Table of Contents

1. Introduction to Wireless Systems and Radar

2. Continuous Wave Radar

3. Impulse Radar

4. Radar Applications

5. Radio Frequency Identification

and Transponder Systems

6. Wireless Positioning

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 1

RFID Basics
RFID = radio frequency identification
The generic term for identification technology and all the components
required to read and write data wirelessly from and to a data carrier.

from barcode to RFID

• memory (Tag) e.g. with
- identity (ID code)
- data, history, etc.
• wireless communication
- reader
- reader / writer
• specifies an identity • no visual contact required
• visual contact required

The term RFID includes:

• passive and active tags / transponders, smart card
• RFID localization systems (RFLO = RF locating systems)

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 2

Basic Principles of RFID Systems

RFID-tag Reader / Writer

Data
Memory Processor Radio Radio Processor
module module -Signal Processing
Power source -Interface

1) Battery
Clock
Solar Cell,
etc.

2) Power
Transmission
Power Power transmitter
(Wave/Field)

Active Tags Passive Tags Semi-passive Tags

With battery Without battery, With battery,

‘standard’ transceiver mostly without RF-signal source, but no RF-signal source,
communication based on communication mostly based on
a) backscatter principle, using either backscatter principle or
b) inductively coupled load inductively coupled load modulation
modulation, or
c) ‘chipless’ (resonance or
delay structures)
© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 3

Basic Principles of RFID Systems

Chipless Passive Semi-passive Active

Electromag. Inductively Inductively Conventional

EAS-tags Coupled Coupled Radio Transmitter
10 Hz– 20 KHz Load Modulation Load Modulation &
e.g. @ e.g. @ Receiver
Acoustomagn..
LF 125/134 KHz LF 125/134 KHz UHF (869 MHz)
EAS-tags
HF 13.56 MHz HF 13.56 MHz W (3-30 GHz)
e.g. @ 58 KHz

Surface wave Backscatter Backscatter

tags e.g. @ e. g. @
e.g. @ 2.4 GHz UHF 869 MHz UHF 869 MHz
Delay line W in the range W in the range
UWB-tags between between
e.g. @ 8 GHz 2 – 10 GHz 2 – 10 GHz

(Multi)-resonator
tags
in the GHz area

Increasing complexity & performance

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 4

Chipless RFID Tags

TDR: Time-domain reflectometry; SAW: surface acoustic wave; TFTC: thin-film-transistor circuit.
Reference: Preradovic, S.; Karmakar, N.C.; , "Chipless RFID: Bar Code of the
Future," IEEE Microwave Magazine, vol.11, no.7, pp.87-97, Dec. 2010

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 5

1-Bit EAS Systems

• Basic principle of 1-bit RFID systems for EAS
(EAS – electronic article surveillance)
• Realization with RF signals (e.g. 1-9 MHz), electromagnetic (10 Hz - 20 kHz),
acousto magnetic (e.g. 58 kHz), or microwave systems

Photo Reference: Finkenzeller, Klaus. "RFID Handbook, ed." (2010).

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 6

1 Bit EAS: RF Principle
• 1 bit MF/HF tag comprises an LC resonant circuit; due to the coupling
between the coils, the effect of the tag impedance (e.g. the tag resonance
frequency) can be identified by measuring the impedance of the reader coil

On the left: typical loop antenna for an MF/HF system (height: 1.20 ... 1.60 m);
On the right: construction / design of labels.
Photo Reference: Finkenzeller, Klaus. "RFID Handbook, ed." (2010).

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 7

1 Bit EAS: RF Principle

impedance

tag resonance frequency

frequency

• A frequency sweep is generated by the reader (e.g. at 8.2 MHz ±10%)

• The impedance (i.e. U and I) of the reader coil is measured in the reader
• The coupling factor between the transponder and reader coil as well as the
quality factor of the resonator in the transponder determine the impedance
curve and the detectability of the label

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 8

1 Bit EAS: Electromagnetic Principle
• Electromagnetic 1 bit EAS systems use very strong magnetic fields in the
LF frequency range of 10 Hz up to about 20 kHz.
• RFID tag consists of a soft magnetic amorphous metal strip with a strong
non-linear hysteresis curve
• Tag is queried with a very strong alternating magnetic field with two or
more frequencies ( f1 , f2 , f3 , … )
 strong field of the reader drives the magnetic element in the tag into
saturation
 non-linear effects
 intermodulation products are created at new frequency values occur
( | kf1  mf2  n f3  … | )
 Detection of such intermodulation products indicates the presence
of an EAS-tag

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 9

1 Bit EAS: Electromagnetic Principle

Photo: Schreiner Codedruck, Munich

On the left: Typical antenna construction of a

surveillance system (height about 1.40 m)
On the right: Different label designs

Photo Reference: Finkenzeller, Klaus. "RFID Handbook, ed." (2010).

