6.

1  Digestion and Absorption

Essential Idea:

The structure of the wall of the small intestine

allows it to move, digest and absorb food

     

Understandings:

The contraction of circular and longitudinal muscle of the small intestine mixes the food with enzymes and
moves it along the gut
Enzymes digest most macromolecules in food into monomers in the small intestine
The pancreas secretes enzymes into the lumen of the small intestine
Villi increase the surface area of epithelium over which absorption is carried out
Villi absorb monomers formed by digestion as well as mineral ions and vitamins
Different methods of membrane transport are required to absorb different nutrients

Applications:

Processes occurring in the small intestine that result in the digestion of starch and transport of the products of
digestion to the liver
Use of dialysis tubing to model absorption of digested food in the intestine

Skills:

Production of an annotated diagram of the digestive system

Identification of tissue layers in transverse sections of the small intestine viewed with a microscope or in a
micrograph

Digestive System

Skill:
•  Production of an annotated diagram of the digestive system

    

There are two major groups of organs which comprise the human digestive system:

The alimentary canal consists of organs through which food actually passes (oesophagus, stomach, small &
large intestine)
The accessory organs aid in digestion but do not actually transfer food (salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gall
bladder)

Diagram of the Digestive System

⇒  Click on the diagram to show / hide labels

Alimentary Canal:

Oesophagus

•  A hollow tube connecting the oral cavity to the stomach (separated from the trachea by the epiglottis)
 •  Food is mixed with saliva and then is moved in a bolus via the action of peristalsis

Stomach

•  A temporary storage tank where food is mixed by churning and protein digestion
begins

•  It is lined by gastric pits that release digestive juices, which create an acidic
environment (pH ~2)

Small Intestine

•  A long, highly folded tube where usable food substances (nutrients) are absorbed

•  Consists of three sections – the duodenum, jejunum and ileum

Large Intestine

•  The final section of the alimentary canal, where water and dissolved minerals (i.e.
ions) are absorbed

•  Consists of the ascending / transverse / descending / sigmoidal colon, as well as the

rectum 

Accessory Organs:

Salivary Glands

•  Release saliva to moisten food and contains enzymes (e.g. amylase) to initiate starch
breakdown 

•  Salivary glands include the parotid gland, submandibular gland and sublingual gland

Pancreas

•  Produces a broad spectrum of enzymes that are released into the small intestine via
the duodenum

•  Also secretes certain hormones (insulin, glucagon), which regulate blood sugar
concentrations 

Liver

•  Takes the raw materials absorbed by the small intestine and uses them to make key
chemicals

•  Its role includes detoxification, storage, metabolism, bile production and haemoglobin
breakdown

Gall Bladder

•  The gall bladder stores the bile produced by the liver (bile salts are used to emulsify
fats)

•  Bile stored in the gall bladder is released into the small intestine via the common bile
duct

Drawing of a Human Digestive System

Key Features:

Stomach should look like a ‘J’-shaped bag and be connected to the oesophagus and small intestine
Liver should look like a right-angled triangle and be superimposed to the left of the stomach (right side of the
human)
Bile duct (connected to gall bladder) and pancreatic duct should both feed into a U-shaped bend of the small
intestine
Small intestine should be thinner in width than the large intestine

Mechanical Digestion

Understanding:
•  The contraction of circular and longitudinal muscle of the small intestine mixes food with enzymes and m
    along the gut

    

Food can be digested by a combination of two methods – mechanical digestion and chemical digestion

In mechanical digestion, food is physically broken down into smaller fragments via the acts of chewing (mouth),
churning (stomach) and segmentation (small intestine)

Mechanical Digestion

Chewing (Mouth)

Food is initially broken down in the mouth by the grinding action of teeth (chewing or mastication)
The tongue pushes the food towards the back of the throat, where it travels down the esophagus as a bolus
The epiglottis prevents the bolus from entering the trachea, while the uvula prevents the bolus from entering the
nasal cavity

Churning (Stomach)

