the only way to escape from her oppressive marriage.

Unfortunately, her son dies of a snake bite on the day of divorce. Mami Ama is heartbroken but

at the end of the story one get the feeling that she still possesses the will to survive. In the after

word of No Sweetness Here, Ketu H. Katrak writes about the women in the stories:

They are not victims, they resist oppression where they can and they discuss their

deeply personal dilemmas which have national import (151).

From Aidoo‟s fictional works, one can deduce that she advocates resistance to oppression on the

part of women. She is ambivalent on such issues as prostitution and sacrificial motherhood.

NAWAL EL SAADAWI

Nawal El Saadawi presents the trials of females as girls, wives and mothers in the Egyptian

world. In The Hidden Face of Eve (1980), Saadawi recounts the various forms of oppression

which women are subjected to by male members of their families. Men who take sexual

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advantage of young girls often include grandfathers, fathers, uncles, brothers and male teachers.

If a girl is disvirgined before her marriage, she loses her honour and that of her family. The

hymen of a girl is equated to her honour and that of her family by the society. Yet girls are often

exposed to sexual exploitation even in their homes. The men who commit the crime of abusing

the girls get away with the misdeed, while the helpless victims are left to face disgrace,

punishment and in some cases, death.

Saadawi advocates revolutionary actions on the part of female victims to break the yoke of

oppression. She is a sort of revolutionary woman who demands to know why, as a child, she is

being treated differently from her brother. According to her, in The Hidden Face of Eve (1980)

she never received a satisfactory answer to this question. Often the reply was “He is a boy and

you are a girl” (10). Whenever she persisted in knowing the difference between a boy and a girl

which justified the preferential treatment given to her brother the answer was often “because it is

so” (10).

Again, in Woman at Point Zero (1975), Nawal El Saadawi exposes the tyranny of a patriarchal

society which drives women to the point of insanity. Saadawi claims that the story is the life

story of the heroine, Firduas, as told by Firduas to Saadawi shortly before Firduas‟ execution for

murder.

Firduas is a victim of the society‟s debasement of women. Her lifestyle is a direct result of her

victimisation as a female in a society which exploits and subjugates women. Firduas is born into

a loveless family. She remembers her father as a man who could neither read nor write but who

knew very few things in life:

How to grow crops, how to sell a buffalo poisoned by his enemy before it died, how to

exchange his virgin daughter for a dowry when there was still time, how to be quicker

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 than his neighbor in stealing from the fields once the crop was ripe … how to beat his

wife and make her bite the dust each night (12).

As a young girl, Firduas is sexually exploited by her uncle. He pretends to read while he explores

her body as she bakes. Later on, Firduas‟s parents die and she goes to live with her uncle. He

continues his sexual exploitation of her until he gets married. After her uncle‟s marriage, Ferduas

is sent off to a boarding school where she receives no care from her uncle. After her secondary

school, she is sold into a loveless marriage with a deformed old man who beats and maltreats her

and treats her as a mere sexual object. When the suffering becomes unbearable for her, she runs

back to her uncle‟s house. She is returned to her husband‟s house immediately with the

injunction “A virtuous woman is not supposed to complain about her husband. Her duty is

perfect obedience” (14). Firduas takes to the streets as a result of mistreatment. She unavoidably

becomes a prostitute.

Life as a prostitute entails much suffering, abuse and humiliation. After being told bluntly by one

of her customers that she is not a respectable woman, Firduas leaves prostitution and takes up a

job in a company. She does this in the hope of becoming a respectable woman. She however

finds out that as a woman, it is almost impossible to be honourable in the type of society in

which she lives. Working women are vulnerable to sexual exploitation by their male bosses.

Firduas manages to uphold her honour by not succumbing to the advances of the male executive

members of her company. However, her triumphs are short lived. She falls in love with Ibrahim,

the revolutionary leader in the company. Imagining that Ibrahim loves her, she gives herself to

him, but he betrays her and gets married to the daughter of the company‟s a chairman. Firduas

realizes:

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 Revolutionary men with principles were not really different from the rest. They use their

cleverness to get in return for principle what other men buy with money. Revolution for

them was something to be abused. Something to be sold (88).

Firduas returned to prostitution. She realises that in the society she lives, honour has been

perverted. Even though a prostitute, Firduas contends:

Yet not for a single moment did I have any doubts about my own integrity and honour as

a woman. I knew my profession has been invented by men… That men force women to

sell their bodies at a price and that the lowest paid body is that of a wife.

All women are prostitutes of one kind or another. Because I was intelligent, I preferred to

be a free prostitute rather than an enslaved wife (91).

Firduas is finally sentenced to death for the murder of a „pimp‟ who sought to control her and

take her earnings from her. Despite Firduas‟s life style and sad end, Nawal El Saadawi presents

her as a woman of strong character who is superior to many others in the society. Saadawi

confesses: Compared to her, I was nothing but a small insect crawling upon the land amidst

millions of other insects (3).

At, the conclusion of the story Saadawi reveals: “I realized that Firduas had more courage than I”

(106).

Saadawi implies through her works that prostitution is not necessarily a mark of debasement on

the part of the woman. It may be used as a weapon of survival and revenge by women who are

seeking emancipation from the oppression they are subjected to.