Photo: Checkpoint Systems GmbH, Hirschhorn

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 10

1 Bit EAS: Acousto-Magnetic Principle
• Use of the magnetostrictive effect: Some metals like e.g. iron and nickel, but
especially some amorphous metals, change their length in a magnetic field;
(Amorphous metals / metallic glasses: group of materials, that do not have crystalline
structures like usual metals, but have an amorphous structure like glass)

• In an alternating magnetic field, a magnetostrictive metal strip vibrates at the

frequency of the field (e.g. at 58 kHz)
• If the frequency of the EM field corresponds to the acoustic/mechanical
resonance frequency of the metal strip, the vibration amplitude becomes large
• Inverse magnetostrictive effect: A vibrating magnetostrictive metal strip
creates an alternating magnetic field
• If the stimulating field is switched off, the mechanical system is still ringing
and thus, generates an alternating magnetic field that can be detected by the
reader

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 11

1 Bit EAS: Acousto-Magnetic Principle

Photo Reference: Finkenzeller, Klaus. "RFID Handbook, ed." (2010).

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 12

1 Bit EAS: Acousto-Magnetic Principle

Tags for securing clothes

and goods

Tags for securing bottles

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 13

1 Bit EAS: Microwave Systems

• Microwave EAS systems are utilizing the generation of harmonics on
components with a non-linear characteristic (e.g. diode / varactor)

Reader EAS tag

2.45 GHz; 1 kHz ASK
non-linear circuit
TX: 2.45 GHz e.g. using a varactor
1 kHz ASK
2.45 GHz; 1 kHz ASK
RX: 4.9 GHz
Dipole
Antenna
Demodulator 4.9 GHz; 1 kHz ASK

1 kHz

Evaluation

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 14

1 Bit EAS: Microwave Systems

Photo Reference: Finkenzeller, Klaus. "RFID Handbook, ed." (2010).

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 15

Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) RFID

Antenna Interdigital Piezoelectric crystal

transducer

Reflectors

Radar echoes
Relative amplitude
Relative Amplitude

from the reflectors

Reader / ‘radar’
Frequency e.g. 869 MHz or 2.45 GHz
usually coherent impulse radar
or FMCW radar Time in µs
Z e it [ μ s ]

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 16

Surface Acoustic Waves

Vibration ellipse
approx. 1 wavelength of a particle
Penetration depth

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 17

Surface Acoustic Waves

• Typical phase velocity 3000 m/s

i.e. factor 105 slower than electromagnetic waves
 Long time delay (in the microsecond range) with small SAW components
 Signals (echoes) from SAW components arrive ‘much later’ than direct radar
echoes (direct radar echoes and also their multipath reflections are mostly
decayed after > 1 s)

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 18

Interdigital Transducer of an SAW Device
p
Electric field

A B
Piezoelectric substrate
Mechanical
deflection

View from above Sectional view A-B

Interdigital transducer acts as:

• Transmitter: inverse piezoelectric effect
 Electromagnetic signal (received by the antenna) generates acoustic surface wave
• Receiver: piezoelectric effect
 Surface acoustic wave generates electromagnetic signal
(which is emitted via an antenna)

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 19

Surface Acoustic Waves

Microscopic photo of the surface of an SAW device
(Interdigital transducer and 2 SAW pulses)

Connection
contact

Interdigital transducer (IDT) Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW)

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 20

Structure of an SAW transponder

reflectors

interdigital transducer (IDT)

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 21

Realization of Reflectors on a SAW Tag

Plessky, V.P.; Reindl, L.M., "Review on SAW RFID tags,"

Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control, IEEE
Transactions on , vol.57, no.3, pp.654,668, March 2010

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 22

SAW Tag with Pulse Position Coding

Plessky, V.P.; Reindl, L.M., "Review on SAW

RFID tags," Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and
Frequency Control, IEEE Transactions on ,
vol.57, no.3, pp.654,668, March 2010

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 23

SAW Tag with Pulse Position Coding

• Measured signal of a 2.45 GHz SAW tag

Response signal of a SAW tag

• 11 reflection points
- start & stop
- code
Normalized Amplitude in dB

- parity

• 20 bit code

• 3 bit parity

• SMD package
QCC10B

Time in µs

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 24

Example: SAW RFID for Rail Applications
(Siemens 2.45 GHz SOFIS RFID System)

subway Munich
train Berlin

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 25

Example: SAW RFID for Rail Applications

(Siemens 2.45 GHz SOFIS RFID System)