The stomach lining contains muscles which physically squeeze and mix the food with strong digestive juices
('churning’)
Food is digested within the stomach for several hours and is turned into a creamy paste called chyme
Eventually the chyme enters the small intestine (duodenum) where absorption will occur

Movement of Food

Peristalsis

Peristalsis is the principal mechanism of movement in the oesophagus, although it also occurs in both the stomach
and gut
Continuous segments of longitudinal smooth muscle rhythmically contract and relax
Food is moved unidirectionally along the alimentary canal in a caudal direction (mouth to anus)

Segmentation

Segmentation involves the contraction and relaxation of non-adjacent segments of circular smooth muscle in the
intestines
Segmentation contractions move chyme in both directions, allowing for a greater mixing of food with digestive juices
While segmentation helps to physically digest food particles, its bidirectional propulsion of chyme can slow overall
movement 

Chemical Digestion

Understanding:
•  Enzymes digest most macromolecules in food into monomers in the small intestine

    

Food can be digested by a combination of two methods – mechanical digestion and chemical digestion

In chemical digestion, food is broken down by the action of chemical agents (such as enzymes, acids and bile)

Stomach Acids

The stomach contains gastric glands which release digestive acids to create a low pH environment (pH ~2)
The acidic environment functions to denature proteins and other macromolecules, aiding in their overall
digestion
The stomach epithelium contains a mucous membrane which prevents the acids from damaging the gastric
lining
The pancreas releases alkaline compounds (e.g. bicarbonate ions), which neutralise the acids as they enter the
intestine 

Bile

The liver produces a fluid called bile which is stored and concentrated within the gall bladder prior to release
into the intestine
Bile contains bile salts which interact with fat globules and divide them into smaller droplets (emulsification)
The emulsification of fats increases the total surface area available for enzyme activity (lipase)

Enzymes

Enzymes are biological catalysts which speed up the rate of a chemical reaction (i.e. digestion) by lowering
activation energy
Enzymes allow digestive processes to therefore occur at body temperatures and at sufficient speeds for survival
requirements
Enzymes are specific for a substrate and so can allow digestion of certain molecules to occur independently in
distinct locations

Examples of Digestive Enzymes

 Understanding:
•  The pancreas secretes enzymes into the lumen of the small intestine

    

Digestive enzymes are secreted predominantly by the pancreas, although other organs also contribute (salivary
gland, stomach)

The type of enzyme secreted and location of secretion depends on the specific macromolecule required for
hydrolysis

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth with the release of amylase from the salivary glands (amylase =
starch digestion)
Amylase is also secreted by the pancreas in order to continue carbohydrate digestion within the small intestine
Enzymes for disaccharide hydrolysis are often immobilised on the epithelial lining of the small intestine, near
channel proteins
Humans do not possess an enzyme capable of digesting cellulose (cellulase) and hence it passes through the
body undigested

Proteins

Protein digestion begins in the stomach with the release of proteases that function optimally in an acidic pH
(e.g. pepsin = pH 2)
Smaller polypeptide chains enter the small intestine where they are broken down by endopeptidases released
by the pancreas
These endopeptidases work optimally in neutral environments (pH ~ 7) as the pancreas neutralises the acids in
the intestine

Lipids

Lipid breakdown occurs in the intestines, beginning with emulsification of fat globules by bile released from the
gall bladder
The smaller fat droplets are then digested by lipases released from the pancreas

Nucleic Acids

The pancreas also releases nucleases which digest nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) into smaller nucleosides

Locations of Enzymatic Digestion



Small Intestine

Skill:
•  Identification of tissue layers in transverse sections of the small intestine viewed with a microscope or in
    micrograph

    

The human intestines function to absorb the products of digestion and have specialised structures to fulfil this
function

The small intestine absorbs usable food substances (i.e. nutrients – monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids,
vitamins, etc.)
The large intestine absorbs water and dissolved minerals (i.e. ions) from the indigestible food residues

Structure of the Small Intestine

The small intestine is composed of four main tissue layers, which are (from outside to centre):

