ANCIENT-MEDIEVAL HISTORY AND INDIAN CULTURE

LECTURE-3: THE VEDIC AGE

Harappan culture was followed by another great civilization known as the Vedic Civilization. It is called the ‘Vedic Age’
because its reconstruction is primarily based on using the Vedic literature as sources. However, archaeological sources
have also supplemented the texts though not comprehensively.

Indo-Aryans are believed to be the composers of Vedic texts. The term ‘Indo-Aryans’ is basically a linguistic term and
refers to speakers of a sub group of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Rig Veda
composers describe themselves as Arya (a cultural term literally meaning kinsmen or companion; later it implied - men
of good family / ‘noble’).
Original Home of the Aryans
There is still no consensus on the original home of Aryans and different theories are postulated:

Theory Postulates Supported by

European Theory Continent of Europe is the home land of Aryans. Sir William Jones (1786)

The Indo-Aryans were semi-nomadic people and

came from the plains of Eastern Europe, especially
P. Nehring – South Russia
the area north of Black Sea.

Central Asian Theory Central Asia is the homeland of the Aryans. Max Muller – Central Asia

With the comparative study of the ‘Avesta’ (a E-Meyer, Herzfeld

contemporary Iranian text) and the ‘Vedas’, one finds
striking linguistic relationship between them – of not
just words but concepts too. The interchangeability
between ‘h’ and ‘s’ and incredible consistency in this
change as hepta hindu (sapta sindhu), Ahura (asura),
haoma (soma), daha (dasa) further substantiate the
claim.

Arctic Region Theory Homeland is the Northern Arctic region. Bal Gangadhar Tilak

Tibet Theory Tibet is the original home of Aryans. Swami Dayanand Saraswati

Indian Theory Indigenous to the subcontinent. Dr. Sampurnanand and A.C. Das
There are definite literary evidences in the Vedas that
the Aryans regarded the Sapta Sindhu as their original
home.

The dominant and mostly accepted view is that there was a series of Indo-Aryan Immigrations and they came to the
sub-continent as immigrants. The cities of the Harappan Culture had declined by 1500 B.C. Their economic and
administrative system had slowly declined. Around this period, the speakers of Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit, entered
the north-west India from the Indo-Iranian region. Initially they would have come in small numbers through the passes
in the northwestern mountains and settle in the valleys of the north-west and the plains of the Punjab. Evidences of
horses, spoked wheels, fire cults, and cremation (which formed important parts of Aryan life in India) suggest movement
of people from Central Asian region to South Asian region.
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 Geographical Context of Early Vedic Period
The earliest Aryans lived in the Sapta Sindhu region (Sindhu is the river par excellence of the Aryans) - the land of seven
rivers, viz., the Indus (Sindhu) and its five tributaries, namely, the Jhelum (Vitasta), Chenab (Askini), Ravi (Purushni),
Beas (Vipasa) and Satluj (Sutudri), along with the Saraswati (modern Ghaggar Hakra), which covered mostly the areas
of eastern Afghanistan and Punjab. The rare mention of the river Yamuna (twice) and Ganga (only once) is pointer to
the fact that Rig Vedic Aryans had not inhabited that region as yet.
Vedic Literature
The Vedic corpus is generally divided into Early Vedic and Later Vedic texts.

• Early Vedic Literature (c. 1500-1000 BCE): Includes primarily the Rig Veda Samhita. Rig Veda is a collection of 10
books / mandals and among these 10 books also, only the Books II to VII are believed to have been written during
the Early Vedic Period. They are called ‘family books’ as their composition is attributed to the families of certain seer
poets, such as Vishvamitra, Atri, Vasishtha, Bharadvaja, etc.
• Later Vedic Literature (c. 1000-500 BCE): Includes Books 1, 8, 9, ad 10 of the Rig Veda Samhita, the Samhitas of the
Sama Veda, the Yajur Veda and the Atharva Veda and the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads attached to all
the four Vedas.
The word ‘Veda’ has been derived from the root ‘vid’, which means ‘to know’ / ‘knowledge’. The Vedas with all their
attached literature (Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads) hold the status of Shruti (that which has been heard)
and were transmitted orally for many centuries. It was only very later that they were written down; the earliest surviving
manuscript belongs to the 11th century.
There are four Vedas and every Veda generally has four parts: Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka, and Upanishad. The four
Vedas are:

• Rig Veda
• Sama Veda
• Yajur Veda
• Atharva Veda
Rig Veda
The Rig Veda is a collection of 1,028 hymns, divided into 10 Mandals (books). The hymns were sung in praise of various
gods. They are the earliest compositions and hence, they depict the life of the Early Vedic people in India. The Rig Veda
has been included by the UNESCO in the list of literature signifying World Human Heritage and is a part of its ‘Memory
of the World Programme’. The Upveda of the Rig Veda is the Ayurveda.

