International Journal of Food Microbiology 129 (2009) 271–276

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International Journal of Food Microbiology

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s e v i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / i j f o o d m i c r o

Investigation of shelf-life extension of sorghum beer (Chibuku) by removing the

second conversion of malt
Josphat Kutyauripo a, Wilson Parawira a,⁎, Sharai Tinofa b, Ivy Kudita b, Clement Ndengu b
a
Institute of Food, Nutrition and Family Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, P.O. Box MP 167, Mt. Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe
b
Delta Beverages, Sorghum beer, P.O. Box 3304, Southerton, Harare, Zimbabwe

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The effect of removing the second step of malt conversion in the brewing of Chibuku beer was investigated
Received 9 April 2008 with the intention of extending the shelf-life of the product. Chibuku was brewed in the laboratory scale
Received in revised form 21 November 2008 fermenters using Delta Beverages' standard brewing procedure. A variation was made where the second malt
Accepted 4 December 2008
conversion was not conducted on one brew. The effect of increasing pasteurisation time was also
investigated. The extension of shelf-life was determined by following the physicochemical and the sensory
Keywords:
Sorghum opaque beer
profile of the products for a period of ten days under sub-tropical ambient conditions. Ethanol productions
Fermentation were similar between the control and test beers (without second conversion malt). A product with overall
Second conversion malt acceptability of 70% was made from the brew without the second malt conversion and with 15 min
Shelf-life pasteurisation at 80 °C. The product was, however, low in bite and head retention, but had less bacterial load,
decreased acid production, and improved keeping quality by at least two days. However, due to
contamination of the pitching yeast with lactic acid bacteria (LAB), total acids rapidly increased after
168 h and caused unacceptable sourness. Increasing pasteurisation time to 20 min reduced bacterial load of
the wort to figures as low as 2 × 103 cfu/ml. General hygiene levels of the brewery were acceptable and no
coliforms were detected in the product or contact surfaces along the production line. Bacterial contamination
of the product mainly comes from the raw materials with pasteurisation greatly reducing this load. If
improved, the procedure has the potential of extending the shelf-life of the beer to beyond 168 h.
© 2008 Published by Elsevier B.V.

1. Introduction Chibuku is made from straight run maize, sorghum meal, sorghum
malt, barley malt, water, lactic acid and a top fermenting strain of the
Chibuku, an opaque beer, is one of the industrialised alcoholic yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The opaque beer brewing process
beverages in Zimbabwe, and there are more than 20 opaque beer involves the blending of sorghum malt and meal, barley malt and
breweries that produce over 420 million litres of the beer each year straight run maize grits, the extraction and breakdown of carbohy-
(Parawira et al., 2005). The beer product is an opaque pinkish-brown drates from these raw materials to make a sugar solution, followed by
liquid with a thin consistency due to its high content of suspended and its subsequent fermentation with yeast to produce ethanol and carbon
dissolved solids (3.6% w/v), with an alcohol content of approximately dioxide (Fig. 1). Essentially, the process involves lactic acid fermenta-
3–5%, pH around 3–4 and lactic acid levels around 0.5 g/l (Casey et al., tion as well as alcoholic fermentation.
1984; Bvochora and Zvauya, 2001). Opaque beer, also known as doro, The major biological changes occurring in the brewing process are
hwahwa, mhamba or utshwala, in different regions of Zimbabwe, is catalysed by natural lactic acid bacteria and yeasts from barley and
also a popular beverage in several countries in Africa (Gadaga et al., sorghum malt, and the S. cerevisiae yeasts introduced as a starter
1999). Different cities in Zimbabwe produce different brands of culture. Like other industrialised processes, saccharification plus lactic
sorghum beer, namely, Ingwebu, Go Beer, Pungwe, Thabani, and Simba. acid souring occur first, while alcoholic plus lactic acid fermentations
It is considered a nutritious product because it contains a mixture of occur last (the first acidification is due to added lactic acid while the
organic acids, alcohols, vitamins and other growth factors produced second is due to inherent LAB in the raw material) (Wood, 1985). The
by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeasts (Van Heerden, 1989; Holzapfel, beer is sold while microbiologically active, hence beneficial bacteria
2002). The beer is marketed and consumed while still actively may end up spoiling the product. Opaque beer from Delta Beverages
fermenting, and is effervescent and has a refreshing aroma. plants in Zimbabwe is made by the “double cook” method (pasteur-
isation) for utilization of starch in the malt and also pasteurising the
wort.
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +263 4 307762; fax: +263 4 304071. Most traditional, African cereal-based fermented foods deteriorate
E-mail address: aparawira@yahoo.co.uk (W. Parawira). rapidly and become unacceptable to consumers within one to four

