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COURSE NO. 401 : BUSINESS POLICY AND STRATEGIC ANALYSIS
STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT - MEANING AND IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
Strategic Management is all about identification and description of the strategies that managers can carry so as to achieve better
performance and a competitive advantage for their organization. An organization is said to have competitive advantage if its profitability
is higher than the average profitability for all companies in its industry. Strategic management can also be defined as a bundle of
decisions and acts which a manager undertakes and which decides the result of the firm’s performance.
Definition of Business Policy- Business Policy defines the scope or spheres within which decisions can be taken by the subordinates in an
organization. It permits the lower level management to deal with the problems and issues without consulting top level management
every time for decisions.
Features of Business Policy 1.Specific 2.Clear 3.Reliable/Uniform 3.Appropriate 4.Simple 5.Inclusive/Comprehensive 6.Flexible 7.Stable
Difference between Policy and Strategy-
Policy is a blueprint of the organizational activities which are repetitive/routine in nature. While strategy is concerned with those
organizational decisions which have not been dealt/faced before in same form.
1. Policy formulation is responsibility of top level management. While strategy formulation is basically done by middle level management.
2. Policy deals with routine/daily activities essential for effective and efficient running of an organization. While strategy deals with
strategic decisions.
3. Policy is concerned with both thought and actions. While strategy is concerned mostly with action.
4. A policy is what is, or what is not done. While a strategy is the methodology used to achieve a target as prescribed by a policy.
Characteristics of Business- 1. Creation of utilities 2. Dealings in goods and services 3. Continuity in dealings 4. Sale, transfer or exchange
5. Profit motive 6. Element of risk 7. Economic activity 8. Art as well as science

Strategic Management: Business policy as a field of study-

1.Business policy in Indian context: 2. Theoretical
framework of business policy: 3.Nature of
Business Policy 4. Attributes of business policy: a.
Top management function b. Understanding the
big picture c. Integration of functional areas d.
Resource focus e. Externally tuned f. Wider
application g. Enhancement of analytical skills 5.
Importance of business policy course
strategic Management Process
1. Environmental Scanning 3. Strategy Implementation
2. Strategy Formulation 4. Strategy Evaluation
1.Environmental Scanning - Internal & External Analysis of Environment
2.Steps in Strategy Formulation Process-
1. Setting Organizations’ 3. Setting Quantitative Targets 6. Choice of Strategy
2. Evaluating the Organizational 4. Aiming in context with the divisional plans
Environment 5. Performance Analysis
3.Follwoing are the main steps in implementing a strategy:
Developing an organization having potential of carrying out strategy
successfully.
Disbursement of abundant resources to strategy-essential activities.
Creating strategy-encouraging policies.
Employing best policies and programs for constant improvement.
Linking reward structure to accomplishment of results.
Making use of strategic leadership.
Strategy Formulation vs Strategy Implementation
Strategy Formulation Strategy Implementation
Strategy Formulation includes planning and decision-making Strategy Implementation involves all those means related to
involved in developing organization’s strategic goals and plans. executing the strategic plans.
placing the Forces before the action. managing forces during the action.
Entrepreneurial Activity based on strategic decision-making. Administrative Task based on strategic and operational decisions.
effectiveness. efficiency.
rational process. operational process.
requires co-ordination among few individuals. requires co-ordination among many individuals.
initiative and logical skills. motivational and leadership traits.
precedes Strategy Implementation. follows Strategy Formulation.
The process of Strategy steps-Fixing benchmark of performance 2. Measurement of performance 3. Analyzing Variance 4. aking
Corrective Action

Strategic Decisions - Definition and Characteristics

Characteristics/Features of Strategic Decisions
a. have major resource propositions for an organization. d. involve a change of major kind since an organization operates in
b. deal with harmonizing organizational resource capabilities with ever-changing environment.
the threats and opportunities. e. complex in nature.
c. deal with the range of organizational activities. f. at the top most level, are uncertain as they deal with the future,
and involve a lot of risk.