Serosa – a protective outer covering composed of a layer of cells reinforced by fibrous connective tissue
Muscle layer – outer layer of longitudinal muscle (peristalsis) and inner layer of circular muscle (segmentation)
Submucosa – composed of connective tissue separating the muscle layer from the innermost mucosa
Mucosa – a highly folded inner layer which absorbs material through its surface epithelium from the intestinal
lumen

Below is a cross-section of the ileum – the final section of the small intestine (click on image to view coloured
layers):

 Understanding:
•  Villi increase the surface area of epithelium over which absorption is carried out
•  Villi absorb monomers formed by digestion as well as mineral ions and vitamins

    

The inner epithelial lining of the intestine is highly folded into finger-like projections called villi (singular: villus)

Many villi will protrude into the intestinal lumen, greatly increasing the available surface area for material absorption

Features of Villi

Intestinal villi contain several key features which facilitate the absorption of digestive products (monomers, ions and
vitamins):

Microvilli – Ruffling of epithelial membrane further increases surface area

Rich blood supply – Dense capillary network rapidly transports absorbed products
Single layer epithelium – Minimises diffusion distance between lumen and blood
Lacteals – Absorbs lipids from the intestine into the lymphatic system
Intestinal glands – Exocrine pits (crypts of Lieberkuhn) release digestive juices
Membrane proteins – Facilitates transport of digested materials into epithelial cells

Mnemonic:  MR SLIM

Features of Intestinal Villi

Structure of Villus Epithelium

The epithelial lining of villi contains several structural features which optimise its capacity to absorb digested
materials:

Tight Junctions

Occluding associations between the plasma membrane of two adjacent cells, creating an impermeable barrier
They keep digestive fluids separated from tissues and maintain a concentration gradient by ensuring one-way
movement 

Microvilli
 Microvilli borders significantly increase surface area of the plasma membrane (>100×), allowing for more absorption
to occur
The membrane will be embedded with immobilised digestive enzymes and channel proteins to assist in material
uptake 

Mitochondria

Epithelial cells of intestinal villi will possess large numbers of mitochondria to provide ATP for active transport
mechanisms
ATP may be required for primary active transport (against gradient), secondary active transport (co-transport) or
pinocytosis

Pinocytotic Vesicles

Pinocytosis (‘cell-drinking’) is the non-specific uptake of fluids and dissolved solutes (a quick way to translocate in
bulk)
These materials will be ingested via the breaking and reforming of the membrane and hence contained within a
vesicle

Cross-Section of Villus Epithelium

                 
Structure:         
Pinocytotic Vesicles
                Tight Junction
                 Microvilli
                 Mitochondria
                
All

Absorption

Understanding:
•  Different methods of membrane transport are required to absorb different nutrients

    

During absorption, digested food monomers must pass from the lumen into the epithelial lining of the small intestine

Tight junctions between epithelial cells occlude any gaps between cells – all monomers must cross the membrane
Different monomers undertake different methods for crossing the apical and basolateral membranes

Membrane Transport Mechanisms

Secondary Active Transport

A transport protein couples the active translocation of one molecule to the passive movement of another (co-
transport)
Glucose and amino acids are co-transported across the epithelial membrane by the active translocation of sodium
ions (Na+)

Facilitated Diffusion

Channel proteins help hydrophilic food molecules pass through the hydrophobic portion of the plasma membrane
Channel proteins are often situated near specific membrane-bound enzymes (creates a localised concentration
gradient)
Certain monosaccharides (e.g. fructose), vitamins and some minerals are transported by facilitated diffusion

Osmosis

Water molecules will diffuse across the membrane in response to the movement of ions and hydrophilic monomers
(solutes)
The absorption of water and dissolved ions occurs in both the small and large intestine

Simple Diffusion

Hydrophobic materials (e.g. lipids) may freely pass through the hydrophobic portion of the plasma membrane
Once absorbed, lipids will often pass first into the lacteals rather than being transported via the blood