SOFIS Characteristics
• 2.4 GHz ISM band
• max. speed 350 km/h
• read range about 0.3 – 3 m
(depending on antenna and reading time)
• tag temperature range: -45 to 85°C
• 20 bit code

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 26

Example: Pulse Position Encoded SAW Tag

• Reader (Radar) transmits a radar

signal and determines the signal
delay / position of each echo /
reflector
• Design rules to get optimal code
range with simple position coding:

a) The possible positions must have

distance quantization that is greater
than the ranging uncertainty of the
radar
 ranging uncertainty (see CRLB r )
b) The signals from two neighboring
occupied reflector positions must not
overlap
Reference: M. Vossiek, F. Schmidt, O. Sczesny, L. Reindl.
“Remote-inquiry surface acoustic wave component with optimum  radial resolution of the radar s
code space,” European Patent EP 1141746B1, 11.6.2003

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 27

Example: SAW RFID in Automotive Manufacturing

(Baumer / Identec Solutions RFID System)

Reader
Antenna

Characteristics
RFID
Tag • 2.4 GHz ISM band
• Temperature resistant
up to > 200°C
Identification of a chassis • about 10000 codes
in a painting line • Read range
approx. 1.5 m

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 28

Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) RFID
Pros: SAW RFID
• Reading range: 1 - 20 m (depending on tag and antenna type)
 best reading range of all passive RFID solutions
• Completely passive, extremely robust and long-term stable
• Very high read rates possible

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 29

SAW Tags: Multi-Tag / Bulk Capacity

• SAW tags work purely passive  they reflect every interrogation signal
• If there are several SAW tags in the reader query area, all tags respond
simultaneously  signal overlaps / evaluation usually not possible
• The only solution: Choose a suitable reflector position (echo propagation times)

Problem:
SAW 1
Length of a track and minimum
Time / Position
pulse width limited (due to
SAW 2 attenuation and bandwidth), i.e.
the number of possible positions
Time / Position is very limited
SAW 3
 No bulk reading capability
Time / Position with large address space
feasible with SAW

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 30

SAW Tags: Programmability / Counterfeit Protection
• SAW tags are ‘factory-programmed’
 Pros: almost optimally forgery-proof
copies and ‘replay-attack’ are complex
(because of required technology / SAW wafer run necessary)

 Cons: no in-situ programming / no memory

• Virtual SAW RFID Programming

 SAW Reader only writes/reads the SAW ID of the tag and writes / reads its data over
a network to / from a database (via ethernet, GSM, UMTS, WLAN etc.)

 For the user there is no difference to writable tags

 Data networks / wireless networks and secure transmission standards are available
worldwide

 Data is much better protected compared to storage on a RFID tag

 However: increased effort for data transfer and data storage

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 31

General Principle of Chipless ‘Delay Line Tags’

• Problem: It’s difficult to generate long delay times with electrical cables
• Echoes from surrounding objects have the same delay time as the echoes
from the RFID tag
 Bit / symbol error rate may increase drastically

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 32

Realization of Electrical Delay Lines with Large Delay
LH ‘left-handed’ line vs. RH ‘right-handed’ line
can only be realized artificially equivalent circuit diagram of a ‘real’ line
with discrete elements

CRLH = composite
right/left-handed Group delay
transmission line
d
vg 
d

1
v g ,RH 
L CR'
'
R

v g ,LH   2 L'LCL'

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 33

Realization of Electrical Delay Lines with Large Delay

Reference: Mandel, C.; Schussler, M.; Maasch, M.; Jakoby, R., "A novel passive phase
modulator based on LH delay lines for chipless microwave RFID applications," Wireless
Sensing, Local Positioning, and RFID, 2009. IMWS 2009. IEEE MTT-S International
Microwave Workshop on , vol., no., pp.1,4, 24-25 Sept. 2009

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 34

Realization of Electrical Delay Lines with Large Delay

Reference: Mandel, C.; Schussler, M.; Maasch, M.; Jakoby, R., "A novel passive phase
modulator based on LH delay lines for chipless microwave RFID applications," Wireless
Sensing, Local Positioning, and RFID, 2009. IMWS 2009. IEEE MTT-S International
Microwave Workshop on , vol., no., pp.1,4, 24-25 Sept. 2009

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 35

Multi-Resonator Based Chipless RFID Systems

Basic principle:
• RFID comprises N narrow-band resonators (or bandpass or bandstop filters)
• Broadband radio query of the tag with a pulse or FMCW signal
• Recording of the reflected spectral signature with the reader