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Administrative decisions are routine decisions which help or rather facilitate strategic decisions or operational decisions. Operational
decisions are technical decisions which help execution of strategic decisions. To reduce cost is a strategic decision which is achieved
through operational decision of reducing the number of employees and how we carry out these reductions will be administrative decision.
The differences between Strategic, Administrative and Operational decisions can be summarized as follows-
Strategic Decisions Administrative Decisions Operational Decisions
Strategic decisions are long-term decisions. Administrative decisions are taken daily. Operational decisions are not frequently
taken.
These are considered where The future planning These are short-term based Decisions. These are medium-period based decisions.
is concerned.
Strategic decisions are taken in Accordance with These are taken according to strategic These are taken in accordance with
organizational mission and vision. and operational Decisions. strategic and administrative decision.
These are related to overall Counter planning of These are related to working of These are related to production.
all Organization. employees in an Organization.
These deal with organizational Growth. These are in welfare of employees These are related to production and factory
working in an organization. growth.
Benefits of Strategic Management 1. Financial Benefits 2.Non-Financial Benefits 3. Closing Thoughts
The evolution of business strategy
Financial Budgeting(1950) Evolution of strategic management: Dominant themes.
DCF capital budgeting INDUSTRY
Operational budgeting ATTRACTIVENESS CORPORATE
Which industries STRATEGY

RATE OF RETURN should we be in?

Corporate Planning(1960)
Corporate plans based on medium-term ABOVE THE COST
economic forecasts OF CAPITAL
COMPETITIVE
ADVANTAGE
Emergence of Strategic Management(1970-1980) BUSINESS
Industry analysis and competitive positioning STRATEGY
How should we
compete?

The Quest for Competitive Advantage (1980-1990) Corporate versus business strategy.
Emphasis on resources and capabilities ● Corporate strategy defines the scope of the firm in terms of the industries
Shareholder value maximization and markets in which it competes. Corporate strategy decisions include
Refocusing, outsourcing, delayering, cost investment in diversification, vertical integration, acquisitions and new
cutting
ventures; the allocation of resources between the different businesses of the
firm; and divestments.
Adapting to Turbulence(2000-2014) ● Business strategy is concerned with how the firm competes within a
particular industry or market. If the firm is to prosper within an industry, it
Exploiting information and communications must establish a competitive advantage over its rivals. Hence, this area of
technology strategy is also referred to as competitive strategy.
Strategic alliances Roles: 1.strategy as decision support 2. strategy as a coordinating device 3.
The quest for _exibility and strategic innovation strategy as target 4. strategy as animation and orientation.
Social and environmental responsibility Importance of Corporate Strategy
1.Universal 2. Keeping pace with changing environment- 3. Minimizes
competitive disadvantage- 4. Clear sense of strategic vision and sharper focus on goals and objectives- 5.Motivating employees- 6.
Strengthening Decision-Making- 7. Efficient and effective way of implementing actions for results- 8. Improved understanding of internal
and external environments of business
Levels of strategy: 1.Corporate strategy 2.Business strategy 3.Functional strategy 4.Operating strategy

SWOT Analysis - Definition, Advantages and Limitations

SWOT is an acronym for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. By definition, Strengths (S) and Weaknesses (W) are
considered to be internal factors over which you have some measure of control. Also, by definition, Opportunities (O) and Threats (T) are
considered to be external factors over which you have essentially no control.
SWOT Analysis is the most renowned tool for audit and analysis of the overall strategic position of the business and its environment. Its
key purpose is to identify the strategies that will create a firm specific business model that will best align an organization’s resources and
capabilities to the requirements of the environment in which the firm operates.
Advantages of SWOT Analysis
 It is a source of information for strategic  Overcome organization’s threats.  It helps in knowing past, present and future
planning.  It helps in identifying core competencies of so that by using past and current data,
 Builds organization’s strengths. the firm. future plans can be chalked out.
 Reverse its weaknesses.  It helps in setting of objectives for strategic
 Maximize its response to opportunities. planning.
SWOT Analysis provide information that helps in synchronizing the firm’s resources and capabilities with the competitive environment in
which the firm operates.
Limitations of SWOT Analysis 1.Price increase 2.Inputs/raw materials 3.Government legislation 4.Economic environment 5.Searching a
new market 6.for the product which is not having overseas market due to import restrictions; etc.
Internal limitations may include-
a. Insufficient research and development facilities; b. Faulty products due to poor quality control;

