Course Planning (2) : Skill-Based, Functional, Grammatical, Vocabulary, and Situational Syllabuses

8 COURSE PLANNING (2):
SKILL-BASED, FUNCTIONAL,
GRAMMATICAL, VOCABULARY,
AND SITUATIONAL SYLLABUSES
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter examines the following syllabus types and issues involved in sequencing items in
a syllabus:
• Skill-based syllabus • Situational syllabus

• Functional syllabus • Determining the scope and sequence
• Grammatical syllabus • Developing instructional segments
• Vocabulary syllabus
Case study 14(JV\YZLMVYÄYZ[`LHY\UP]LYZP[`Z[\KLU[ZPhil Wade

Case study 15 A general English course for international students Frank S. Rogers
Introduction
As with the syllabus approaches discussed in Chapter 7, the syllabus proposals described in this
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is, how language is used, what its core components are, and how these can best be addressed in a
syllabus and course design. As we suggested in Chapter 7, some of the syllabus types we will examine
here are often used at a micro level of organization in a syllabus. They are used as one strand in a
syllabus that might be organized at the macro level in terms of tasks, texts, competencies, or content.
However, they have also sometimes been used as the principal framework for course organization
(i.e., at the macro level), as is the case with skill-based and functional syllabuses. In this chapter we
^PSSL_HTPUL[OLMLH[\YLZVMÄ]LZ`SSHI\ZTVKLSZHUK[OLPZZ\LZ[OL`YHPZLMVYJ\YYPJ\S\TKLZPNU!skill-
based syllabus, functional syllabus, grammatical syllabus, vocabulary syllabus, situational syllabus.
8.1 Skill-based syllabus

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in using a language for purposes such as reading, writing, listening, or speaking – sometimes referred
to as the four macro-skills. (See Appendix 1 for an example of a skill-based syllabus.) Approaching a
language through skills is based on the belief that learning a complex activity such as “listening to a
lecture” involves mastery of a number of individual subskills (also known as micro-skills) that together
make up the activity.
What are some of the skills involved in listening to a lecture?
201
202 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching
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• Writing: creating a topic sentence, distinguishing between main ideas and supporting sentences,
self-editing.
• Listening: recognizing key information, \ZPUNKPZJV\YZLTHYRLYZ[VPKLU[PM`[OLÅV^VMKPZJV\YZL
following rapid speech.
• Speaking: using back channeling, recognizing turn-taking signals, introducing a topic, using
communication strategies.
• Reading: reading for gist, guessing words from context, reading and making inferences.
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listening, and other skills. For example, an early paper of mine (Richards 1983) that has been updated from
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listening to lectures. (See Appendix 2 for a curriculum for a listening course that is built around skills.)
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comprehension:
• Recognising the script of the language
• Deducing the meaning and use of unfamiliar items
• Understanding explicitly stated information
• Understanding information not explicitly stated
• Understanding conceptual meaning
• Understanding the communicative value of sentences
• Understanding relations within the sentence
• Understanding relations between parts of a text through cohesion devices
• Recognising discourse markers
• Identifying the main point or key information
• Distinguishing the main idea from supporting details
• Extracting relevant points selectively
• Skimming
• Scanning for specific information
• Converting text into graphic form
What is the advantage of identifying skills and subskills in this way?
Munby’s list includes skills or processes that are both top-down (from meaning to text), and bottom-up
(from text to meaning).The following are sometimes described as skills needed for “reading to learn”
and are often used in the design of courses in reading for academic purposes.
• 9LHKPUN[VÄUKMHJ[ZHUKKL[HPSZ
• Skimming a text quickly for gist.
• Reading to obtain new ideas and information.
8 Course planning (2) • 203
• 9LHKPUN[VJVUULJ[PUMVYTH[PVUMYVTKPќLYLU[ZV\YJLZ
• Reading as a preparation for writing, or discussing a topic.
• Responding critically to things one reads.
• Reading for main ideas.
In analyzing speaking in terms of its individual subskills, Bygate (1987) distinguished between
production skills and interaction skills. Production skills include using simple grammatical structures,
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strategies. Interaction skills include using familiar scripts and routines, using turn-taking devices,
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a course and syllabus around skills, issues arise relating to the validity of such lists of skills and the
order in which they should be introduced in a syllabus.
Issues with skill-based syllabuses

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They focus on behavior or performance ( ZRPSSIHZLK Z`SSHI\Z PKLU[PÄLZ ILOH]PVYZ [OH[ JHU IL
isolated and taught and tested and that can transfer to many other situations.
They identify teachable and learnable units:RPSSIHZLKZ`SSHI\ZLZYLÅLJ[WYHJ[PJHSYLHS^VYSKULLKZ
and provide a practical framework for designing courses and teaching materials. They may be
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preparing for university-level studies in English).
However, skill-based syllabuses have also been criticized on a number of grounds:
They lack a research basis. There is an inadequate research basis for validating skills taxonomies.
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;OL` KV UV[ YLÅLJ[ H OVSPZ[PJ ]PL^ VM SHUN\HNL By breaking skills down into micro-skills, such
syllabuses focus on discrete components of ability rather than on developing more global and
integrated communicative abilities. In authentic language use, skills are more often used together
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even what is labelled as a single-skill lesson, e.g. “Writing a Letter”, may well integrate the
skills: pre-reading discussion (listening and speaking), reading of a sample letter (reading),
comprehension questions (reading and writing), paired comparison of answers (reading, lis-
tening and speaking), drafting of students’ own letters (reading and writing), and peer review
(reading, speaking, listening and writing).
;OL`KVUV[YLÅLJ[H\[OLU[PJSHUN\HNL\ZLThe advent of the Internet has prompted a rethinking of

how “skills” should be understood in today’s world. Today’s learners require a new mode of literacy –
multimodal literacy skills – and multimodal practices are blurring the distinction between skills such as
reading and writing. Similarly, with mobile technology and access to spoken and written texts through
the Internet, listening is increasingly linked with viewing and reading. Reading skills, too, are increasingly
developed as a component of digital literacy (Jones and Hafner 2012) and “contemporary new readers
have no other way of learning about reading except within the context of a background of vast textual
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8.2 Functional syllabus