Photo Reference: Bhuiyan, M.S.; Azad, A.; Karmakar, N., "Dual-band modified complementary split ring resonator (MCSRR) based
multi-resonator circuit for chipless RFID tag," IEEE 8th International Conf. on Intelligent Sensors, Sensor Networks and Information
Processing, pp.277,281, 2-5.4.2013

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 36

Multi-Resonator Based Chipless RFID Systems

Photo Reference: Bhuiyan, M.S.; Azad, A.; Karmakar, N., "Dual-band

modified complementary split ring resonator (MCSRR) based multi-
resonator circuit for chipless RFID tag," IEEE 8th International Conf.
on Intelligent Sensors, Sensor Networks and Information Processing,
pp.277,281, 2-5.4.2013

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 37

Passive Inductive RFID Systems

Interrogator
Coil
Transmit/
Chip

Signal
Source Receive
Circuit

Transponder / tag
Processor
- Signal Processing Coil
- Interface

• Purely inductive coupling of two coils (compare  transformer coupling)

• The transponder draws energy from the magnetic field for power supply
and modulation
• The performance of the reading field and coupling factor determine the
reading range
• Data transmission through load modulation

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 38

Inductive Coupling
x
Coil characteristics:

Number of turns: N1, N2

y d z Radius of the coils: r1, r2

Rel. permeability: r=1

u2
u1

Voltage-current equations of two coupled coils

di di Self-inductances of the coils: L1, L2

u1  L1  1  M  2
dt dt
Mutual inductance: M
di di M
u2  L2  2  M  1 Coupling factor: k k
dt dt L1  L2

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 39

Inductive Coupling
• Generated magnetic field strength in z-direction
x

Simplifying assumptions:
• No metallic or ferromagnetic
z
materials coupled to the coil
y z=d

u1

Magnetic field B in the z-direction at distance d

r12
Bz ( d )  0  H z (d )  0  N1  I1 
3
2  r12  d 2 
 

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 40

Inductive Coupling: Mutual Inductance
The calculation of the mutual inductance M based on the magnetic field B,
which is caused by the coil 1 at the location of the coil 2

I1 Current in coil 1
N2  
M
I1
  B1  n2 dA A2
N2
Area of coil 2
Number of turns of coil 2
A2
nn22 Normal vector (points in the direction of
the area element dA of the area A2)

Simplifying assumptions:
• Almost homogenous magnetic field in the are of coil 2
(applies if coil 2 is much smaller than coil 1)
• Annular coil areas are centered and perpendicular to the z-axis
N   N    r22
M  2  B1  n2  AT  2  Bz
I1 I1

r12
M  0  N1  N 2    r22  3
2  r12  d 2 
 

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 41

Inductive Coupling: Coupling Factor

Self-inductances of loop antennas

(approximation formula, dD = wire diameter)

L1  n12  0  r  r1  ln  2 r1 d D 
y d z

L2  n22  0  r  r2  ln  2 r2 d D 
u2
u1 M     N1  N 2 r12  r22
k  0  3
L1  L2 2  L1  L2  r2  d 2 
 1 
 

Approximation formula

r12  r22 Only applies to two parallel conductor loops

k 3
centered on one axis with r2 << r1
r1  r2   r12  d 2  (i.e. transponder antenna is much smaller than
  reader antenna)

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 42

Inductive Coupling: Coupling Factor
1
Parameters:
• r1 = 0.1 m
0.8
• N1 = 3; N2 = 30
Coupling Factor k

0.6 r2 = 0.1 m

r2 = 0.05 m
0.4
r2 = 0.02 m
0.2

0
-3 -2 -1 0
10 10 10 10
Distance d (m)

Good coupling is only possible for distances which are

not significantly larger than the size of reader coil 1

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 43

Inductive Coupling: Coupling Factor

Effects of tilting the main conductor axes against each other by 
Coupling factor k

Tilting  in degree

Reference: S. Mamaschew, „Analyse, Design und Optimierung

von induktiv gekoppelten, passiven, drahtlosen Stimmgabelquarz-
Sensoren am Beispiel eines Gasdrucksensors für
Vakuumisolationspaneele“ Dissertation, TU Clausthal 2014

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 44

Inductive Coupling: Coupling Factor
Effects of a lateral offset v between the coils
Coupling factor k

Later Offset v in mm

Reference: S. Mamaschew, „Analyse, Design und Optimierung

von induktiv gekoppelten, passiven, drahtlosen Stimmgabelquarz-
Sensoren am Beispiel eines Gasdrucksensors für
Vakuumisolationspaneele“ Dissertation, TU Clausthal 2014