0168-1605/$ – see front matter © 2008 Published by Elsevier B.V.

doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2008.12.008
272 J. Kutyauripo et al. / International Journal of Food Microbiology 129 (2009) 271–276

be achieved through investigating the effect of eliminating the second

malt conversion (mashing) step in the brewing process so as to reduce
the bacterial load, and hence reduce the rate and amount of acids
formed. Removal of the second malt conversion step was combined
with an extension of the pasteurisation time during preparation of the
beer. The general hygiene levels along the production process (Fig. 1)
were also investigated in order to determine external sources of
contamination of the product.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Identification of external sources of contamination

Critical stages in the preparation of Chibuku were identified for

hygiene checks. The following sampling points were identified: (1)
before and after cleaning in place (CIP) of multi-purpose vessels
(MPVs), (2) before and after pasteurisation, (3) after pitching, (4)
before and after cleaning containers, and (5) packaged Chibuku
product. All liquid samples (100 ml) were collected in sterile
McCartney bottles. Swabs were also obtained from contact surfaces
on the multi-purpose vessels. Each sample was diluted appropriately
in quarter strength Ringer's solution. Coliforms and enteric pathogens
were used as indicators of general hygiene of the brewing process. The
aerobic spread plate count was done on all samples. All dilutions,
inoculations and incubations were done according to standard
methods given in Marshall (1992).
Fig. 1. Summary of Chibuku brewing in Zimbabwe (adapted from Musengi, 2005).
Coliform presence was determined by spreading 1 ml of an
appropriately diluted beer sample on violet red bile salt agar (OXOID)
and incubated at 35 °C for 48 h. Growth of red colonies indicated the
days of production (Nout, 1980; Okafor, 1990). The deleterious changes presence of coliforms. Positive plates were confirmed on brilliant
are primarily due to the objectionable off-flavour or over-souring green lactose bile broth. Colonies were suspended in Ringers solution
induced by continued microbial activities after production. The short and 1 ml inoculated into tubes containing brilliant green lactose bile
shelf-life of cereal-based fermented foods is one of the major broth (BGBL) (LAB M) with inverted Durham tubes. Accumulation of
deterrents to their large-scale production and development as gas in the Durham tubes after incubation at 35 °C for 48 h indicated a
commercial products. Most contamination probably comes from the positive coliform test.
raw materials that do not go through any rigorous microbiological Presence of Enteric pathogens was detected by spreading 1 ml of
analysis and treatment before being used (Tinofa, 2006, unpublished). appropriately diluted beer sample on Desoxycholate citrate agar
However, in Chibuku the dominant spoiling micro flora has not been (OXOID) and incubated at 37 °C for 24 h. Growth of red colonies
fully studied. The product becomes unacceptable when lactic acid indicated the presence of Gram-negative bacteria that could be
reaches around 0.5% (v/v), and other metabolic by-products have considered as potential pathogens.
accumulated (Mashanda, 1997). As a result, the product is charac- Total bacterial counts as indicators of hygiene were determined by
terised by a short shelf-life of 120 h with maximum acceptance at 72 h, spreading appropriately diluted 1 ml samples onto plate count agar
yet the product needs to be distributed over long distances (BIOLAB) using the spreading technique. Colony counts were done on
nationwide. a Darkfield Quebec colony counter after incubation of the plates at
Chibuku is sold as a live product; hence it is liable to substantial 37 °C for 48 h. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were enumerated by pour
changes in composition brought about by the actively metabolizing plating in MRS agar (BIOLAB) after incubation for 72 h at 30 °C.
LAB, yeasts and, at times, acetic acid bacteria. The microorganisms
continue to grow even after acceptable levels of alcohol and lactic acid 2.2. Effectiveness of cleaning
have been achieved (Mashanda, 1997; Togo et al., 2002). After this
stage, the presence of these microbes is no longer desirable. The The effectiveness of reducing the total microbial load by cleaning
brewery incurs significant losses from the short shelf-life due to high was checked in the fermentation vessels and the standard 2 l
returns of sour beer, and high distribution costs incurred from packaging containers. Samples before and after cleaning were taken
numerous trips to the market with small deliveries instead of bulk and and tested for cleanness using total bacterial load on plate count agar.
distant deliveries. As a result, significant investments have been put
into brewing and packaging machinery which could have been 2.3. Preparation of the beers for determination of improvement
avoided, if the product had a longer shelf-life. in shelf life
Efforts have been made to reduce spoilage of this product in
Zimbabwe, where the brewery has done successful trials on The effect of removing the second malt conversion in the brewing
refrigeration of the beer. However, the bulkiness of the product has of Chibuku beer was investigated by brewing opaque beer in 18 l
limited adoption of refrigeration due to financial costs in acquiring laboratory-scale fermenters using the standard procedure outlined in
large chillers. The cost and infrastructural requirements of many of Fig. 1. A control beer was made by brewing Chibuku without changing
basic preservation techniques (refrigeration, canning and irradiation) any one of the brewing parameters. A beer in which the second malt
greatly restrict their application in the developing world (Cooke et al., conversion was eliminated was also brewed. The experiments were
1987). repeated twice and the results presented are the average of the
The overall objective of this study was, therefore, to improve the duplicated brews. Microbiological, organoleptic and physico-chemical
shelf-life of Chibuku from the current 120 h to 168–240 h. This was to profiles of the two types of beer were compared.
 J. Kutyauripo et al. / International Journal of Food Microbiology 129 (2009) 271–276 273