• Mandal X – contains the ‘Purusha Sukta’ which explains the four varnas.
• Mandal III – contains the famous ‘Gaytri Mantra’ – addressed to Goddess Savitri.
• Mandal IX – is dedicated to ‘Soma’ (plant, drink and deity)
Sama Veda
The Sama Veda is the collection of verses mostly taken from the Rig Veda, but arranged in a poetic form to facilitate
singing. It is a collection of 1,810 melodies, and also contains the famous Dhrupada raga, later sung by Tansen. (Dhrupad
is the oldest Raga, and Sama Veda is the oldest work on Indian Music) The Upveda of the Sama Veda is the Gandharva
Veda.
Yajur Veda
The Yajur Veda deals with the procedure for the performance of sacrifices. The texts are further divided into:

▪ Shukla Yajur Veda/White Yajur Veda (contains only the Mantras).

▪ Krishna Yajur Veda/Black Yajur Veda (contains both mantras and prose explanation/commentary).

The Upveda of the Yajur Veda is the Dhanur Veda.

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 Atharva Veda
The Atharva Veda is the last Veda and is a collection of magic spells and charms to ward off the evil spirits and diseases.

The Upveda of the Atharva Veda is the Shilpa Veda (or Sthapatya Veda) (Note: Some sources mention
Arthaveda/Arthashastra as the Upveda of the Atharvaveda.)

Brahmanas
The Brahmanas describe the rules for the performance of sacrificial ceremonies. They, however, explain the hymns of
the Vedas in an orthodox manner. Each Veda has several Brahmanas attached to it. The most important Brahmana is
the Satpatha Brahmana, which is attached to the Yajur Veda and is the most exhaustive. It recommends ‘one hundred
sacred paths’.

Aranyakas
They are called the ‘forest books’ as they were written mainly by hermits living in the jungles for their pupils. They deal
with mysticism and philosophy and oppose sacrifice. They emphasise meditation and are considered to be the
concluding portion of the Brahmanas, and interpret rituals in a philosophical way.
Upanishads
The literal meaning of ‘Upanishad’ is ‘to sit near someone’. There are 108 Upanishads, of which 13 are the most
prominent. The Upanishads dwell on the concepts of ‘Atman’ and ‘Brahman’, and focus a lot on the philosophy about
life, universe, self, body, sacrifice, etc. They emphasise that the knowledge of the self or atman should be acquired and
that the relation of the atman with the Brahman should be properly understood.
▪ The Mandukya Upanishad (where “Satyamev jayate” is mentioned) is the largest of all Upanishads.

Upanishads are also referred to as Vedanta. Vedanta literally signifies and ‘end of the Vedas’, as they reveal the final
aim of the Vedas. They condemn sacrifices and ceremonies and denotes the last phase of the Vedic period.
Vedanga
The word ‘Vedanga’ means the ‘limbs of the Vedas’. They are the supplementary texts that aid in the proper recitation
and understanding of the Vedas. However, these do not qualify as Shruti as they are considered of human origin (not
revealed by the gods) and are written in the form of Sutras. Sutras are very short condensed statements that are used
to express varied idea. There are six Sutras. They are:

• Shiksha (Phonetics)
• Kalpa (Ritualistic science).
• Jyotisha (Astronomy)
• Vyakaran (Grammar)
• Nirukta (Etymology)
• Chhanda (Metrics)
The Kalpasutra is further divided into:

• Shrautasutra: concerned with Vedic sacrifices that require three or more fires.
• Grihyasutra: concerned with comparatively simpler domestic sacrifices, which require only one fire.
• Sulbasutra: deal with the mathematical methodology, formulas and measurements to construct altars / platforms
for the Vedic rituals.
• Dharmasutra: manuals, in sutra form, on right conduct and moral law.
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 Puranas
The word ‘puranas’ literally means ‘old’. They were the religious literature of later times (around 4th-6th centuries), but
have a well-defined perception of the past traditions. They reflect the Brahmanical social and religious practices.