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MARIAMA BA

In her works, Mariama Ba presents a different view from that of Nawal El Saadawi. Although

she presents two views of women in response to oppression, she advocates understanding,

fortitude and love between men and women as the principles that should guide the African

woman in the bid to cope with her oppression. Ramatoulaye, the protagonist in So Long a Letter

(1980) is deserted by her husband – Modou Fall. He marries Binetou, his daughter‟s friend

thereby betraying Ramatoulaye‟s love and loyalty. Despite this betrayal, Ramatoulaye remains

within the bonds of marriage. She takes solace in writing letters in a diary form to her friend

Aissatou who was also going through a similar experience. Unlike Ramatoulaye, Aissattou

divorces her husband, travels abroad with her sons and gets herself a lucrative job. After Modou

Fall‟s death, Ramatoulaye rejects other offers of marriage. She refuses to be inherited by Tamsir,

Modou‟s brother. In her anger at his effrontery in asking her to be his wife, she lashes out at him:

You forget that I have a heart, a mind that I am not an object to be passed from hand to

hand. You don‟t know what marriage means to me. It is an act of faith and love, the total

surrender of oneself to the person one has chosen and who has chosen you (58).

Ramatoulaye also refuses Daouda Deing‟s proposal because she does not love him even though

she is fond of him. In addition, she could not bring herself between him and his family after her

own bitter experience. Although she believes in women liberation Ramatoulaye still affirms:

I remain persuaded of the inevitable and necessary complementarity of man and woman.

Love, imperfect as it may be in content and expression, remains the natural link between

these two being. To love one another! If only each partner could move sincerely toward

the other! If each could only melt into the other! If each would only accept the other‟s

successes and failures! If each would only praise the others‟ qualities instead of listing his

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 faults! If each could only correct bad habits without harping about them! If each could

penetrate the other‟s most secret thought to forestall failure and be a support while

tending to the evils that are repressed (88-9).

The essence of Ramatoulaye‟s fortitude stems from her belief in the unity of the family.

According to her:

The success of the family is born of a couple‟s harmony as the harmony of multiple

instruments creates a pleasant symphony. The nation is made up of all the families, rich

or poor, united or separated, aware or unaware. The success of a nation therefore depends

inevitably on the family (89).

In the typical African woman‟s fashion, Mariama Ba also reveals the essence of motherhood for

an African woman. Ramatoulaye decides to stand by her pregnant teenage daughter. According

to her:

One is a mother in order to understand the inexplicable. One is a mother to lighten the

darkness. One is a mother to shield when lightning streaks the night, when the thunder

shakes the earth, when mud bogs one down. One is a mother in order to love without

beginning or end…. One is a mother so as to face the flood (82-83).

The fortitude displayed by Ramatoulaye and her view of motherhood differs from that portrayed

by Buchi Emecheta and Ama Ata Aidoo in their novels.

ZAYNAB ALKALI

Zaynab Alkali like Mariama Ba expounds love, endurance, forgiveness and tolerance as the

principles of true marital happiness for the oppressed African woman. In The Still Born (1984),

Li‟s marriage to Habu Adams does not yield her expectations. Habu left her in the village in

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search of greener pastures in the city. He does not send for her until four long years later, rather

reluctantly because of pressures from his family. After Li joins her husband, she is subjected to

humiliation and silence as Habu refuses to communicate with her. Li laments:

Where is my man? … That boyish man with an incredible smile and a mischievous

twinkle in the eye? Where is that proud, self-confident, half naked lover that defied the

laughter of the villagers and walked the length and breadth of the village just to see me?

(70)

The narrator reveals “Li knew she had lost her man to the city” (70).

After putting up with Habu‟s insufferable behaviour, Li is obliged to return to the village when

her father dies. Custom demands that Habu pays her family a condolence visit. For the second

time she waits in vain. She is forced to flee the village because of the hostility of other women

whose husbands are making advances to the „single‟ Li. Li sets out from the village for the

second time with a goal. She achieves the goal by becoming a trained teacher who returns to her

village to assume the responsibilities of “the man of the home” since Sule her brother chooses to

remain in Niger.

Although Li fulfills her dreams and becomes a self-reliant woman she does not find absolute

fulfillment. The narrator reveals:

Li ought to have felt fulfilled, but instead she felt empty. It wasn‟t just the emptiness of

bereavement, but an emptiness that went beyond that. For ten years she had struggled

towards certain goals. Now having accomplished these goals, she wished there was

something else to struggle for. For that was the only way life could be meaningful. (102)

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After the vision which projected Li into her life fifty years into the future, she realises that the

emptiness stems from her refusal to return to her now lame but, repentant husband. The

emptiness is a result of loneliness.

Li decides to return with Shuwa her daughter to Habu Adams who is at this time a cripple

through an accident. In response Shuwa‟s queries as to whether Li intended to hold Habu‟s

crutches and lead the way or walk behind him to arrest his fall, Li replies: No, I will just hand

him the crutches and side by side we will learn to walk (105).

Again, when Awa objects to Li‟s return to Habu because he is lame, Li declares: We are all

lame, daughter-of-my mother. But this is no time to crawl. It is time to learn to walk again (105).

Zaynab Alkali apparently judges that the road to true happiness and self-fulfillment for the

African woman lies in human understanding and forgiveness. She reveals her position on the

appropriate ideological posture of the African women as follows:

All I am advocating in The Stillborn is understanding between men and women,

togetherness between husband and wife, but some people don‟t understand this. My

intention is to uphold God‟s law of mutuality, coexistence. Equality between men and

women doesn‟t arise at all. Men are like the brain and the woman, the heart. (Otonio

Nduka, 1996: 148)

4.0 CONCLUSION

From the creative output of various African female writers that we have examined above, it is

evident that the various positions taken by these writers on gender issues as it affects the Afican

woman can be determined. The deduction from the African female writers helps to facilitate our

understanding of the appropriate principles informing gender theory for the African woman.