2.4. Chemical analyses 2.7. Indices to measure improvement in shelf life

Chemical and organoleptic changes were followed in the beers Time taken to reach 0.5% (v/v) total acids was taken as an index of
stored under sub-tropical ambient conditions for a period of 10 days. shelf life. According to Delta Beverages standards, the product is
Chemical tests performed during the fermentation period were total deemed unacceptable (spoiled) when total acids reach 0.5% (v/v). The
reducing sugars, pH, total acids (titratable acidity), total dissolved time taken for the product to become unacceptable in terms of bite,
solids and alcohol. sourness and odour was also assessed through sensory evaluation.
The pH of the samples was measured immediately after sample
collection using a CYBERSCAN 500 pH meter at room temperature. 2.8. Statistical analysis
Titratable acidity was done using the method outlined in the DELTA
BEVERAGES Chibuku Raw Materials and Analytical Methods manual The Pearson's Product Moment correlation coefficient at 0.01 level
(1998). Each beer sample (100 ml) was filtered through a No. 1 of significance was used to ascertain the extent of the relationship
Whatman filter paper after which 10 ml of the filtrate were titrated between removal of the second malt conversion and the beer
against 0.1 N NaOH using phenolphthalein indicator until a permanent composition with respect to total acids, lactic acid, and alcohol. A
pink colour persisted for 30 s. The titration was done in triplicate for matched pair T test was performed to determine the differences
each sample. The total acidity was then calculated as follows between the two samples.