• The Puranas are further divided into 18 Mahapuranas (great Puranas such as Brahma, Vishnu, Narada, Bhagavata,
Padma, Garuda, Varaha, Matsya, Kurma, Lings, Shiva, Skanda, Agni, Vamana, etc.) and numerous Upapuranas
(secondary Puranas).
• Some Puranas such as the Brahma, Matsya, Harivamsha, Vishnu, Brahmanda, and Vayu provide useful information
on historical dynasties (of Haryankas, Shishunagas, Nandas, Mauryas, Shungas – till the Guptas). They also contain
detailed accounts of historical geography such as mountains, rivers, etc.
Dharamshastra
They are the Sanskrit texts dealing specifically with Dharma (code of conduct that conceptually signifies ‘a righteous
moral law’. The Dharmashastras are further subdivided into Dharmasutras (composed during c. 600-300 BCE) and
Smritis (composed during c. 200 BCE-900 CE).

Dharma as a code of conduct also refers to the fulfillment of Purusharthas (life goals) such as Dharma (righteous
conduct), Artha (material well-being), Kama (sensual pleasure), and Moksha (liberation from the cycle of life and death).

A person’s Dharma was dependent on many factors such as gender, marital status, varna, and ashram. Out of the four
varnas, three varnas, i.e., Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas were considered Dvija (twice born, as they had the right
to the sacred thread ceremony considered akin to second birth), while the Shudras were burdened with many civil
disabilities.

The four ashrams dividing the life of a dvija male were:

▪ Brahmacharya (Celibate student-hood)

▪ Grihastha (Household caretaker)
▪ Vanaprastha (Partial renunciation)
▪ Sanyasa (Complete renunciation)

It should be noted that the different ashram stages were not followed by all and it was not even applicable to women
or shudras.
Itihasa - Epics

• The two Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, are part of both oral and written traditional history.
• They were roughly composed between c. 400 BCE-400 CE.
• Ramayana, considered as the Adi-Kavya, is said to be composed by Maharishi Valmiki and consists of seven Kandas
(books) having around 24,000 verses.
• The Mahabharata is said to be composed by Ved Vyasa and consists of 18 Parvas (books) and has around 1 lakh
verses. It is considerably longer than Ramayana.
Early Vedic Period (1500-1000 BCE)
Political Life
Rig Vedic society was a tribal society and its people lived a semi-nomadic life. Aryan tribes were called Janas. The form
of political organization was Chiefdoms. Their chief (Rajan) was known as the Gopati or Gopa (protector of cows), and
the chief queen was called the Mahisi.

The Gopati’s office was not hereditary and he was selected among the tribe’s men. Usually the most capable person
(capable of winning battles) was chosen as Rajan/Gopati by the members of the tribe.

The king was assisted by a number of officers of which purohita was the most important. Next important functionary
was the Senani (leader of the army), although there was no regular or standing army. There was no regular
administration either, nor even a regular tax collecting machinery. The members of the tribe would pay voluntary tribute
or ‘Bali’ to the Rajan. War booty was the key source of income.
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 The Rajan’s authority was limited by the presence of tribal assemblies – Sabha, Samiti, Gana & Vidhata:

▪ Sabha was a council of elders of the tribe (and included both men and women)
▪ Samiti was a general assembly of the tribesmen (and excluded women)
▪ Gana was an assembly that dealt with military matters (It also excluded women)
▪ Vidhata was an assembly related to the economic matters, especially the redistribution of War booty. (It
included both men and women)
The Janas often had conflicts with the Panis (indigenous people who practiced cattle rearing and would steal the cattle
of Aryans) over the control of cattle. Even different Aryan Janas would fight against each other for the control of cattle
and pastures. In order to get their cattle back, the Vedic God ‘Indra’ was invoked. Battle was known as Gavisthi,
Gaveshana, Goshu, or Gavyat (to search for cows). Aryans also had troublesome relations with Dasas and Dasyus. They
were probably the indigenous inhabitants of the region who are represented as barbaric, dark-skinned, nose-less (!) and
demonic.