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c. Poor industrial relations; d. Lack of skilled and efficient labour; etc

BCG Matrix
Boston Consulting Group (BCG) Matrix is a four celled matrix (a 2 * 2 matrix) developed by BCG, USA. It is the most renowned corporate
portfolio analysis tool. It provides a graphic representation for an organization to examine different businesses in it’s portfolio on the
basis of their related market share and industry growth rates. It is a two dimensional analysis on management of SBU’s (Strategic
Business Units). In other words, it is a comparative analysis of business potential and the evaluation of environment.
According to this matrix, business could be classified as high or low according to their industry growth rate and relative market share.
BCG matrix has four cells, with the horizontal axis representing relative market share and the vertical axis
denoting market growth rate. The mid-point of relative market share is set at 1.0. if all the SBU’s are in same
industry, the average growth rate of the industry is used. While, if all the SBU’s are located in different
industries, then the mid-point is set at the growth rate for the economy. Resources are allocated to the
business units according to their situation on the grid. The four cells of this matrix have been called as stars,
cash cows, question marks and dogs. Each of these cells represents a particular type of business.
Limitations of BCG Matrix
1. BCG matrix classifies businesses as low and high, but generally businesses can be medium also. Thus, the
true nature of business may not be reflected.
2. Market is not clearly defined in this model.
3. High market share does not always leads to high profits. There are high costs also involved with high market share.
4. Growth rate and relative market share are not the only indicators of profitability. This model ignores and overlooks other indicators of
profitability.
5. At times, dogs may help other businesses in gaining competitive advantage. They can earn even more than cash cows sometimes.
6. This four-celled approach is considered as to be too simplistic.

Tools and techniques for strategic analysis: GEC Mode

The General Electric Matrix is extensively used to appraise competitive scenarios. GE Matrix is a viable tools that assist managers to
develop organizational strategy that is based mainly on market attractiveness and business strengths. In consulting engagements with
General Electric in the 1970s, McKinsey and Company developed a nine-cell portfolio matrix as a tool to screen GEs large portfolio of
strategic business units (SBU). Fundamentally, GE-McKinsey nine-box matrix is a strategy device that offers a systematic approach for the
multi business corporation to prioritize its investments among its business units. It is a structure that assesses business portfolio, delivers
further strategic implications and helps to prioritize the investment needed for each business unit. This matrix was intended to overcome
the underperformances that companies were encountering with the BCG matrix and to fill the requirement to compare numerous and
diverse businesses.

Development of the G.E

Matrix-The G.E matrix is
constructed in a 3x3 grid
with Market Attractiveness
plotted on the Y-axis and
Business Strength on the X-
axis, both being measured
on a high, medium, or low
score. Five steps must be
considered in order to
formulate the matrix;

The range of products

produced by the SBU must
be listed
o Factors which make the
particular market
attractive must be
identified
o Evaluating where the SBU
stands in this market
o Processes through which
calculations about
business strength and
market attractiveness can be made
o Determining which category an SBU lies in; high, medium, or low
Market Attractiveness
Business and Competitive Strength
Measuring Market Attractiveness and Business Strength = 1 rating x factor 1 magnitude + factor 2 rating x factor 2 magnitude + .....
+factor n rating x factor n magnitude.
Advantages:
1. It used 9 cells where as BCG used 4 cells. 3. It is more sophisticated business portfolio framework than the
2. It considers many variables and does not lead to one- BCG matrix.
dimensional conclusions.