Methods of Membrane Transport



Bulk Transport

Endocytosis

Endocytosis involves the invagination of the plasma membrane to create an internal vesicle containing extracellular
material
Vesicle formation requires the breaking and reforming of the phospholipid bilayer and hence is an energy-
dependent process
In the intestines, vesicles commonly form around fluid containing dissolved materials (pinocytosis – cell ‘drinking’)
Pinocytosis allows materials to be ingested en masse and hence takes less time than shuttling via membrane
proteins

Mechanism of Endocytosis

Summary of Absorption Methods



Starch Digestion

Application:
•  Processes occurring in the small intestine that result in the digestion of starch and transport of the produ
    digestion to the liver

    

Starch is a polysaccharide composed of glucose monomers and accounts for ~ 60% of the carbohydrates
consumed by humans

Starch can exist in one of two forms – linear chains (amylose) or branched chains (amylopectin)

The digestion of starch is initiated by salivary amylase in the mouth and continued by pancreatic amylase in the
intestines

Starch digestion by amylase does not occur in the stomach as the pH is unsuitable for amylase activity (optimal pH
~ 7)

Amylase digests amylose into maltose subunits (disaccharide) and digests amylopectin into branched chains called
dextrins

Both maltose and dextrin are digested by enzymes (maltase) which are fixed to the epithelial lining of the small
intestine
The hydrolysis of maltose / dextrin results in the formation of glucose monomers

Glucose can be hydrolysed to produce ATP (cell respiration) or stored in animals as the polysaccharide glycogen

Glucose monomers can also be generated from the breakdown of other disaccharides (such as lactose and
sucrose)

Overview of Starch Hydrolysis



Role of Pancreas

The pancreas serves two functions in the breakdown of starch:

It produces the enzyme amylase which is released from exocrine glands (acinar cells) into the intestinal tract
It produces the hormones insulin and glucagon which are released from endocrine glands (islets of Langerhans)
into the blood

The hormones insulin and glucagon regulate the concentration of glucose in the bloodstream (controls availability to
cells)

Insulin lowers blood glucose levels by increasing glycogen synthesis and storage in the liver and adipose tissues
Glucagon increases blood glucose levels by limiting the synthesis and storage of glycogen by the liver and adipose
tissues

Pancreatic Regulation of Glycogen Storage by the Liver

Modelling Digestion

Application:
•  Use of dialysis tubing to model absorption of digested foods in the intestine

    

Most food is solid and in the form of large complex molecules which are insolube and chemically inert (not
readily usable)

The process of digestion therefore performs two key functions:

It breaks down insoluble molecules into smaller subunits which can be readily absorbed into body tissues
It breaks down inert molecules into usable subunits which can be assimilated by cells and reassembled into
new products

Modelling Digestion

A core function of the digestive system is to break down large molecules into smaller subunits that can be
absorbed by cells

Cell membranes are impermeable to large molecules (polypeptides, polysaccharides) unless transport is
facilitated by proteins

The size-specific permeability of cell membranes can be modelled using dialysis tubing (Visking tubing)

Dialysis tubing contains pores typically ranging from 1 - 10 nm in diameter and is semi-permeable according to
molecular size
Large molecules such as starch cannot pass through the tubing, however smaller molecules (such as maltose)
can cross
Unlike the membranes of living cells, dialysis tubing is not selectively permeable based on charge (ions can
freely cross)

Dialysis Tubing

Digestion Experiments

Digestive enzymes like amylase can break down inpermeable polymers (starch) into permeable subunits
(maltose)

Dialysis tubing is impermeable to amylase and starch, but permeable to maltose (and water)

Experiment 1:  Measuring Meniscus Levels

A length of dialysis tubing is attached to a thistle funnel and filled with starch solution (control condition)
A second length of tubing is attached to a thistle funnel and filled with starch and amylase solution
(experimental condition)
Both apparatuses are placed in a beaker filled with water
Over time, water will move into the tubing via osmosis (towards the solute) causing the meniscus level to rise
The tube with amylase will have less solute (as starch is digested) and hence the meniscus level should not
rise as much