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5.0 SUMMARY

1. Gender portrayal is a critical issue in the writing, interpretations, construction and

deconstruction of works of literature.

2. The pioneer African male writers mirrored patriarchy in their works.

3. In many African male writings, female characters are made marginal to plots of stories

and the woman is portrayed as weak.

4. In African writings, female experiences are fore-grounded while male characters and

experiences are back-grounded.

5. African female writers present female protagonists who are pitted against all odds, yet

emerge liberated and determined to exist with or without the man.

6. Male characters in many African female writings are mostly villains, often strong

physically, but morally weak.

7. Buchi Emecheta presents the African woman as a helpless victim of tradition in many of

her works.

8. The female characters in Ama Ata Aidoo‟s fiction are able to chart the course of their

lives even though they are prone to male domination.

9. Nawal El Saadawi advocates revolutionary action on the part of women to break the

yoke of oppression.

10. So Long a Letter explicates Mariama Ba‟s position that understanding, fortitude and

love are the principles that should guide the African woman in coping with her

oppression.

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 11. Zaynab Alkali in The Still Born expounds love, endurance forgiveness and tolerance as

the principles of true marital happiness for the oppressed African woman.

TUTOR MARKED ASSESSMENT

1. What is gender politics? Fully illustrate the issue of gender politics in an African

female authored text.

2. Compare and contrast the depiction of female and male characters in African male

authored works and African female authored works.

3. Outline common challenges of the African women in marriage with reference to

various African female authored works.

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Achebe, Chinua. (1958). Things Fall Apart. London: Heinemann.

Adichie, Chimamanda. (2004). Purple Hibiscus. Lagos: Farafina/ Anchor Books.
Aidoo, Ama Ata. (1970). No Sweetness Here and Other Stories. New York: The Feminist press.
_____. (1984). “To Be a Woman” in Sisterhood is Global. Morgan Robin (ed.) New York:
Anchor.

_______. (1988).”To Be an African Woman – An Overview and a Detail” in Criticism and Ideology by
Kirsten Holst Petersen. Uppsala, Sweden: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies. (152-1720)
_______. (1993). Changes: A Love Story, New York: The Feminist Press.
Alkali, Zaynab. (1984). The Stillborn. Lagos: Longman Nigeria Ltd.

Ba, Mariama. (1981). So long a Letter. Trans. Modupe Bode-Thomas, Ibadan: New Horn Press
Ltd.
Chukukere, Gloria. (1995). Gender Voices and Choices: Redefining Women in Contemporary
African Fiction. Enugu: New Dimension Publishing Co. Ltd.
Ekwensi, Cyprian. (1963). People of the City. London: Heinemann.
---------. (1975). Jagua Nana. London: Heinemann.

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Emecheta, Buchi. (1971). Second Class Citizen. London: Flamingo (Fontana)
____. (1976). The Bride Price. London: Fontana/ Collins.
____. (1977). The Slave Girl. London: Fontana,
________.(1980). The Joys of Motherhood. London: Heinemann.
___. (1986). Head Above Water. London: Flamingo/ Fontana.
El Saadawi, Nawal. (1975). Woman at Point Zero. London: Zed Books Ltd.
________. (1980). The Hidden Face of Eve. London: Zed Books Ltd.
Ezeigbo, Akachi. (1990). Gender Issues in Nigeria: A Feminine Perspective, Lagos: Vista
Books.
______. (1991). The Last of the Strong Ones. Lagos: Vista Books.
Kolawole, Mary E.M. (1997). Womanism and African Consciousness. New Jersey: Africa
World Press.
------. (1998). Gender Perceptions and Development in Africa: A Socio- Cultural Approach.
Lagos: Arrabon Academic Publishers.
Ogundipe-Leslie, „Molara. (1993). “African Women Culture and Another Development” in
Theorizing Black Women, (eds.) Stanlie, M. James and Abena Busia. London: Routledge.
(102-117).
-----. (1994). Recreating Ourselves. Trenton, N.J; African World Press.
Ogunyemi, Chikwenye Okonjo. (1985). “Womanism: The Dynamics of the Contemporary Black
Female Novel in English.” “Signs, 11, 1 (autumn) (61-80)
-----. (1988). “Women and Nigerian Literature” in Perspectives on Nigeria literature 1700 to the
Present. Vol. 1. Ogunbiyi Yemi (ed.) Lagos: Guardian Books Ltd.
Ojo-Ade, Femi. (1983). “Female Writers, Male Critics” in Recent Trends in the Nigerian Novel
ALT 13. Ed. E.D. Jones. London: Heinemann (158-179).
-------. (1986). Being Black, Being Human: More Essays on Black Culture. Ile-ife: Obafemi
Awolowo University Press.
Okoye Ifeoma. (1982). Behind The Clouds. Lagos: Longman.
Ousmane, Sembene. (1995). God‟s Bits of Wood. London: Heinemann.

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MODULE 5: MASCULINITY AND QUEER THEORY

1.0 Introduction

In previous modules, we have introduced the concept of gender and treated issues of feminism

and its variants among African Americans and Africans. You must note that gender is not

restricted to women alone. The male is another category of gender. In this module, we shall

explore the male gender and masculinity which is a gender theory that focuses on the male. In

addition, we shall also consider other sexual orientations grouped under queer theory such as

homosexuality, transgender and bisexuality. Masculinities and queer theory are valid aspects of

gender theories even though feminism seems to be more foregrounded.