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4. There are many types of classifications such as high/medium/low 5. This matrix utilizes multiple factors to evaluate industry
and strong/average/low classification allows a better distinction attractiveness and business strength, which allow users to select
among business portfolio. criteria appropriate to their situation.
Disadvantages:
1. GE Matrix Involves a consultant or experts to determine 4. The core capabilities of the firm or the corporation are not
industry’s attractiveness and business unit strength as accurately signified in this analysis. The core competencies may be
as possible. leveraged across SBUs and can be a deciding factor while judging
2. It is costly to conduct. the competitive strength of the SBUs.
3. A major postulation for the GE-McKinsey matrix is that it can 5. It can get quite complicated and cumbersome with the increase
operate when the economies of scale are realizable in in businesses.
production and distribution. Unless the same holds true, the 6. It cannot successfully portray the position of new business units
concept of leveraging the competencies of the firm and the SBU in emerging business.
falls flat.

Value chain
A value chain is a set of activities that a firm operating in a specific industry performs in order to deliver a valuable product or service for
the market. The idea of the value chain is based on the process view of organizations, the idea of seeing a manufacturing (or service)
organization as a system, made up of subsystems each with inputs, transformation processes and outputs. Inputs, transformation
processes, and outputs involve the acquisition and consumption of resources – money, labor, materials, equipment, buildings, land,
administration and management. How value chain activities are carried out determines costs and affects profits.
Firm-level
.
A firm's value chain forms a part of a larger stream of activities, which Porter calls a value system A value system, or an industry value
chain, includes the suppliers that provide the inputs necessary to the firm along with their value chains. After the firm creates products,
these products pass through the value chains of distributors (which also have their own value chains), all the way to the customers. All
parts of these chains are included in the value system. To achieve and sustain a competitive advantage, and to support that advantage
with information technologies, a firm must understand every component of this value system.
Primary activities: 1.Inbound Logistics 2.Operations 3.Outbound Logistics 4.Marketing and Sales 5.Service
Support activities 1.Infrastructure 2.Technological Development 3.Human Resources Management 4.Procurement
Type: 1.Physical, virtual and combined value chain 2.Global value chains 3.Cross border / cross region value chains-
Porter's Value Chain – the seminal ‘business school
definition’
“The idea of the value chain is based on the process view
of organizations, the idea of seeing a manufacturing (or
service) organization as a system, made up of subsystems
each with inputs, transformation processes and outputs.
Inputs, transformation processes, and outputs involve the
acquisition and consumption of resources - money, labor,
materials, equipment, buildings, land, administration and
management.
'Value chain' versus 'supply chain' A ‘supply chain’ refers to the system and resources required to move a product or service from supplier
to customer. The ‘value chain’ concept builds on this to also consider the manner in which value is added along the chain, both to the
product / service and the actors involved. From a sustainability perspective, ‘value chain’ has more appeal, since it explicitly
references internal and external stakeholders in the value-creation process.

The McKinsey 7-S Framework

The 7-S model can be used in a wide variety of situations where an alignment
perspective is useful, for example, to help you:
 Improve the performance of a company.
 Examine the likely effects of future changes within a company.
 Align departments and processes during a merger or acquisition.
 Determine how best to implement a proposed strategy.
"Hard" elements are easier to define or identify and management can directly influence
them: These are strategy statements; organization charts and reporting lines; and formal
processes and IT systems.
"Soft" elements, on the other hand, can be more difficult to describe, and are less
tangible and more influenced by culture. However, these soft elements are as important
as the hard elements if the organization is going to be successful.
The way the model is presented in Figure 1 below depicts the interdependency of the
elements and indicates how a change in one affects all the others.
Let's look at each of the elements specifically:
 Strategy: the plan devised to maintain and build competitive advantage over the
competition.
 Structure: the way the organization is structured and who reports to whom.
 Systems: the daily activities and procedures that staff members engage in to get the job done.
 Shared Values: called "superordinate goals" when the model was first developed, these are the core values of the company that are
evidenced in the corporate culture and the general work ethic.
 Style: the style of leadership adopted.  Staff: the employees and their general capabilities.
 Skills: the actual skills and competencies of the employees working for the company.