Two famous battles mentioned in the Rig Veda include –

▪ A battle occurred between a Bharata King Divodasa (winner), and Dasa ruler Shambara.
▪ The ‘battle of ten kings’ (Dasharajna Yudha): In this battle fought on banks of Purushni, the Bharata chief Sudas,
grandson of Divodasa defeated a confederacy of ten other tribes.

The tribe (Jana) was divided into various clans (vish). A clan was composed of various ‘grama’ or kin-groups of inter-
related large extended families, headed by Gramini. The basic form of socio-political organization was the family or Kula,
headed by Kulapa or Kulpati.

Rig Vedic Society

The Aryan society, divided into tribes, was ‘largely’ an egalitarian society. There were no large socio-economic
differences between the members of the tribe. All the kinsmen were referred to as ‘Arya’. The society was not divided
on caste lines and even the Rajans, the Purohits, the artisans, etc., were part of the clan networks.

Occupation was not based on birth. Members of a family could adopt different occupations This is indicated by the
following verse in the Rigveda: “I am a poet, my father is a physician, and my mother grinds grain upon the stone.
Striving for wealth, with varied plans, we follow our desires like cattle.”

However, certain differences did exit during the period. ‘Varna’ (literally, colour) was the basis of initial differentiation
between the Aryan and non-Aryan people. Authors of Veda distinguished themselves from other groups whom they
called “dasyus” or “dasas”. The term ‘varna’ was earlier interpreted as the skin colour (Aryans being fair skinned and
the non-Aryans being dark in complexion) but later historians have interpreted it as a symbolic classifier – as there are
more references to differences in language, culture, customs, traditions and practices.

Even though a socially organized “varna system” was not prevalent and tribal elements were stronger in the society yet
Rig Vedic society can still not be considered a ‘totally’ egalitarian society as social stratification was based on the division
of labour and gender.

The only mention of the four varnas was found in the ‘Purusha-sukta’ of the tenth mandal of the Rig Veda (which is a
later text). It makes one conclude that the varna system was probably introduced at the end of the Rig Vedic age, in the
later Vedic period.

Kula was the basic social unit and Kulapa was the head of the family. Usually, there were joint families, which followed
the patrilineal system. In the Rig Veda, no desire is expressed for daughters, though the desire for sons and cattle is a
recurrent theme is the hymns. The society was patriarchal in nature, though the women had important positions in the
society since they were educated and had access to the tribal assemblies. Women attended the meetings of the Sabha
& Vidhata. Even some of the hymns in the Rig Veda are attributed to women seers. Women often appear as the
dialogue-makers in the Rig Vedic Hymns. Girls were free to choose their life partners. There are no instances of child
marriage, sati, or purdah in the Rig Veda. The wife held an honorable position in the household. She enjoyed freedom
of movement and was not confined to the house only. In religious performances, the wife occupied a prominent
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position. Marriage was usually monogamous, though some references to polygyny and polyandry are also found in the
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Rig Veda. There are also a few instances of levirate (‘Niyog’, marrying husband’s brother) and widow remarriage.

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 Rig Vedic Economy
Since the Rig Vedic society was a pastoral society, cattle rearing was their dominant activity. The chief measure of wealth
was cattle and a wealthy man known as Gomat, that is to say, one who owned many cattle. A large number of words
are derived from the word ‘gau’, meaning cow.

Evidence of trade and commerce is meagre, and there was no concept of private property based on land ownership.
The clan as a whole enjoyed right over the resources. Barter was the model of exchange and the cow was an important
unit of value. (There are references to ‘Nishka’ – which later on was a gold coin, but in the Rig Vedic context, it probably
refers to a gold ornament)

Gift exchange and redistribution had an important economic role in the Rig Vedic society. Such exchanges were done
on an individual level as well as at the group level. Apart from economic goods, this also included the exchange of other
things such as women, courtesies, hospitality, and military assistance. The priests received dana and dakshina for their
ritualistic services.

Shifting agriculture was practiced and fire was used to burn down forest cover and the patch of land thus cleared was
then sown. Apart from yava or barley, no other grain is mentioned. The Rig Vedic people used wooden plough (phala,
langala, and ‘sira’). Many of the words in the Rig Veda related to agricultural activities are derived from ‘Non-Aryan’
languages. Vedic god Indra is also described as Urvarajit (winner of fertile fields).