2.0. Objectives

a. To define masculinity

b. To identify various forms of masculinities

c. To explore the notion of emasculation and identify its types

d. To examine the notion of the queer

3.0.Main Contents

3.1.The Notion of Masculinity

3.2.Forms of Masculinities

3.3.The Concept of Emasculation

3.4.Types of Emasculation

3.5.Queer Theory

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Unit 1

3.1. The Notions of Masculinity

Several questions may run through your mind as you consider the notion of masculinity: Such

questions may include: What does it mean to be a man? What does it mean to be manly? How

has peoples‟ notion of masculinity changed over the years? These and many more questions are

likely to run through the mind when considering masculinity in gender studies.

Masculinity can be defined as the characteristics of being masculine. It can also be loosely

defined as covering the qualities that are usually attributed to men such as boldness and strength.

Traits associated with the male include physical prowess (strength, fitness, hard work),

dominance, independence, rationality, sexual aggressiveness, ambitiousness, assertiveness,

honourable or righteous behaviour, courage, intelligence, competence, analytic abilities,

competitiveness, insensitivity and attractiveness (usually viewed from point of view of

achievements) (Tobalase, 2014). Abrams (2009) asserts that the masculine has come to be

widely identified as active, dominating, adventurous, rational and creative.

Webster Dictionary states that the word “masculinity” refers to the characteristics of being

masculine, manly, male stereotypes. According to Miescher and Linsday (2003:4), as quoted by

Jegede (2013), the term masculinity refers to a cluster of norms, values and behavioural patterns

expressing implicit expectations of how men should act and represent themselves to others.

Behavioural patterns associated with the male are, therefore, socially constructed and can be said

to be in opposition to characteristics such as weakness, submissiveness, dependence, expression

of emotions (especially weak emotions such as fear or tears), passivity, dishonourable behaviour,

ineffectiveness, being subdued, anxiety and irrationality

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The word masculinity originates from the Latin word masculinus which means “virility”.

Masculinity examines the enactment of men‟s manhood and centres on the understanding of

men‟s lives and experiences as gendered beings. It is associated with „„manliness‟‟ suggesting

essential differences that make a man different from a woman, especially from the biological

configuration of the sexes (Kaufman 1994: 14).

Masculinity attempts to understand men‟s lives. Masculinity as a gender theory captures the lives

and experiences of men as gendered beings in particular social settings; therefore it is society

specific and has become pluralized. Masculinity is what any given society accepts as features

associated with the male gender and expressions of maleness. Notions of masculinities all over

the world are shaped by culture, religion and belief systems, environmental realities and

historical experiences and races.

In gender studies, the important issue is that men become socialized into becoming men,

masculinised behaviour is not simply a biological issue, Since masculine behaviour are

determined by the society‟s expectation, it implies that like feminism(s) there is no single

homogenous masculinities for all men, because males learn to become men within a culture.

Again historical, political and social experiences make culture dynamic and can affect a society‟s

notion of masculinities. Various forms of masculinities have been identified including hyper

masculinity, hypo masculinity, hegemonic masculinities, normative masculinities and

subordinated masculinities. We shall consider the types of masculinities very shortly.

In literature, feminist writers and critics aver that women‟s subordination is due to patriarchy

which privileges men, therefore in discourses of gender oppression, men are majorly portrayed

as aggressors, oppressors, privileged and the empowered. Again in life and literature, men are

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constructed as breadwinner, provider, father, strong, self-reliant, independent, rational, powerful,

emotionless and aggressive.

Masculinity as a theory seeks to study the enactment of men‟s manhood. This includes the role

performance of a man in the society as well as the man‟s traits exhibition. Masculinity provides

the basis for the understanding of men‟s lives and experiences as gendered beings. Masculinity is

associated with „„manliness‟‟ suggesting essential differences that make a man different from a

woman, especially from the biological perspective (Kaufman 1994:14). Masculinity as a gender

theory captures the lives and experiences of men as gendered beings in particular social settings.

Masculinities, therefore, refer to those practices that help to establish or confirm the masculine

character‟s sense of being male, man or boy.

Masculinity helps to categorise men and their identities on masculinity hierarchy. The

implication is that there cannot be homogenous masculinities for all men, because men are not

born but made over time within a culture. The identity of the male gender is constantly

undergoing changes according to cultural and socio-economic dictates of his environment. For

example there are different expectations of each society about an 18 year-old boy in Nigeria and

the United States of America. Again, what is expected of a man in the pre-colonial era has

changed considerably in the post-independence Africa.

The major objective of a literary analysis using masculinity as a theory is to examine the literary

representation of the male in works of literature and analyze how authors create characters using

the actions and speeches and other indicators of the male psychic and sensibilities.

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3.2. Forms of Masculinities

Hegemonic Masculinity

Hegemonic masculinity is defined by physical strength and boldness, heterosexuality, economic

independence, authority over women and other men, and an interest in sexual relationships.

Hegemonic masculinity is the highest of the masculine enactment and on the social hierarchy.

Hegemony presupposes the dominant value. The notion of domination emphasised in hegemony,

makes hegemonic masculinity to be regarded as the highest form of masculinity enactment.

Hegemonic masculinity is characterised by patriarchy in gender discourse. It is a situation where

the man commands power over women, children and other lesser men in the society. Haywood

and Ghail (2003: 153) consider hegemonic masculinity as “an ascendant masculinity in a

particular time and space.‟‟ The word „ascendant‟ implies superior, control and dominance in the

masculinity hierarchy. To dominate requires power of influence, thus hegemonic men are those

who possess power, wealth and influence in a society. You need to note that apart from

exercising power over women as evident in patriarchal systems, hegemonic masculinity confers

power on some men to control other men who fall into different forms of masculinity which are

lower on the masculinity hierarchy.