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 45

Examples: LF / HF RFID Tags

13.56 MHz RFID Inlay 13.56 MHz Blank ID card 13.56 MHz tag
on ceramic substrate
Photo Refernce: Murata

Glass encapsulated transponder

13.56 MHz
for 134.2 kHz and 13.56 MHz
Photo Reference: HID Global Nail and pallet tag 125 kHz / 13.56 MHz RFID Tag

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 46

Examples: LF / HF RFID Tags

Manufacturer
Chips: Infineon, TI, Philipps, Emarin etc.
Inlays: Omron, UPM Rafsec, Alien etc.
Tags: many (also many SMEs)

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 47

LF / HF RFID Readers
RFID Handheld Reader
some with integrated
- Barcode reader
- WLAN

robust / industry-grade
large antennas RFID tags and reader
 large reading range

• For LF / HF systems physics defines the shape of

the device
• For UHF systems more freedom in construction
• Manufacturer: many (also many SMEs)

Tunnel-Leser

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 48

UHF RFID Systems
Interrogator
EM wave antenna

Signal Transmit/
source Receive
circuit
antenna
Transponder / tag
Processor
-Signal processing
-Interface

Coupling / Pairing by radio:

• passive: Transponder is harvesting energy from the EM field
- Data transmission through modulated reflection (backscatter principle);
- Reading range typ. 1-5 m, max. 10-20 m
• semi-passive: Transponder has battery but no signal source;
- Data transmission through modulated reflection (backscatter principle);
- Range typ. some 10 m; life of battery is several years
• active: Transponder has battery (or possible also solar cell or similar) and signal source
- Range typ. 100-1000 m (like other radio systems);
- Life of Battery few days to 1-2 years, depending on the size of the battery and operating mode
- primary ‘trick’ for saving energy: power off

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 49

UHF RFID Systems

A. Koelle, S. Depp, and R. Freyman, “Short-range radio-telemetry for electronic
identification using modulated backscatter,” Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 63, no. 8,
pp. 1260–1261, 1975

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 50

The Backscatter Principle
Reader signal  Backscatter Backscatter cross section 
antenna
2 2 2
 1,2  GB A0   L1,2
ZA 4
Z L1,2  Z A*
with  L1,2
mit 
 backscatter signal Z L1,2  Z A
ZL1

GB : Antenna
Gewinngain of
Transponder
ZL2 the transponder
-Antenne
Modulation voltage Ub
A0 : Passive
Beitragreflections
der passiven
atReflexionen
tag / antennaan
• For modulation, a switch is made for example between structure
Tag-Antenne
impedance match and mismatch at the antenna base
 modulated reflection

• The amplitude and / or phase can be modulated

 design goal: Maximization of the variation of B

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 51

UHF RFID Reader

UHF RFID readers are designed like and work like a CW radar

interrogating signal 

 backscatter signal

backscatter
RFID tag

Photo Refference: Griffin, Joshua D., and Gregory D.

Durgin. "Complete link budgets for backscatter-radio
and RFID systems." Antennas and Propagation
Magazine, IEEE 51.2 (2009): 11-25.

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 52

UHF RFID Reader / Writer

Reference: Griffin, Joshua. "The Fundamentals of Backscatter

Radio and RFID Systems." Disney Research Pittsburgh, Jun (2009)

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 53

Backscatter Modulation
Backscatter cross section of an antenna

ZA
‘antenna Mode’
2 2 2
 A ~ GB  L
4 ZL1

ZL2

‘structure mode’ overall backscatter cross section 

(independent of modulation)
2 2 2
2 2  1,2  GB A0   L
 S ~ GB2 A0 4 1,2

4
Z L1,2  Z A*
   S für
for Z L  Z A* with  L 1,2 
mit
Z L1,2  Z A

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 54

Backscatter Modulation
The modulated electrical field strength is given as:
 2
E Rx  2  2  
2
2
from   4 R  2 , follows
Aus 2
folgt: ERx  Ei  GB  A0   L1,2
E i
 4 R 
 
 Ei   A0   L1,2 
E Rx1,2 ~

Complex valued!
i.e. amplitude and phase can be modulated

• By varying the impedances or the backscatter sizes, information is modulated

on the carrier signal in the transponder
• If the modulation signal L1,2(t) is chosen so that it can be separated from the
static reflections in the reader by a filter, only the modulated backscatter
cross section is relevant

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 55

Backscatter Modulation
• Modulated backscatter / radar cross section („differential RCS“)
2 2 2 2 2
 1,2  GB A0   L1,2   GB  L1   L 2
2
4 4

• Modulated reception power on the reader  compare radar equation

2   
4
PRxMod  PTx  GR 2    PRxMod  PTx  GR  G  2
   L1   L 2
2 2

 4  R 4
3
 4 R 
B

PTx : Transmit power from the

Sendesignalleistung vomreader
Lesegerät
Reception power on the reader
PRx : Empfangsleistung des Lesegeräts
GR : Reader
Gewinnantenna gain
Lesegerät-Antenne
GB : Transponder antenna gain
Gewinn Transponder-Antenne
A0 : Contribution
Beitrag derofpassiven Reflektionen
passive reflections amtagTag
to the antenna
Literature Reference: Nikitin, Pavel V., K. V. S. Rao,
and R. D. Martinez. "Differential RCS of RFID tag."
Electronics Letters 43.8 (2007): 431-432.