They did not use iron technology, but were familiar with copper. There are very less references to metallurgical
activities. A lot of other crafts such as cart-making, carpentry, tanning, sewing, and weaving find mention, though the
chariot-maker enjoyed a special status in Rig Vedic society. Chariot-racing and dice gambling were popular pastimes.

Rig Vedic Religion

The Rig Veda reflects naturalistic polytheism as they venerated natural forces like the wind, rain, water, thunder, etc. in
a personified form. Different deities are mentioned in the Rig Veda which were invoked for specific gains. However,
despite multiplicity, the Rig Vedic thought also sees these multiple deities as the manifestation of a single supreme
power (‘Ekam sad vipra bahudha vadanti’: That which exists is one, sages call it by various names.)

There were neither temple nor idol worship in the Early Vedic age. They generally worshiped in the open air through
yajnas (sacrifices). During the Rig Vedic times, the Yajna was a small-scale ritual, performed personally or with the help
of a priest. Vedic texts refers to meat eating and also the sacrificial killing of animals except the cow, which was
considered aghnya (not to be killed).

Some of the deities worshipped by the Rig Vedic people were as follows:

Indra Soma
• Greatest god of the Aryans, King of gods, lord of rain • God of plants
and thunder. • All hymns of the IX mandal assigned to him
• 250 hymns are attributed to him • Aryanas knew Munjavat as the source of the soma
• Called Purandhar (Breaker of forts), Maghavan plant
(bounteous), and Vritrahan (Slayer of Vritra, chaos) • Considered the wise god who inspires the poets to
Agni compose hymns
Other gods and goddesses
• Second most important god; the god of fire
• 200 hymns are attributed to him • Pushan - the god of jungle, herdsmen, and cattle
• The son of earth and heaven
• Surya – the god of sun
• Intermediary between gods and men
• Aditi – Goddess of eternity
Varuna
• Usha – Goddess of dawn
• Third most important god; the god of water • Nisha – Goddess of dusk
• Ethically, the highest of all Rig Vedic gods as he
looked after the rita or the universal cosmic order.
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Yama
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• Lord of death

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 Terms used in rig Vedic Age Meaning
Godhuli Measure of time
Samgava Morning
Gavyuti Measure of distance
Duhitri Daughter (who milks cows)
Gojit Winner of cows/Hero
Vap To sow
Srini Sickle
Ksehtra Cultivated field
Urvara Fertile fields
Dhanya Cereals
Ghrita Butter
Goghna Guest
Later Vedic Period (C. 1000-600 BCE)
The later Vedic Age is characterized by more complexities in social, political, and economic life.
Geographical Context
The Aryans moved further towards east in the Later Vedic Period. Now the centre of activity shifts to the Indo-Gangetic
water-divide and the Upper & Middle Ganga Valley. The Satapatha Brahmana refers to the expansion of Aryans to the
eastern Gangetic plains. The later Vedic texts also refer to the three divisions of India – Aryavarta (northern India),
Madhyadesa (central India) and Dakshinapatha (southern India).
Political Life
• The predominantly pastoral society of Early Vedic times had now become agricultural. The wars were no longer
fought for cows, but for territories.
• Territorial kingdoms came into existence during the later Vedic period. Many jana or tribes were amalgamated to
form janapadas or rashtras in the later Vedic period. (Janapada: literally, where the area where a tribe sets its feet)
• The royal power had increased along with the increase in the size of kingdom. Instead of kings being chosen by the
tribe, hereditary succession became the norm. The members of the tribe were subjected to the royal power and
regular taxes (Bhaga, Kar, Shulka). [King is referred to as the vishmata: eater of the tribe]
• The king performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position. They include Rajasuya (consecration
ceremony which conferred elements of divinity on the king), Asvamedha (horse sacrifice, for political paramountcy)
and Vajpeya (chariot race). The king handsomely rewarded the priests who helped them in maintaining their
authority.
• The kings also assumed titles like Virat and Samrat (sole ruler).
• In the later Vedic period, a large number of new officials were involved in the administration in addition to the
existing purohita, senani and gramani. They include the treasury officer, tax collector and royal messenger.
• A regular army was maintained for the protection of kingdom.
• The importance of the tribal assemblies like Samiti and the Sabha diminished during the later Vedic period.
Later Vedic Society
One of the most important changes from the Rig Vedic society was the rise and growth of social differentiation in the
form of the varna system. The Later Vedic society was clearly divided into four varnas: Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas
and Shudras. These varnas were initially based on occupation [Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (Warriors), Vaishyas
(agriculturists, cattle-rearers, traders) and Shudras (servers of the upper three)], but later became hereditary.