In hierarchical ranking, hegemonic masculinity occupies the highest in masculinity performance.

In carrying out a literary analysis using masculinity as a theory, one may use the theory to

identify and analyse male characters who belong to this category or fall short of this hierarchy in

creative works.

Normative Masculinity

The idea of normative masculinity is coined from the word “norm.” It is suggestive of what is

regarded as normal or typical by members of a society. This is the generally acceptable style of

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life or behavioural pattern prescribed in the society to which other contrary way(s) is a deviant.

Normative masculinity is the cultural norm of a particular society that set standard for masculine

performance within their cultural setting.

Normative masculinity refers to men who are successful, intelligent, rational, heterosexual,

emotionally stable, college educated, with good jobs, own homes, proud, bread winners, who

help maintain families among other traits and roles referred to as standard behaviour and status

in a given society. Even other men within the social setting use these criteria, being the norm, to

judge fellow men. By implication, normative masculinity refers to the „normal man‟ who may

not be very powerful like the hegemonic men, but who can perform the expected roles of

providing for their families, among other prescribed duties of men in a given society.

Subordinated Masculinity

Subordinated masculinity refers to a form of masculinity that fails to measure up to expectations

for hegemonic and normative masculinities. It is defined by other masculinities that exclude men

from the general and homogenous definition of what it takes to be a complete man. (Kimmel &

Messner, 1995) Subordinated masculinity is the lowest in masculinity hierarchy. Men use

different criteria to rank themselves according to the cultural dictate of each society such that

anyone who is unable to measure up to acceptable ranking is seen to be emasculated or

subordinated.

Subordinated men are viewed and represented as unworthy, incomplete, and inferior. Characters

that comprise subordinated masculinities are depicted in literature as emasculated, humiliated,

helpless and dependent. Sometimes they are represented as possessing feminine behavioural

orientation considered inconsistent with the traits and behaviours of real men.

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Hyper-Masculinity

Hyper-masculinity is the extreme manifestation or performance of ascribed masculine norms and

values/ideals. The hyper male is that man who can impregnate a woman, fend and protect his

family, is aggressive, intelligent, fearless, and unemotional. Hyper-masculinity is the tendency

for male gender to over emphasis maleness in terms of traits and sex role. Hyper-masculinity has

the trappings of chauvinism in the male‟s attempt to derogate femininity and excessively project

manliness and masculine status. This form of masculinity has been demonized because in its

extreme enactment, it usually leads to self-destruction or the destruction of others. As a result of

the exhibition of over bloated male ego, this form is categorized as a subsidiary of subordinated

masculinity. Rather than strength, it is a form of weakness characterized by raw display of

macho power and lack of self-control (Tobalase, 2014).

The male character that enacts hyper-masculinity does not allow emotions, sentiments or fear as

a mark of manliness devoid of any feeling or emotion. Hyper-masculinity gives expression to

excessive emphasis on patriarchal dividends and male privileges based on gender construction.

For its effects to be felt, usually the male character re-invents stereotypes that put women down

or in disadvantaged positions. Hyper-masculinity traits manifest in male dominance and

stereotypical outlook of women in the society. Hyper-masculinity enactment has its roots in

patriarchy, masculinity mystique and gender role schemas which combine to project the man as

superior to the woman (Jegede, 2018).

Hypo-Masculinity

The hypo male is that man that is incapable of meeting the needs of his family, weak, dependent

on others, lazy and sterile. It is the lowest form of male norms which is usually exhibited by

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subordinated males. Such men feel a sense of inadequacy, frailty, weakness and emotional

wreckage which are all indices of hypo-masculinity enactment.

Complicit Masculinity

According to Jegede (2018), complicit masculinity is a form of masculinity that makes no

sacrifice to the masculine social group but benefits from the privileges it confers on men. They

are aware of the enormous power and influence of the hegemonic social class but will not

attempt to challenge it, rather take full advantage of the benefits it accrues men. The word

complacent is more apt to describe this form of masculinity.

Jegede also developed a diagram tagged Fig 5.1 as shown below which sums up the masculinity

hierarchies into which men are categorized according to their socio-cultural, economic and

political statuses in the social environment where they learnt their masculinity. It begins with the

subordinated having two variants, hyper and hypo-masculinities, at the base of the ladder,

followed by normative form and hegemonic at the top of the ladder. A male character can

oscillate between one form and the other depending on the prevailing circumstance of the time.

Fig. 5:1 Masculinity Hierarchy

Hegemonic Masculinity

Normative Masculinity

Subordinated

*Model designed by Jegede 2018

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Unit 2

3.3. Concept of Emasculation

Emasculation is a condition in which a man is deprived of virility and vigor. It is a form of

castration and unmanly weakness in which a man‟s exercise of power is devoid of requisite

energy and control. Emasculation also results from oppression either by female or male that

makes a man to suffer psychological castration in the performance of roles and exhibition of

traits that validate him as a man/boy/male. Male emasculation implies a social condition that is

created to make a man less masculine psychologically, materially, culturally and in terms of

social responsibilities (Kimmel, 2005).

James and Nadeau (1999:98) define emasculation as the „„fear of losing masculine status and

power in the eyes of others‟‟. According to them, emasculation is one of the fears associated with

gender-role schemas which can be experienced consciously and unconsciously and the capacity

to „play a significant role in males‟ interpersonal relationships with both men and women‟ (p.