3. Results and discussion

kTotal acidity = ml of sample×0:09

3.1. General hygiene of the production process

where 0.09 is a conversion factor used to change total acids from
grams to percentages.
Total bacterial counts, Gram-negative enteric pathogens and
Alcohol content was determined by specific gravity. A well mixed
coliforms (Section 2.1) were used as indicators of general hygiene of
beer sample was measured into a 100 ml volumetric flask. The sample
the production process and packaging material. No coliforms or
was transferred into a distillation flask into which 100 ml of tap water
potential enteric pathogens were detected at any of the sampling
was also added. Distillation was done until 100 ml of distillate were
points, suggesting that good hygienic was practiced during the
collected. The sample was cooled to 20 °C before the relative density,
brewing process. Contamination from other external sources seems
measured as specific gravity, was determined by filling a standardised
to be very minimal as shown by these results. The absence of coliforms
specific gravity (SG) bottle and weighing it. The amount of alcohol was
does not, however, mean the absence of contaminating organism. It
then determined from the SG conversion tables as percentages by
should be noted that small numbers of bacteria remaining after
volume. Specific gravity was determined as:
cleaning in addition to the load already in the raw material pose great
spoilage risk. Mesophilic heterofermentative lactobacilli are largely
Weight of SG bottle plus distillate−weight of empty SG bottles responsible for the spoilage of sorghum beer (Taylor and Doudi, 2006,
SG =
Weight of distilled water Certificate Course in Opaque Beer Brewing, Continuing Education
University of Pretoria, unpublished). Chibuku is still being viewed by
Total dissolved solids were measured as sucrose in centrifuged many, as an inferior product that does not require strict quality control
samples of beer using an Atago N∞1 Brix sugar refractometer and measures. The absence of a HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control
expressed as grams of dissolved solids per 100 ml of liquid (%w/v). Points) system makes it difficult to ascertain the real cause of spoilage,
Dissolved sugars were used to assess progress of fermentation. and such a system needs to be developed for Chibuku beer.
Total bacterial counts were also done for the product at selected
2.5. Physico-chemical analysis stages of production up to the pitching stage. The total bacterial
counts were 2.55× 109 cfu/ml after straining, 3.35 × 106 cfu/ml after
Head, settling and viscosity parameters were determined using pasteurisation, 2.65× 1010 cfu/ml after the second malt conversion
methods developed by Taylor and Doudi, (2006, Hand Book for SOBA and 6.5 × 1010 cfu/ml after pitching (the high count could probably
course, unpublished). Beer was poured into a 1000 ml measuring include yeasts assuming that the plate count agar allowed for their
cylinder and foam height was measured after standing for 30 min. growth). Total counts decreased after ‘pasteurisation’ and increased
Settling height was measured after standing for 5 min. Percentage after the second conversion malt was added and even further after
foam was calculated by determining the volume of foam on top of the pitching. These results suggest that the source of contaminating
liquid as a percentage of total liquid excluding foam. Percentage microorganism could be the second step of malt conversion and
settling was calculated by determining the volume of clear liquid on pitching yeast. The bacteria were largely lactic acid bacteria which
top of the solids as a percentage of total liquid volume. Viscosity was grew anaerobically on MRS. Ropy strains of these lactic acid bacteria
measured using a Brookfield Synchro-lectric viscometer as outlined in were detected visually by touching colonies with a wire loop and
the DELTA BEVERAGES Chibuku Raw Materials and Analytical Methods observing stretchability.
manual, 1998).
3.2. Effects of removing second malt conversion on Chibuku beer
2.6. Sensory evaluation
3.2.1. Microbial load changes
A group of 10 experienced tasters was used to evaluate the beers to There was a marked decrease in total bacterial counts (TBC) after
ascertain any difference between the control and the variant beers and pasteurisation (second heating) in the brews without the second malt
also to assess shelf-life. The products were scored against Delta conversion at 15 min pasteurisation time giving counts as low as
Beverages specifications. Brand identity, bite, colour, odour and head 5.9 × 104 cfu/ml as shown Table 1. The lactic acid bacteria load also
retention were used to ascertain acceptability of the product. showed a similar pattern to TBC after pasteurisation. Increasing the
Acceptability was based on like or dislike of the product and overall pasteurisation time as shown in Table 1 decreased the microbial load
acceptability scores were out of ten and were expressed as further (though with a lesser margin) to around 2 × 103 cfu/ml.
percentages. Average scores of the tasters were statistically analysed There was not much difference in bacterial load caused by
using ANOVA and Bonferronni's multiple comparisons test. increasing the pasteurisation time above 15 min. Pitching with yeast
274 J. Kutyauripo et al. / International Journal of Food Microbiology 129 (2009) 271–276