Experiment 2:  Measuring Maltose Diffusion

A length of dialysis tubing is filled with starch solution and suspended in a beaker of water (control condition)
A second length of tubing is filled with starch and amylase solution and suspended in a beaker of water
(experimental condition)
The amylase will digest the starch into maltose, which is small enough to diffuse out of the tubing and into the
beaker
The presence of maltose can be detected using Benedict’s reagent or glucose indicator strips

Using Dialysis Tubing to Model Digestive Processes (Starch Breakdown and Maltose
Absorption)

Stages of Digestion

The main purpose of the digestive system is to break large molecules down into smaller subunits due to the fact
that:

Large molecules are typically chemically inert and need to be broken down and reassembled into usable
products
Large molecules are typically insoluble and cannot be absorbed into cells, whereas smaller subunits are
soluble

The process of digestion occurs across a number of stages, including:

Ingestion – food is taken into the body via the act of eating
Digestion – food is broken down both physically (e.g. mastication) and chemically (e.g. enzymatic hydrolysis)
Absorption – digested food products are absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to cells
Assimilation – digested food products are converted into the fluid and solid parts of a cell / tissue
Elimination – undigested food residues are egested from the body as semi-solid faeces

Stages of Digestion

Lipid Digestion

Lipids are hydrophobic (water ‘hating’) and hence tend to be insoluble within the aqueous environments of the
body

Being hydrophobic, lipids will group together (coalesce) to form large globules of fats

The enzyme responsible for lipid digestion (lipase) is generally water soluble and is only hydrophobic at the
active site

This means lipase can only bind to lipid globules at the lipid-water interface (i.e. the outer extremity of the
globule)
As the interior of the fat globule is inaccessible to lipase, digestion of lipids in this form is normally very slow

Bile is a watery fluid that contains bile salts and pigments (bilirubin) – it is made by the liver and released from
the gall bladder

Bile salt molecules have both a hydrophobic surface and a hydrophilic surface
The hydrophobic end interacts with the lipid while the hydrophilic end faces out and prevents lipids from
coalescing
This divides the fat globule into smaller droplets (emulsification), increasing the total surface area available for
enzyme activity 

Emulsification of Lipids

8/

Lipid Absorption

Lipids within the digestive system will tend to hydrophobically aggregate to form large fat globules

Bile salts, secreted from the gall bladder, emulsify these fat globules and break them up into smaller droplets
Hydrolytic enzymes called lipases then digest the fats into their component parts

When the fatty acids are absorbed into the epithelial cells of the intestinal lining, they are combined to form
triglycerides

The triglycerides are combined with proteins inside the Golgi apparatus to form chylomicrons
Chylomicrons are released from the epithelial cells and are transported via the lacteals to the liver

While in the liver, chylomicrons may be modified to form a variety of lipoproteins

Low density lipoproteins will transport lipids via the bloodstream to cells
High density lipoproteins will scavenge excess lipids from the bloodstream and tissues and return them to the
liver

Lipid Absorption and Transport

Sections of the Gut

The intestines are a long continuous tube – running from stomach to anus – where the absorption of nutrients
and water occurs

The intestines can be divided into the small intestines (nutrient absorption) and large intestines (water
absorption)

Small Intestines

The small intestine is comprised of three distinct regions: duodenum, jejunum and ileum

Duodenum

First segment of the small intestine which is fed by digestive fluids from the pancreas and gall bladder
Bile emulsifies fat globules into smaller droplets and pancreatic juice contains digestive enzymes
Sodium bicarbonate is released from the pancreas to neutralise stomach acids such that intestinal pH is ~ 7

Jejunum

Second segment of the small intestine where the digestive process is largely completed
Pancreatic enzymes and enzymes released from intestinal glands complete the break down of sugars, proteins
and lipids

Ileum

Final segment of the small intestine with the principal function of nutrient absorption
The intestinal tract is highly folded (villi and microvilli) to increase surface area and optimise material absorption
Bile is also absorbed here and returned to the liver via blood vessels

Large Intestine

The principal function of the large intestine is to absorb any remaining water and mineral ions

The large intestine is divided into the ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoidal colon
and rectum
The appendix is also considered a part of the large intestine although it is a vestigial remnant without an
important function

Sections of the Intestines