96). James and Nadeau (1999) posit that:

One of men‟s greatest fears is to be emasculated. To be

emasculated means to be deprived of virility or procreative

powers; to be castrated; to be deprived of masculine

energy, vigor, or spirit; to be weakened; to be unnerved by

others in terms of your masculine gender-role identity. In

short, emasculation means losing one‟s masculine identity

and energy. Being emasculated is part of almost every

boy‟s and man‟s gender-role identity development. He may

feel emasculated by devaluing comments, failures, sexual

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 dysfunctions, and perceived losses of control and power

(pp. 98-99).

Such men are seen in their society as failures, useless and lazy. For instance, Emecheta‟s male

characters are said to be „„irresponsible heads of families who are mostly insensitive to the needs

of their wives and children‟‟ (Taiwo 1984:19). This statement, true as it sounds, fails to consider

social condition(s) that create these characters in those contexts. The question is, what is the

social construction of these male characters in terms of role performance and trait exhibition that

make them insensitive and irresponsible? No doubt, certain social conditions have created these

men who are products of unrealized ambition and failed aspirations, as social lepers, failures and

unlucky beings, the Igbo refer to as agbala.

Emasculation occurs in a variety of ways. For instance, it occurs as a result of the imbalance in

human interactions, and exclusion from privileges enjoyed by the others in a social setting. In

terms of exercise of power, exhibition of traits and performance of roles, standard has been set in

all of those areas against which all men are measured and assessed. This standard actually

defines individual‟s hierarchy in masculinity. The emasculated individual is made so because of

certain inabilities or deprivation in the social system. By the set standard, the individual or group

of individuals cannot measure up. Emasculation crosses gender boundaries to include racial

segregation and ethnic subordination.

Any relationship among men in a given society that tends to create for others a complex, and a

sense of inadequacy, surely will emasculate. Such tendencies arise often from intimidation and

harassment by „„men with the properly sanctioned educational credentials in our society” (Brod,

1985:6). Other men who do not have access to education either because of their economic

inadequacy or low social status succumb to the whims of the privileged men who impose their

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opinion on them “with an air of supreme self-confidence and aggressive self-assurance” (Brod

1985: 6). This kind of relationship creates for others a sense of denial and alienation that lead to

low self-esteem.

While some will blame themselves for such ill-defined self-identity among fellow men, others

simply respond by assuming more deviant to the acceptable social norms. In a society where

education or love for learning is a norm, literacy may be considered a “mark of dignity”. Those

who are denied that opportunity are, therefore, rendered helpless especially in socio-cultural

climes where the certificate is a means to economic independence and higher social status.

Emasculation by race seems to be prevalent at local and global levels. At global level, the

masculinity of the developed economy enacts the hegemonic type. According to Kimmel (1995)

hegemonic masculinity presents the image of a compradorial bourgeois…

Sitting in first-class waiting rooms in airport or in elegant

business hotels the world over, wearing a designer business

suit, speaking English, eating „continental‟ cuisine, talking

on his cell phone, his laptop computer plugged into any

electrical outlet, while he watches CNN international or

television (p. 415).

He represents the image of his Asian, African and European counterparts globally. This image

contrasts sharply with the image of male peasants or artisans in remote villages battling diseases

and abject poverty across the globe. The global economy has emasculated and rendered them

“weak, helpless, effete and incapable of supporting a family‟‟ (p. 420). Kimmel did not,

however, explain here whether all men enacting the hegemonic form fit the description above.

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One might be tempted to ask whether it includes the very rich, powerful farmer with the image of

the African big man in the village not exposed to sophisticated technology and lifestyle.

Again, among men across races of the world are those emasculated by other men not of their

own race. For instance, the colonized men are emasculated socially and economically by their

colonizers. The colonized is less masculine by the colonizers‟ estimation. According to Kimmel

(1995) „„in many colonial situations, the colonized men were called „Boys‟ by the colonizers” (p.

412). This is a form of de-masculinization of the male gender in a situation where „men ceased

to be men.‟

Racism remains a veritable tool for male emasculation in a multicultural, multi-racial

environment. A multi-racial country like South Africa will probably have minority white men in

control of the means of production, rendering majority black men incapacitated.

The black man has not been able to regain his self-esteem and manhood wounded through the

dehumanizing slavery that spanned almost 300 years.

The Jews have been accused of feminizing the American environment by recruiting black

women and gay in order to further emasculate American white men. What Kimmel terms “Anti-

Semitic slander,” is the radical criticism of “American manhood as soft, feminized, weakened –

indeed, emasculated‟‟ (p. 413).

Kimmel describes the downward slope of the emasculation of North American men as alarming

citing Ferber (1998) thus:

The number of effeminate males has increased greatly….

Legions of sissies and weaklings, of flabby, limp-wristed,

non-aggressive, non-physical, indecisive, slack-jawed,

fearful males who, while still heterosexual, in theory and

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 practice, have not even vestige of the old macho spirit

(p. 136).

The economic and socio-cultural dictates of the society consistently reduce capacity for men to

live up to societal billings and expectations as “men.” He is simply inadequate. This, according

to hooks (1984), cannot be divulged from the fact that the emasculated man…

does not have the privilege or power society has taught him

„real men‟ should possess. Alienated, frustrated, pissed off,

he may attack, abuse, and oppress an individual woman or

women, but he is not reaping positive benefits from his

support and perpetuation of sexist ideology (and therefore)

not exercising privilege (p. 73).

Emasculation is a painful social and psychological condition. Gaylin (1992) refers to it as “social

humiliation‟‟ which occurs when “men become depressed because of loss of status and power in

the world of men” (p. 22). This study argues that many of the male characters created as the

„wretched of the earth‟ in both male and female authored works are actually emasculated

characters. A man becomes emasculated having been deprived, rejected, humiliated, scoffed and

disdained by his female partner or fellow men arising possibly from the social system and

cultural standard he daily contends with.