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Using the tool We provide the following steps that should help you to apply this tool:
Step 1. Identify the areas that are not effectively aligned Step 4. Make the necessary changes
Step 2. Determine the optimal organization design Step 5. Continuously review the 7s
Step 3. Decide where and what changes should be made

Knowledge management
"Knowledge management is the process of capturing, distributing, and effectively using knowledge."
Knowledge management (KM) is the process of creating, sharing, using and managing the knowledge and information of an organization.
It refers to a multidisciplinary approach to achieving organizational objectives by making the best use of knowledge.
Implementing knowledge management thus has several dimensions including: 1.Strategy 2.Organizational Culture 3.Organizational
Processes 4.Management & Leadership 5.Technology 6.Politics
Knowledge management (KM) technology can be categorized: 1.Groupware 2.Workflow 3.Content/Document management
4.Enterprise portals 5.Scheduling and planning 6.Telepresence
Explicit, Implicit and Tacit Knowledge
Explicit: information or knowledge that is set out in tangible form.
Implicit: information or knowledge that is not set out in tangible form but could be made explicit.
Tacit: information or knowledge that one would have extreme difficulty operationally setting out in tangible form.
Stages of KM Second Stage of KM: HR and Corporate Culture
First Stage of KM: Information Technology Third Stage of KM: Taxonomy and Content Management

Corporate Philosophy and Corporate Governance

Introduction- Corporate Governance refers to the relationship that exists between the different stakeholders for an organization, and
defining the direction and performance of an organization or a corporate firm. The relevance of understanding of the issues and concerns
and to have good corporate governance in letter and spirit has always been there for a sustained, sustainable growth for any
organization. This issue has gained more importance, when we see many corporate scandals coming out in India as well as other parts of
the world in recent past as those organizations did not apply good principles of corporate governance. The following bodies are the main
actors in Corporate Governance.
1) The Chief Executive Officer 2) The board of directors 3) The shareholders
Corporate governance
Corporate governance is about maximizing shareholder value legally, ethically and on a sustainable basis. At Infosys, the goal of corporate
governance is to ensure fairness for every stakeholder – our customers, investors, vendor-partners, the community, and the governments
of the countries in which we operate. We believe that sound corporate governance is critical in enhancing and retaining investor trust. It
is a reflection of our culture, our policies, our relationship with stakeholders and our commitment to values. Accordingly, we always seek
to ensure that our performance is driven by integrity.

Corporate governance philosophy

Our corporate governance philosophy is based on the following principles:

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 Satisfying the spirit of the law and not just the letter of the law  Communicating externally in a truthful manner about how the
 Going beyond the law in upholding corporate governance company is run internally
standards  Complying with the laws in all the countries in which the company
 Maintaining transparency and a high degree of disclosure levels operates
 Making a clear distinction between personal convenience and  Having a simple and transparent corporate structure driven solely
corporate resources by business needs
 Embracing a trusteeship model in which the management is the
trustee of the shareholders' capital and not the owner
OBJECTIVES OF CORPORATE GOVERNANCE
1. To build up an environment of trust and confidence amongst those having competing and conflicting interest.
2. To enhance the shareholders‟ value and protect the interest of other stakeholders by enhancing the corporate performance and
accountability.
Stakeholders and Performance Expectation
1. Investor Expects high dividend and capital appreciation in the organization.
2. Lender Expects timely repayment of loan and interest
3. Supplier Expects fair terms and timely payments
4. Employee Expects good working environment, fair remuneration and security
5. Customer Expects Quality product & services at fair price (value for money)
6. Government Expects the company to partner in nation building by paying taxes or directly spending on social projects
7. Society Expects the company to use resources judiciously so as to maintain ecological balance and sustainable
development and also partner in nation building.

NEED FOR GOOD CORPORATE GOVERNANCE The following issues are important for good Corporate Governance.
 The rights and obligation of shareholders.  The role of board of directors clearly defined.
 Equitable treatment of all stakeholders.  The role of non-executive members of the board clearly defined.
 The role of all stakeholders clearly defined and the linkage for  Executive management and compensation and performance
corporate governance established. clearly defined.
 Transparency, disclosure of information and audit.