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 56

Range of Backscatter Systems
Power received at the reader PRxMod Receiver noise power
2 PN  k  T  Bn
PRxMod  PTx  GR 2   
 4  R 4
3
PNdB  174 dBm  10  log10  Bn 

-60
Example: UHF system
-70
Reception power in dBm

Characteristics: typ. value

-80 Transmit Power PTx: 20 dBm
Antenna gain
-90 - reader GR: 6 dBi
- backscatter GB: 0 dBi
System losses
-100 detection
- reader LV: -12 dB
threshold
- backscatter  0.5
-110 Wavelength  @ 869 MHz: 0.35 m
Detection threshold:
-120 at 100 kHz noise bandwidth (about. 64 kBit)
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
and 15 dB SNRmin
Range in m

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 57

Range of Backscatter Systems

Power received at the reader PRxMod Receiver noise power
2 PN  k  T  Bn
PRxMod  PTx  GR 2   
 4  R 4
3
PNdB  174 dBm  10  log10  Bn 

-60
Example: Microwave system
-70
Reception power in dBm

Characteristics: typ. value

-80
Transmit Power PTx: 20 dBm
Antenna gain
-90 - reader GR: 6 dBi
- backscatter GB: 0 dBi
-100 detection System losses
threshold - reader LV: -12 dB
-110 - backscatter  0.5
Wavelength  @ 5.5 GHz: 0.054 m
-120 Detection threshold:
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 at 100 kHz noise bandwidth (about 64 kBit)
Range in m and 15 dB SNRmin

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 58

Range of Backscatter Systems
Tag reception power PRx,B
2
  
PRx ,B  PTx  GR  GB    Characteristics: typ. value
 4   d  Transmit power PTx: 20 dBm
10 Antenna gain
- reader GR: 6 dBi
5 - RFID tag GB: 0 dBi
wavelength  @ 869 MHz: 35 cm
dBm

0
Reception powerin indBm

-5 threshold:
Empfangsleistung

for 1.2 V, depending on the diodes,

-10 minimum energy / charging time
ca. -15 dBm to -25 dBm necessary
-15

-20  The limiting element in passive UHF

RFID systems is usually the rectifier
-25
in the RFID tag
-30
2 4 6 8 10
Distanz
Range inin m
m

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 59

Example: Structure of an UHF RFID Backscatter IC

Block diagram of the whole IC
Modulator

Demodulator

Voltage multiplication &

rectification Karthaus, U.; Fischer, M., "Fully integrated passive UHF RFID
transponder IC with 16.7-μW minimum RF input power," Solid-State
Circuits, IEEE Journal of , vol.38, no.10, pp.1602,1608, Oct. 2003

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 60

Voltage Multiplication: Charge-Pump
Simple rectifier

Rectifier with
voltage multiplication

Rectifier with N times voltage

multiplication; because of the parasitic
Reference: Griffin, Joshua. "The Fundamentals of Backscatter effects possibilities are limited in practice
Radio and RFID Systems." Disney Research Pittsburgh, Jun (2009)

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 61

Example: Structure of an UHF RFID Backscatter IC

Reference: Griffin, Joshua. "The Fundamentals of Backscatter Radio and RFID

Systems." Disney Research Pittsburgh, Jun (2009)

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 62

UHF RFID Tag Inlays

Reel of UHF RFID tags

Photo Reference: Rafsec

Photo Reference: Alien Technology

Photo Reference: Tagsys

Photo Reference: UPM Raflatac

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 63

UHF RFID Tags

UHF RFID label
With printed bar code

UHF RFID tag for clothes

flexible UHF RFID tag

UHF RFID label printer

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 64

Reading Range of UHF Backscatter RFID
Exemplary measurement of the reading range of different RFID tags
(results depend on the application and therefore comparison is not generally valid)

RSS vs Distanz Tag-Readerantenne

Alle oberen Tags
-45
CONFIDEX Survivor
CAENRFID
-50
CONFIDEX Ironside
DeisterElectronics
-55 Intermec
WISTEQ

RSS in dBm
-60

-65

-70

-75

-80
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Range in min m
Entfernung