3.4. Types of Emasculation

Biological Emasculation

Biological emasculation results from physical disabilities or the inability of a man to procreate or

reproduce. A man who cannot impregnate his wife is said to be biologically emasculated.

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Biological emasculation eventually results in psychological pains especially when it involves

cultural necessities such as inheritance, chieftaincy titles that will require the man to nominate a

child to carry on the family legacy. Oftentimes, the impotent man is regarded as a social outcast

in the cultural setting where he is located. In literary creativity, such infirm men are depicted as

deprived, effete and object of ridicule.

Since anything that will make a man less manly is considered emasculation, men who are unable

to reproduce are often emasculated.

Psychological Emasculation

Psychological emasculation results from negative comments that produce low self-esteem. The

failure of a man to enact expected masculine traits or behaviour results in stigmatization and

produces psychological emasculation. Physical disability can be a major cause of emasculation

as people with disabilities are perceived as weak, dependent and pitiable as against strength,

vigour and independence expected of men.

Socio-cultural Emasculation

Socio-cultural emasculation presupposes forms of deprivations, constraints, and underprivileged

situations imposed on men as a result of the social and cultural norms that define their manhood.

Socio-cultural emasculation also results from economic deprivation, poverty,

joblessness/unemployment and the inability to perform the masculine roles. Culture defines the

masculinity of an individual male. For instance, what it takes to be a „real‟ man among black

men is different from what it requires among the whites. According to Kaufman (1995),

„„masculine norm has its own particular nuances and traits dependent on class, nation, race,

religion, and ethnicity‟‟ (p. 16). So, society defines what it means to be a „real man‟ and what it

means to be a „real man‟ defines who is socio-culturally emasculated. This is largely because

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such notion as being a real man or emasculated man is socially constructed. As earlier stated,

Kimmel and Messner (1995) contend that „„to be a man is to participate in social life as a man, as

a gendered being. Men are not born; they are made‟‟ (p. xx). Men grow through childhood to

adolescent and adulthood to become men, internalizing certain behaviours that define their

manhood as they grow up.

Among these learned behaviours is what it takes by societal specification to be a „real man.‟

Examples are breadwinner role, good provider, good father which lead to an elevated status in

the family and the society generally. Ability to meet these specifications gives him satisfaction

while failure to measure up makes him feel less manly. He feels emasculated „„because in his

own estimation, he is failing to fulfill what is the central duty of his life, the very touchstone of

his manhood---the role of family provider‟‟ (Komarovsky, 1940: 20).

Any social situation that makes a man incapable of acting like a man or unable to accomplish

things he has been taught as measures of success tends to emasculate him. Homelessness, for

instance, strips a man of his self-esteem. The man divorced by his wife as a result of his inability

to perform the provider role has his spirit broken and sees himself as an outcast. Like the

homeless, the jobless and the wretched man constitute social liabilities, and are seen in the

society as failures. They lose respect and are despised. They can be discussed as cowed men who

cannot raise their heads among men. Socio-cultural emasculation strips off their pride and

dignity, and makes them feel insignificant and powerless.

Typical examples are the characters who suffer one form of oppression or the other in The

Beggars‟ Strike by Aminata Sow Fall and Xala by Sembene Ousmane.

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Unit 3

3.5 QUEER THEORY

The splits in the feminist movement grew wider by the 1980s. There were accusations from

minority groups claiming that the feminist movement had become just as exclusive as the

patriarchal system it had initially opposed. As noted earlier, African American women charged

the leading feminists with concentrating on the experiences of white, middle-class women while

ignoring and marginalising black women, thereby recreating the social inequalities that feminism

had objected to. Lesbian critics raised similar objections, protesting that feminism continued to

privilege heterosexual orientation to the exclusion of gay women.

The objections and protests led to the development of gay and lesbian studies, which is a

movement that seeks to make sexual orientation central to critical analysis and understanding.

Lesbian and gay studies appear to have political and social goals, especially to eradicate the

discrimination against gays or lesbians in the society. Gay and lesbian studies is what comprises

homosexuality.

Homosexuality denotes same-sex sexual relationship or same-sex marriage. It comprises both

gayism and lesbianism. Gayism is the sexual relationship between two or more men, while

lesbianism is the sexual relationship between two or more women. Homosexuality was

considered an abnormality and sexual deviant attitude. It was not an acceptable practice in most

societies and although it is becoming more prominent, it is still largely considered an aberration

in many societies, particularly in Africa. In the western societies, in contemporary times, it is

labelled alternative lifestyle.

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Being homosexual, or gay, therefore, implies that a boy or girl will primarily feel attracted, in a

romantic sense, to other men or women. For instance, rather than falling in love with women and

longing for a woman as a spouse, gay men fall in love with other men and hope to find a man

with whom to share their adult lives. There have been debates as to whether homosexuals are

biologically „wired‟ to be gays or lesbians. Opposing sides of the debates argue for and against

this view as some hold that homosexuality is a choice while others argue that it is a biological

conditioning which cannot be helped.

Homosexuality challenges what societies presume to be “normal” (straight) and abnormal sexual

behaviour. When compared to heterosexuality, that is the sexual relationship between a male and

a female, homosexuality has a short history. Homosexuality as a phenomenon met with

resistance from various societies. It results in homophobia which is regarded as fear of resistance

to and sometimes hatred for homosexuality.