MECHANISM AND CONTROL FOR CORPORATE GOVERNANCE

 Monitoring the Role/effectiveness of the Board of Directors.  Issues and concerns of Government Regulations
 Remuneration of the Board Members and other employees in  Understand the strategic issues of the competition
the company.  Management labor market and concerns of control mechanisms.
 Responsibilities and accountability for Audit Committees

Business Ethics and Social Responsibility

Ethics-Ethics is a branch of social science. It deals with moral principles and social values. It helps us to classifying, what is good and what
is bad? It tells us to do good things and avoid doing bad things.
So, ethics separate, good and bad, right and wrong, fair and unfair, moral and immoral and proper and improper human action. In short,
ethics means a code of conduct. It is like the 10 commandments of holy Bible. It tells a person how to behave with another person.
What does Business Ethics mean?
In short, business ethics means to conduct business with a human touch in order to give welfare to the society. So, the businessmen
must give a regular supply of good quality goods and services at reasonable prices to their consumers. They must avoid indulging in
unfair trade practices like adulteration, promoting misleading advertisements, cheating in weights and measures, black marketing, etc.
They must give fair wages and provide good working conditions to their workers. They must not exploit the workers. They must
encourage competition in the market. They must protect the interest of small businessmen. They must avoid unfair competition. They
must avoid monopolies. They must pay all their taxes regularly to the government.

Nature of Business Ethics 1. Code of conduct 2.Based on moral and social values 3.Gives protection to social groups 4.Provides basic
framework 5.Voluntary 6.Requires education and guidance 7.Relative Term 8.New concept
Importance of Business Ethics 1. Long-term growth 2.Cost and risk reduction 3.Anti-capitalist sentiment 3.Limited resources
Scope of business ethics 1.Ethics in Compliance 2.Ethics in Finance 3.Ethics in Human Resources 4.Ethics in Marketing 5.Ethics of
Production
Advantages of business ethics 1.Attracting and retaining talent 2.Investor Loyalty 3.Customer satisfaction 4.Regulators