Table 1 amount of potential fermentable sugars available for yeast at the

Changes in loads of total bacteria (TB) and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in Chibuku beer after beginning of the fermentation was almost the same; hence their
removing the second step of malt conversion, and pasteurising for different times
pattern of fermentation was similar in all samples (Fig. 2). The sugar
Sample TBC (cfu/ml) sd LAB (cfu/ml) sd conversion efficiency of the yeast did not change as seen in the level of
Normal beer with 15 min pasteurisation (0.5) 1.39 × 106 (0.7) 3.35 × 106 alcohol produced. As a result, alcohol production is not affected as
Beer without second conversion malt at 15 min 5.9 × 104 (2) 4 × 104 (0) evidenced by the maximum amount of alcohol being produced by all
pasteurisation
the samples. Since second conversion malt is added to aid the colour,
Beer without second conversion malt at 20 min 2 × 103 (0) 2 × 103
pasteurisation (0) texture and viscosity of the product, it had and insignificant effect on
Beer without second conversion malt at 30 min 4 × 103 (0.5) 1 × 103 fermentable sugars. The trend in alcohol production is similar to
pasteurisation (0.5) previous work by Mashanda (1997) and Bvochora (2000).
sd = standard deviation.
3.2.2.3. pH. The pH values of the products generally decreased
during storage due to lactic acid production by lactic acid bacteria,
resulted in a substantial increase in counts of lactic acid bacteria at reaching final values of 3.18 to 3.31 by day 10 (Fig. 3). The control
were presumably thermophilic lactic acid bacteria. product had the lowest pH by the end of fermentation. There was a
The second step of malt conversion has been considered to be the drastic drop in pH for the first 24 h in all samples. The drop in pH was
main source of the contamination (Mashanda, 1997). The results in higher in the control. Removal of second conversion malt reduced
Table 1 show that, even after pasteurising the wort and before total bacterial load, thereby giving a decreased reduction in pH.
addition of second conversion malt, some bacteria still remain in the
wort. The difference in between the bacterial load after pasteurisation 3.2.2.4. Total organic acids. Total acidity was used as an indicator of
and the load after adding the second conversion malt gives the spoilage and acceptability of the product. A general increase in total
bacterial load introduced by the second conversion malt. Even after acidity was recorded for both samples (Fig. 3) giving a trend similar to
removing second malt conversion, the beer still spoiled and this, most that of lactic acid. For the first three days of fermentation, the
probably, was due to inefficiencies in pasteurisation and bacterial difference in total acids was not significant between both the samples.
contamination coming from the yeast used as inoculum. Increasing Thereafter, total acidity in the control beer rapidly increased until
pasteurisation time to 20 min and 30 min has an effect of further 240 h. Acidity in the other beer increased much slower, only rapidly
reducing bacterial load, although the reduction is smaller than that rising after 168 h. The control beer accumulated 0.5%v/v total acids by
due to removal of the second conversion of malt. 120 h but this level of acid was not produced until after 168 h in the
beer without second malt conversion. A paired sample T test for total
3.2.2. Chemical changes acids at t10,(0.025) revealed a significant difference in acidity for beers
with and without the second malt conversion. It therefore follows that
3.2.2.1. Total dissolved solids. A general decrease in dissolved solids removing second step of malt conversion greatly reduces the
was recorded in all samples. There was a rapid decrease in total production of organic acids, with the possibility of reducing undesir-
dissolved solids during the first three days of fermentation which able souring. However, the temperature and other conditions of beer
levelled off thereafter in both samples (Fig. 2). The control beer had storage (temperature, yeast quality) need to be carefully controlled if
the largest reduction in total solids over three days; it had the lowest meaningful shelf life is to be attained through removal of the second
content of 5.6% (w/v) dissolved solids while the beer produced malt conversion.
without second malt conversion had 6.1% (w/v) by day 4. This was As expected product bite and total acidity was reduced in the
probably due to high bacterial load in the control beer which meant without the second step malt conversion. The rate of acid build up was
fast utilization of available solids. The rate of sugar utilization was however, higher in the control. The decrease was due to the expected
therefore, higher in the control than the variant. Not all dissolved reduction in inherent lactic acid bacteria as the second malt
solids were available for utilization by yeast as shown by the levelling conversion was eliminated. However product bite improved with
off of the solids after 72 h in the products. The levelling off may be due time most likely due to contribution from lactic acid bacteria in the
to inhibition of metabolic activity by the increasing alcohol (Zvauya yeast and those remaining after pasteurisation. Removing the second
et al., 1996). malt conversion delayed the time needed to reach the unacceptable
total acid threshold of 0.5% (v/v). It took 168 h to reach this threshold
3.2.2.2. Changes in alcohol during fermentation. There was a gradual value using this modified process unlike the 120 h achieved using the
increase in alcohol content as fermentation progressed until a normal brewing process. The pattern of pH and total acidity recorded
maximum of 4% (v/v) was obtained on the fourth day in both samples is consistent with that reported by other workers for various
(Fig. 2). After 120 h, there was a slight decline in alcohol content in all fermented beverages (Odunfa and Adeyele, 1995; Zvauya et al., 1997;
samples reaching levels as low as 3.52% (v/v) by day 9 (Fig. 2). The Mugula et al., 2001; Muyanja et al., 2003).