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 65

Reading Range of UHF Backscatter RFID

(Flag tag, Hard tag and MonLAID tag)

metallic ‘test object’ -25

-30 MonLAID-Tag
reader RSSI level in dBm

-35

-40 Hard-Tag

-45
RFID tag Flag-Tag

-50
• reader transmit power 2 W ERP
-55
• UHF RFID tags 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
distance d of the reader to the RFID-tag in m

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 66

UHF RFID Reader
• Stationary reader (Sirit, Motorola, Feig, Kathrein, Siemens, and many more)
• Forklift reader (Deister UDL 120)
• RFID modules (Skytek, ThingMagic)
• RFID reader module (Impinj)
• And many more

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 67

RFID Frequency Range and System Comparison

Designator LF HF UHF
low frequency high frequency ultra high frequency
microwave
Frequency range 30 – 300 kHz 3 - 30 MHz 300 MHz - 30 GHz
typical 125 kHz 13,56 / 27,125 MHz 869 MHz, 915 MHz, 2.45 GHz, 5.8 GHz
Power supply passive / without battery passive / without battery active / with battery

Principle of coupling inductive radio radio

Range < 1m < 10 < 1000 m

typical some cm 1-3 m 100 m
rule of thumb: range ~ antenna size
Data rate  1 kBit / s  10 kBit / s  100 kBit / s

Cost low medium high

typical 0.05 -1 € 0.05 - 10 € 10-50 €
Typical applications Animal identification, Object labelling Logistics RFID + Sensors +
car entry system Security
Logistics,
Access Systems

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 68

Low Cost RFID Tags: Cost Base
Example for a low cost RFID tag
Reference Metro Group

Reference: Raghu Das, October 2005, IDTechEx

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 69

Application: Animal Identification

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 70

Application: Identification, Electronic Payment,
Access Control

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 71

Application: Security / Goods Labeling

• Goods / product tracking, counterfeiting security
• Security-relevant applications e.g. pharmaceutical industry,
tires (US standards, AIAG) etc.

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 72

Application: Labeling of Goods and Pallets

Reference:
Metro, Siemens, Texas Instr.

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 73

Auto-ID Techniques and the Internet of Things (IoT)

Auto-ID techniques connect
the physical world / objects
biometric barcode with the information systems
RFID
systems systems
 Avoidance of:
 Media breaks
 Input errors
 Improvement of:
optical  Accuracy,
Auto-ID locating
character  Consistency,
Technology systems
recognition  Completeness,
 Timeliness of
information
 Areas of Application
image smart wireless - Logistics / trade
recognition cards sensors - Material flow tracking
- Production

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 74

Auto-ID Techniques and the Internet of Things (IoT)

virtual world ‘bits’ Internet of Things:

Data / = information system
Database Vision to close the gap
 ERP / MIS
‘image’ of the  SCADA / MES between the real world
real world  Internet and its representation in
gap  … information systems
using Auto-ID techniques
real / physical world
= production & sale
 People
 Products
 Production means
 …

 Manually …  half-automatic …  Fully automatic data entry

e.g. keyboard e.g. barcode scanner Auto-ID e.g. RFID

The ‘gap‘ limits the predictability and efficiency of production processes

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 75

RFID Standardization
Very diverse organizations and standards:
ISO, ANSI, INCITS, IEC, EAN/UCC, EPCglobal, GSMP, GTAG, ETSI/FCC

Description of e.g.:
Functionality, (read, write, type of ID etc.), Air Interface (frequency band, modulation,
coding), data structure, protocol, test methods, application interfaces

Examples:

ISO-Standard Object of the Standards Frequency band

EPCglobal Air Interface UHF
(EN 302 208-2) (Update of Auto-ID Class 0 and 1)

ISO 14443 Air Interface and Initialization of identification cards, 13.56 MHz
customer cards
ISO 15693 Air Interface and Initialization, anti-collision and 13.56 MHz
transmission protocol for identification cards,
customer cards
ISO 18000 RFID Air Interface Standard all
active & passive

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 76

Examples: Technical Chain of an RFID Application
Reader / Integration Enterprise
Tag Edge server
Writer server applications

ERP

SCM

 RFID tag on  RFID readers are  Edge server  Integration server:

pallets or goods available as creates forwards important CRM
 RFID transmits portable or connection information to
product-specific ID permanently between ID and enterprise applications
installed devices product  Integration point for
 RFID readers  Takes care of cross-company chains
receive the ID local processes  Forwarding selected
and transmit it to  Middleware RFID data to partners
the Edge server

ERP: ‘Enterprise-Resource-Planning’
SCM: ‘Supply chain management’
CRM: ‘Customer Relationship Management’