Queer theory is not simply limited to homosexuality; it is concerned with a wide range of sexual

practices and entities, particularly those considered abnormal until recently. The "odd" (queer) is

considered to be an opportunity to examine social organizations and practices with the purpose

of redefining how we see and understand ourselves. It includes homosexuality including gayism

and lesbianism, bisexuality, transgender, transsexual, among other „odd‟ sexual orientations.

Transgender refers to those people who live permanently in their preferred gender, without

necessarily needing to undergo any medical intervention/s to belong to the female gender and

live as such. For example a biological male may play the feminine role in a homosexual

relationship. The transgendered male chooses to live as a woman. Transsexuals are people who

identify entirely with the gender role opposite to the sex assigned to them at birth. They attempt

to live permanently in the preferred gender role. Transsexual people usually undergo gender

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reassignment treatment (which may or may not involve hormone therapy and/ or surgery).

Bisexual people can transit from one gender to the other at any time they want. The may be

heterosexual and at the same time homosexuals as they wish. The choice of the term „queer‟

initially appears counterproductive, however, the queer movement have attempted to reclaim the

term to connote legitimate difference in an effort to reverse the meaning of the term and thereby

change the attitudes of society to what it considers queer

Queer theorists interrogate how sexuality is contrived: Is it socially created or natural? Can it be

changed, or is it unavoidable? Since feminists drew distinctions between sex, as biological

determination and gender, as socially constructed and argue that while sex is fixed and stable,

gender is not, lesbians take the argument further and contend that accepting the premise that a

woman is born with essence that cannot be varied is erroneous.. Queer theorists oppose the idea

that a person‟s true identity is composed of fixed and unchanging properties. They instead

support the idea that human identity is formed by the culture into which he/she is born and claim

that gender, what it means to be a man or a woman is constantly changing.

Judith Butler in the book Gender Trouble argues that feminism was wrong in asserting that

women are a group with inherent characteristics and interests that they hold in common. Instead

of accepting that gender shifts and changes with times and contexts across a wide range of

behaviours and attitudes, the feminist stance limited the choice of gender to two possibilities:

male and female. Butler asserts that the traditional binary of masculine/feminine makes it dif-

ficult for individuals to choose their authentic identities. Queer theorists argue for fluidity of

identity since identity, for them, is a complex mixture of choices, life experiences and

professional roles.

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According to Dobie (2009), queer theorists adapt the strategies of deconstruction to demonstrate

the fluidity of gender identity. They reverse sexual binary oppositions, such as

heterosexual/homosexual, they show that these are not fixed essences. Queer theory claims that

such terms are not absolute because they cannot be understood without one another, and they are

not stable because they can be reversed to a binary that privileges homosexual over heterosexual,

showing by their reversal different possibilities of identities and power, and thereby opposing the

notion of an essential, unchangeable relationship. Queer theorists emphasise the importance of

questioning notions of homosexuality and heterosexuality.

Queer theorists query sexual identity; they view individuals not simply as male or female but as a

collection of many possible sexualities that may include various degrees of heterosexuality,

homosexuality, or bisexuality. In other words, for the queer theorists, sexuality is neither stable

nor static. It is dynamic and changing, affected by the experiences of race and class and subject

to shifting desires. They argue that sexuality is not biologically conferred because it can change

in an individual depending on many factors.

In literary criticism, the queer theory critic examines gender, sexual practices, identity, defining

choices, assumed norms, types of masculinity and femininity, and other such issues in a text. The

queer theory critic is highly interested in narratives that feature the surprising and the unusual

and interrupts the realistic outlook.

According to Dobie (2009: 113-114), to carry out a queer literary analysis you can provide

answers to the following questions:

Does the work challenge traditional ways of viewing sexuality and identity?

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Does it depict human sexuality as more complex than the essentialist terms male and female

suggest?

 What ranges of male and female identities do you find?

 Does the work assume an essentialist view of gender, that is, does it accept that there is a

fixed, unchanging self?

 What sexual topics do you find in the work that are odd or peculiar – that is, queer?

 Where is gender destabilized? What destabilizes it?

 Does the work show how sexual identities are indeterminate, overlapping, changing? If

so, where?

 Does the work complicate what it means to be homosexual or heterosexual?

 Are there characters who can be viewed not simply as male or female but as a collection

of many possible sexualities that is, do they exhibit various degrees of heterosexuality,

homosexuality, or bisexuality?

 Is sexuality assumed to be stable and static or dynamic and changing?

 Is the sexuality of the characters affected by experience of race and class?

 Is heterosexuality viewed as the norm against which other sexual identities are measured?

4.0. CONCLUSION

We have discussed the notion of masculinities and its forms as well as queer theory. We have

discovered that there are various forms of masculinities including the hegemonic and normative

against which other forms like the subordinated masculinities are measured. This contrast

produces tensions and results in emasculation of some men. Moreover, gender as a fixed

category has been challenged, as a result, the queer is gaining attention. Since gender comprises

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the female, male and others, gender studies in literature is richer with the understanding of

masculinity and queer theory.

5.0. SUMMARY

a. Masculinity deals with the male gender

b. Masculinity comprises various types such as the hegemonic masculinity, normative

masculinity, complicit masculinity, subordinated masculinity, hyper masculinity and

hypo masculinity

c. Emasculation is the demeaning of a man who is made to feel less than a man

d. Types of emasculation include biological emasculation, psychological emasculation,

social emasculation, cultural emasculation and…

e. The queer and understood its application to text analysis

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Discuss the forms of masculinities.

2. With reference to characters from literary texts that you are familiar with, examine

various types of emasculation

3. The Queer comprises different sexual orientations. Discuss homosexuality, transgender

and bisexuality as “queer” sexualities.

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