Fig. 2. Changes in total dissolved solids and alcohol concentration during fermentation
of Chibuku beers. –Δ– alcohol control, - -Δ- - alcohol variant, –♦– dissolved solids Fig. 3. Changes in pH and total acids during fermentation of Chibuku beers. –♦– pH
control, - -♦- - dissolved solids variant. control, - -♦- - pH variant, –Δ– total acids control, - -Δ- - total acids variant.
 J. Kutyauripo et al. / International Journal of Food Microbiology 129 (2009) 271–276 275

3.3. Physico-chemical analysis 4. Conclusions

Generally, the laboratory brewed beer resembled commercial Removal of the second step of malt conversion reduces total
Chibuku beer in appearance. All the beer samples had a thin bacterial loads to levels as low as 3.3 log cfu/ml, causing less
consistency on pouring except for the control beer which became production of total acids during fermentation. Consequently, this
slimy by day 7. The control beer had a head of 4.5% compared to 3.9% delayed the time taken to reach the unacceptable total acid threshold
for the beer without second conversion malt. The overall head, as of 0.5% (v/v). It took 168 h to reach this threshold value using this
measured within 5 min, was acceptable and almost uniform in all modified process unlike the 120 h achieved using the normal brewing
samples, with the control having a better head retention. The control process. Spoilage of the normal product as evidenced by appearance of
beer had an average viscosity of 58 during the fermentation period pellicles and roppiness was observed at 168 h while these were not
while beer produced without the second malt conversion had lower found in the test beer product even at 240 h. If removing the second
average viscosities of 49–52. Standard viscosity values range from 50– malt conversion is to be adopted as a way of brewing sorghum beer
60 in normal Chibuku products. By the seventh day, the control beer with extended shelf life, it would be necessary to carry out further
was ropy with white pellicles on the surface, while roppiness and off- studies to optimize the process and determine acceptability of the
odours were recorded from the ninth day in the test beer. The control product in the market. It would also be advantageous to identify the
beer had a settling of 5% while the beer without the second malt types and load of bacteria in raw materials and that remaining in the
conversion had a settling of 2%. Settling increased from the seventh wort after pasteurisation, so as to effect targeted preservation
day in all samples. measures. A comprehensive HACCP system for Chibuku needs to be
Head retention and creaminess (foaming ability) values were established so as to ensure quality control and improve storage life.
lower in the test beer and decreased as the beer matured. This may be This is the first report on the effect of removing second conversion
due to loss of dipeptides and other proteins that are responsible for malt in the brewing of Chibuku; hence extensive research is still
foam stabilization (O'Rourke, 2002). Protein in beer may be pre- needed in the optimization of the process including the storage
cipitated to give a whitish curd-like suspension (pellicles). This is conditions that favour extended shelf-life and effective pasteurisation.
probably due to denaturation of proteins as they reach their isoelectric
points during the drop in pH caused by lactic acid as the beer matures Acknowledgements
(Bhat and Vaitheeswaran, 1998).
The authors would like to thank Dr T. H. Gadaga for the
3.4. Sensory evaluation of Chibuku constructive discussion they had during the drafting of this work.
They also appreciate the support from technical staff in Delta
The control beer and the test beer were described as resembling Beverages, Technical Department, in particular Central and Quality
the original Chibuku brand with good taste and no off-odours. The Control Laboratories for their cooperation and allowing this research
products were acceptable according to the rating by the panel of to be carried out at their premises using their facilities.
tasters based on the parameters evaluated (Table 2). No unacceptable
sourness, odour or bite was recorded to warrant rejection of the new, References
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Table 2
Muyanja, C.M.B.K., Narvhus, J.A., Treimo, J., Langsrud, T., 2003. Isolation, characterisa-
Overall sensory acceptability (%) of the two beer products during storage for four
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different times after production fermented beverage. International Journal of Food Microbiology 80, 201–210.
Nout, M.J.R., 1980. Microbiological aspects of the traditional manufacture of Busaa, a
Sample Percentage acceptance
Kenyan opaque beer. Chemical, Microbiological and Technological Lebensm 6,
72 h sd 120 h sd 168 h sd 192 h sd 137–142.
Normal beer/control (1) 80 (0) 60 (10) 30 (10) 0 (0) Parawira, W., Kudita, I., Nyandoroh, M.G., Zvauya, R., 2005. A study of industrial
Beer without second conversion malt (2) 70 (10) 70 (0) 70 (0) 20 (0) anaerobic treatment of opaque beer brewery wastewater in a tropical climate using
a full-scale UASB reactor seeded with activated sludge. Process Biochemistry 40,
sd = standard deviation. 593–599.
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