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 77

RFID Market Development

Revenue per component type

in 2012 in billion US dollars

Reference : IDTechEx, RFID Forecasts, Players and

Opportunities 2012-2022

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 78

RFID Market Development

Reference: IDTechEx

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 79

RFID Market Development

Reference: IDTechEx

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 80

RFID Trends
RFID market grows dynamically to a volume of several 10 billion Euros

 RFID is a technique for rationalizing and for increasing efficiency

 RFID technology increases the transparency of production processes and helps

to make optimal use of the resources available for production

 All potential users are – wanted or unwanted – part of the dynamic RFID
market development

Two opposing R&D and product trends in the RFID area

1. Item Tag
smaller, less expensive (polymer electronics, microchips, assembly technology, chipless etc.)
 mass market, technology-driven

2. High Performance Tags

Higher frequency, longer range, industrial suitability, additional functions

 System solutions, are / will be available in various versions

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 81

Challenges / Limits

Return of Invest?
The use of RFID technology initially requires a
considerable investment

Cost:
• Tags: few cents (only for quantities >> 1 Mio)
else typ. 0.2 - 30 Euro
• Reader: typ. ca. 100 – 5000 Euro
• plus software, network infrastructure etc.
from a few 10 kEuro to many 100 kEuro
(depending on application / complexity)
• Costs for building up know-how, planning, introducing new
processes, employee training, etc.

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 82

Challenges / Limits
Environmental Condition

Environment, position / orientation can strongly influence behavior

 Short-circuiting the field lines e.g. when mounted on metal
 Detuning of the antenna / coil
e.g. when approaching any dielectric (water, metal, human, etc.)
 Reflections, refraction, diffraction eventually extinction / dead spots
 Polarization of the antenna
 Orientation of the coil

 Antenna and assembly aspects essential for the user

 Optimal solution mostly application specific!

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 83

Challenges / Limits

Standards

‘The early bird catches the worm’

 Not necessarily true in communication, to rely on non-standardized solutions
or on ‘wrong’ standards can be expensive
 Missing trends / chances can be expensive too!

Questions:
• Open or closed logistics chain?
• Availability (now and in the future)
• Price sensitivity?
• Special Requirements?
- security, robustness, mounting position, etc.

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 84

Challenges / Limits
Security Issue
Espionage
Simple RFID tags have a limited computing power
 Possibilities of cryptography may be limited
• Sensitive data can eventually be read without authorization
- e.g. data about production processes
- Personal data
• The combination of apparently uncritical data can also lead to misuse (e.g. thief scans
the number of valuable devices in an electronics store)

Sabotage / Counterfeiting
• Reading can be blocked
(by jammers, shielding, vandalism etc.)
• Wrong facts / IDs can be faked
- incorrect copies of tags easy to generate
- ‘replay attack’; ‘relay attack’

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 85

Challenges / Limits
Organizational / personnel policy /
data protection / image aspects

Technology reservations
and concerns about data protection
(in-house and at the customer)

In companies, there is often distrust of the

IT department
 RFID could raise new concerns

Demonstration against RFID equipped

Regardless of the facts! Metro Future store (Photo: CASPIAN)

If the customer or the workforce experiences a data protection problem, then there is a data
protection problem

 Take concerns seriously, information / education, openness

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 86

Challenges / Limits

False expectations & promises

the ‘all-in-one tag’

• Tiny
• No battery (passive)
• 1 MByte memory
• Read range 100 m
even in non-cooperative reading situations
• Unlimited multi-tag capability
i.e. short detection times, high detection rates even with a large number of tags in
the detection area of a reader
• Completely tap- and forgery-proof
• Costs: 1 cent

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 87

Challenges / Limits
Facts:
• The RFID chips are very small, but the antennas are rel. large
 antenna physics – no development deficit!
• Rule of thumb for the range of passive inductive tags:
- reading range ~ antenna size
- typ. 1- 10 cm, complex systems up to approx. 1 m
• passive UHF tags robust up to approx. 5 m
under ideal conditions and with overreaches up to 20 m
 physics of the rectifier (diode) is limiting factor
• passive SAW tags up to 10 m
• Only active tags up to 100 m
• Complete tag price today at ~ 0.1 – 1 Euro rather than 1 cent
• Limited multiplexing options: Saving power and complex protocols /
multiplexing techniques and short response times are not compatible

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 88

Challenges / Limits

Peak of the inflated

expectations
Expectations

‘The Gartner Hype-Cycle’

Pallets, System
packaging, etc. solutions

Plateau of
Item productivity

Trough of
Technology disillusionment
trigger

Time

© FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, LHFT, Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Vossiek RWS 5 - 89