While the upper three categories were known as Dvija (twice born) and enjoyed certain privileges that were denied to
the Shudra category. E.g. Education was largely confined to only to the dvija castes and began with the investiture
ceremony (Upanayana). Even below the Shudras were the Chandalas – who were considered outside of the varna
society.

Another important institution that began to take shape was ashrama or the different stages of life. Together with varna,
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Later Vedic society came to be known as Varna-ashrama-dharma society. The institution of gotra also appeared in this
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age. (Gotra signified descent from common ancestors.) A rigid social hierarchy developed, which restricted the social
mobility of the earlier period.

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 In order to preserve the varna order, increasing restrictions were placed on marriage and women. A system of gotra
exogamy and varna endogamy was practiced. In the family, a patrimonial (authority of father) system developed and
women were generally confined to household chores and subordinate positions. As compared to the Rig Vedic age,
women lost importance in the society and there are rare references to sati and child marriage as well. In one text,
women have been counted as a vice along with dice and wine. In another text, a daughter has been said to be the source
of all sorrows.

The references to polygamous marriages increased. There was a variety in the marriage forms, though all forms were
not uniformly accepted. Though the marriage within the same varna was considered the most ideal form of marriage,
but there are references to hypergamous and hypogamous marriages as well. The Chhandoygya Upanishad discusses
two types of marriage:

▪ Anuloma marriage – The marriage of a man of higher varna with a woman of lower varna.
▪ Pratiloma marriage – The marriage of a woman of higher varna with a man of lower varna. This was frowned
upon and prohibited in the texts.

TYPES OF MARRIAGE
Brahma Marriage of a duly dowried girl to a man of the same class.
Daiva Marriage in which a father gave his daughter to a sacrificial priest as
part of his fees.
Arsa Marriage in which a bride-price of a cow is taken and a bull was paid
to the daughter’s father.
Prajapatya Marriage in which the father gave the girl without dowry and without
demanding bride-price.
Gandharva Marriage, often clandestine, by the consent of the two parties.
Asura Marriage by purchase.
Rakshasa Marriage by capture.
Paishacha When a maiden is seduced into marriage.
Later Vedic Age Economy
Archaeologically, the later Vedic culture is also called as PGW-Iron Phase culture as this was marked by the use of Iron
and a particular kind of pottery – Painted Grey Ware. [In later Vedic Period, four types of pottery were used - black and
red ware, black-slipped were, painted grey ware and red ware. Red ware was most common, but PGW was most
distinctive]

The main factor in the expansion of the Aryan culture during the Later Vedic period was the beginning of the use of iron,
which was introduced around 1000 BCE and is mentioned as Krishna Ayas/Shyama Ayas.

Even more significant was the shift from pastoralism to Agriculture. Agriculture emerged as the chief means of livelihood
of the Later Vedic people. The forests were cleared by burning the trees, which is also mentioned in the Satapatha
Brahamana. Cultivation was done by the plough. Mixed farming (cultivation along with herding) was generally practiced.
This change was aided by the introduction of iron technology. This change not only politically resulted in the emergence
of the territorial states, but increasing agrarian production and surplus also generated the conditions for emergence of
urbanism towards the end of this period.

The land was still communally owned over which the ‘vish’ (clan) had many participatory rights, but it was recognized
as property and the head of the household who owned the land was termed as ‘Grahpati’.

Rice (Vrihi) and wheat (Godhuma) became the staple diet of the people and lentils were also grown. Also, with the
beginning of food production, agricultural produce began to be offered in the rituals. The items of dana and dakshina
included cooked rice. Tila, from which the first widely used vegetable food-oil was derived increasingly, came to be used
in rituals.