Difference between Business Ethics and Social Responsibility

Though business ethics and social responsibility seem to be overlapping, there has always been a contradiction between the two.
Companies, though they are committed to be socially responsible for their behaviour have been found to be engaging in acts that cannot
be called ethical.What is good for the society is sometimes not good for the business, and what is good for the business is almost always
not good for the society.
If the society is conscious, it responds in such a way that businesses are forced to behave responsibly. The same applies to the
administration and the judiciary of any country. Selling of liquor and tobacco in any society is not against business ethics though it may
be against the principles of social responsibility. The same applies to lotteries and gambling. But it is certainly against business ethics as
well as against social responsibility to entice minors to engage in smoking and drinking.
Corporate Strategy
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Business Strategy- The decisions a company makes on its way to creating, maintaining and using its competitive advantages are
business-level strategies. After evaluating the company’s product line, target market and competition, a small business owner can better
identify where her competitive advantage lies. A gourmet candy company, for example, might find that it cannot compete on price;
larger corporations often enjoy economies of scale that keep costs low. Instead, the small business would choose a differentiation
strategy, emphasizing freshness, quality ingredients or some other attribute consumers will value highly enough to pay extra. Business
strategy will affect the small company’s functional decisions such as the selection of its promotions and distribution channels.
Corporate Strategy- When a business identifies opportunities outside its original industry, it might contemplate diversification. When
additional businesses become part of the company, the small business owner must consider corporate-level strategy. To be effective, the
umbrella company must contribute to the efficiency, profitability and competitive advantage to each business unit. The gourmet candy
maker may decide to enter the dried-fruit business, for example. This corporate decision is sound only if the parent company can extend
and develop a competitive advantage – say economy of scope, integrated management or procurement – over both businesses. For
example, the owner may determine that her mail-order candy distribution system is perfectly suited for the dried-fruit business and that
customer research indicates existing customers will purchase items from both companies. Or she may be able to negotiate volume
discounts for raisins, dried cranberries and dried cherries she will use in both businesses.
Strategic management processes and activities 1.Formulation 2.Implementation
Instead Mintzberg concludes that there are five types of strategies: 1.Strategy as plan 2.Strategy as pattern 3.Strategy as position
4.Strategy as ploy 5.Strategy as perspective
Three Models of Strategy, 1.Linear strategy 2.Adaptive strategy 3.Interpretive strategy
types of corporate strategies 1.growth, 2.stability, 3.renewal.
Types of Business-Level Strategies 1.Coordinate Unit Activities 2.Utilize Human Resources 3.Develop Distinctive 4.Identify Market Niches
5.Monitor Product Strategies
Impact Effort Matrix
The impact effort matrix was designed specifically for the purpose of deciding which of many suggested solutions to implement. It
provides answers to the question of which solutions seem easiest to achieve with the most effects.
The steps in constructing an impact effort matrix are:
1. Retrieve suggested solutions from previous discussions.
2. Construct an empty diagram with effort required to implement the solution on the horizontal axis and impact of the solution on the
vertical axis, and divide it into four quadrants.
3. Assess effort and impact for each solution. Place the solutions in the diagram according to these assessments. Use a symbol, color, or
label to identify each possible solution.
4. Solutions falling into the upper left-hand quadrant will yield the best return on investments and should be considered first.
EFFORT/IMPACT MATRIX
The effort/impact matrix is used to help the team to decide which of the numerous solutions to implement appear to be the easiest
(least effort) while having the most favorable impact.
Use: When this author was considering the feedback from the Villanova University six sigma students, the senior staff members were
presented with an effort/impact matrix. The matrix illustrated the relative effort for redesigning the courses as compared to the relative
impact that various solutions might provide. The senior staff liked the concept because it made it visual to see where they could get the
biggest impact with the least amount of effort. Note that some of the larger impacting solutions with larger impacts were still
entertained, but those solutions were put a longer-term implementation plan.
EXPERIENCE CURVE
"The experience curve is mostly used to assess declining production costs as a result of cumulative production (Bake et al., 2009)."
Experience curve refers to a diagrammatic representation of the inverse relationship between the total value-added costs of a
product and the company experience in manufacturing and marketing it. The concept reviews the history of the term and explores the
relationship between production cost and cumulative production quantity.
Experience Curve Definition
A diagrammatic representation of the inverse relationship between the total value-added costs of a product and company experience in
manufacturing and marketing it (McDonald and Schrattenholzer, 2001). For many products and services, unit costs decrease with
increasing experience. The idealised pattern describing this kind of technological progress in a regular fashion is referred to as a learning
curve, progress curve, experience curve, or learning by doing (Dutton and Thomas, 1984; Argote,1999).
The experience curve
The more experience a firm has in producing a particular product, the lower its costs
The experience curve is an idea developed by the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) in the mid-1960s. Working with a leading manufacturer
of semiconductors, the consultants noticed that the company's unit cost of manufacturing fell by about 25% for each doubling of the
volume that it produced. This relationship they called the experience curve: the more experience a firm has in producing a particular
product, the lower are its costs. Bruce Henderson, the founder of BCG, put it as follows:
Costs characteristically decline by 20-30% in real terms each time accumulated experience doubles. This means that when inflation is
factored out, costs should always decline. The decline is fast if growth is fast and slow if growth is slow.
There is no fundamental economic law that can predict the existence of the experience curve, even though it has been shown to apply to
industries across the board. Its truth has been proven inductively, not deductively. And if it is true in service industries such as
investment banking or legal advice, the lower costs are clearly not passed on to customers.
By itself, the curve is not particularly earth shattering. Even when BCG first expounded the relationship, it had been known since the
second world war that it applied to direct labour costs. Less labour was needed for a given output depending on the experience of that
labour. In aircraft production, for instance, labour input decreased by some 10–15% for every doubling of that labour's experience.

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