Diverse arts and crafts were practiced in the Later Vedic period. Tin, lead, silver, Iron, gold, bronze, and copper were
known to Later Vedic people. People had obtained knowledge of glass manufacturing too.
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Exchange was still via barter, but Nishka was used as a convenient unit of value although not as a typical currency.
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 Later Vedic Age Religion
The Later Vedic Religion was focused on the centrality of the cult of sacrifice (Yajna). Sacrifice became more important
and elaborate, and assumed both public and domestic character. There was an increase in the frequency and number
of the yajnas, which generally involved the killing of animals on a large scale and the destruction of cattle wealth. This
expansion of the sacrifices was probably the cause as well as the consequence of the kshatriya chiefs yielding ever more
power over the people and the brahman priests legitimizing that power in exchange for patronage, dana and dakshina.
Some of the important public yajnas were – Ashvamedha, Vajapeya, Rajasuya, Ratnahavimsi, etc.

Changes in the material life naturally resulted in a change in their attitude towards god and goddesses as well. The two
most important Rig Vedic gods, Indra and Agni, lost their importance and instead of them, Prajapati (the god of creation)
became supreme. Narayan (conceived as the preserver and protector of people) and Rudra (identified as Proto-Shiva,
the guardian of healing herbs, the god of animals) also became important. Pushan (the god of cattle) came to be
regarded as the god of the Shudras.

However, towards the end of Later Vedic age, a strong reaction began to emerge against priestly domination, against
cults and sacrifices. This was reflected in the philosophical tilt visible in the Upanishads, composed towards the end of
this period.

Key Concepts Source

Gotra Atharva Veda
Purusashukta Hymn (Four-fold division of society) Rig Veda (Tenth Mandala)
First three ashramas (Brahmacharya, Garhasthya, Chhandogya Upanishad
Vanaprastha)
Four ashrams (Brahmacharya, Garhasthya, Jabala Upanishad
Vanaprastha, Sanyas)
Samsara (transmigration of soul) Brahadarankya Upanishad
Sabha and Samiti as the twin daughters of Prajapati Atharva Veda
‘Satyamev Jayate’ Mandukya Upanishad
Doctrine of ‘Trimurti Maitrayani Upanishad
Mention of the ‘Great Flood Satpatha Brahmana
Kshatriyas’ precedence over Brahmanas Atreya Brahmana
Mention of the eastern and western seas Satpatha Brahmana
Origin of the Universe Rig Veda (Tenth Mandala)
Interesting Facts

• Pali and Prakrit both, like Sanskrit, belong to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family.
• The Ramayana has many versions. Different versions have different beginnings and endings, such as-
▪ The Paumachariu of Vimalasuri in Prakit is Jaina version, in which Ravana is killed by Lakshmana, and not by
Rama, as Rama, being a true Jaina, embodies non-violence.
▪ The Dasharatha Jataka in Pali (a Buddhist version)
▪ The Iramavataram in Tamil (by Kamban)
▪ The Ramcharitmansa in Hindi (by Tulsidas).

• Classical Sanskrit refers to the language whose rules were codified by Grammarian Panini in his famous volume
Ashtadhyayi (c. 6th century BCE). Patanjali’s Mahabhasya (post-Mauryan period) is another important text of Sanskrit
grammar.
• Among the Dravidian languages, Tamil has the oldest literature followed by Kannada. Tolkappiyam is the oldest
surviving Tamil grammar. (Sangam Age, post-Mauryan period)
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 Practice Questions Prelims:
1. The national motto of India, ‘Satyameva Jayate’, inscribed below the Emblem of India is taken from
(A) Katha Upanishad
(B) Chhandogya Upanishad
(C) Aitareya Upanishad
(D) Mandukya Upanishad
Ans. (D)

2. The religion of Early Vedic Aryans was primarily of:

(A) Bhakti
(B) Image worship and Yajnas
(C) Worship of nature and Yajnas
(D) Worship of nature and Bhakti
Ans. (C)

3. The “dharma” and “rita” depict a central idea of the ancient Vedic civilization of India; in this context, consider
the following statements:
I. Dharma was a conception of obligations and of the discharge of one’s duties to oneself and to others.
II. Rita was the fundamental moral law governing the functioning of the universe and all it contained.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(A) I only
(B) II only
(C) Both I and II
(D) Neither A nor B
Ans. (C)
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