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;LHJOPUN*3;TV]LTLU[HUKMVYTLK[OLIHZPZMVYTHU`SHUN\HNLJV\YZLZHUK[L_[IVVRZMYVT[OH[
[PTL;OL`^LYLVULVM[OLÄYZ[WYVWVZHSZMVYHJVTT\UPJH[P]LZ`SSHI\Z[OH[PZVUL[OH[HKKYLZZLZ
communicative competence. In Threshold Level English, IHZPJ M\UJ[PVUZ ^LYL PKLU[PÄLK [OYV\NO
analysis of the purposes for which learners use English, particularly younger learners up to the
intermediate level using a language for social survival and travel purposes. (The functions included in
Threshold Level English appear in Appendix 1 of Chapter 3.)
What are some of the functions that are involved in ordering food in a restaurant?
Functional syllabuses such as Threshold Level WYV]PKLK[OLÄYZ[ZLYPV\ZHS[LYUH[P]L[VHNYHTTH[PJHS

syllabus as a basis for general-purpose course design, and major courses published from the 1980s
increasingly employed functional syllabuses, sometimes linked to a parallel grammatical syllabus.
A landmark publication in the literature of functional language use, however, was Brown and Yule’s
book Teaching the Spoken Language (1983), which made a distinction between interactional and
transactional functions of language, the former concerned with maintaining social interaction and the
latter with carrying out real-world information-focused functions. Burns (1998) further distinguishes
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situations where the focus is on giving and receiving information, and where the participants focus
primarily on what is said or achieved (e.g., asking someone for directions or bargaining at a garage
sale). The second type refers to transactions that involve obtaining goods or services, such as
checking into a hotel or ordering food in a restaurant.
For what transactional purposes have you used English in the last 24 hours?
In addition to identifying potential functions the learner may need to master, the language and
communicative resources used in expressing functions was also a central issue in the design of
functional syllabuses. What expressions and phrases would be required to realize each function?
These were referred to as the exponents of a particular function, on the assumption that there was a
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Table 8.1 Examples of functions and their exponents

FUNCTION EXPONENTS
Request Please …
Could you …
Would you mind …
I’d like you to …
Suggestion Why don’t you …
It would be a good idea to …
I think you really should …
Inviting Would you like to …
I’d love you to …
How about …?
8 Course planning (2) •
Because they often focus on communication skills, functional syllabuses have frequently been
used as the basis for courses in spoken English. Person to Person (Richards and Bycina 1984), for
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following main functions are introduced in Book 1:
• Introducing yourself
• Asking people about occupations
• Opening conversations
• Asking about names and addresses
• Making telephone inquiries
• Comparing families
• Describing locations
• Giving directions
• Inviting
• Declining and accepting invitations
• Comparing likes and dislikes
• Agreeing and disagreeing
• Recounting personal biography
• Making appointments
• Ordering food in a restaurant
• 6ќLYPUNMVVKHUKKYPUR
• Making small talk
• Ending a conversation
Issues with functional syllabuses

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;OL`YLÅLJ[H]PL^VMSHUN\HNLHZJVTT\UPJH[PVU. Functions were thought to represent the building
blocks of communication, and mastery of a core set of functions and their exponents would provide
for the development of communicative competence.
They can be linked to other types of syllabus content. With functions as the organizing principle of a
course, grammar, topics, and vocabulary could be selected as needed for functional communication.
;OL` WYV]PKL H JVU]LUPLU[ MYHTL^VYR MVY [OL KLZPNU VM [LHJOPUN TH[LYPHSZ. Functions provide a
convenient approach to the teaching of listening and speaking skills.
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among which is the following:
;OL` YLÅLJ[ H ZPTWSPZ[PJ ]PL^ VM JVTT\UPJH[PVU Functional syllabuses suggest that there is a
predictable relationship between functions (e.g., requesting) and forms of expression (the phrases
or exponents used), which is not in fact the case. Communication involves much more than learning
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realized as a series of moves through negotiation and interaction, depending on the type of interaction
and the roles of the participants involved.
Consider the function of apologizing HUK PKLU[PM` ZVTL VM [OL MHJ[VYZ [OH[ PUÅ\LUJL OV^ HU
apology is expressed.
Other criticisms of functional syllabuses include the following:

• There are no clear criteria for selecting or grading functions.
• They represent an atomistic approach to language, that is, one that assumes that language
ability can be broken down into discrete components that can be taught separately.
• They often lead to a phrase-book approach to teaching that concentrates on teaching
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• Students learning from a functional course may have considerable gaps in their grammatical
competence because some important grammatical structures may not be elicited by the
functions that are taught in the syllabus.
8.3 Grammatical syllabus

We noted in Chapter 3 that prior to the development of communicative approaches to language
teaching, grammar was the main organizing framework used for language courses. Approaches to
course and syllabus design emphasized the role of the sentence and sentence grammar as providing
the foundation of language, language learning, and language use (McCarthy 2001). This can be seen
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used in the 1960s and 1970s. Practice in producing grammatically correct sentences was viewed
as the key to learning, embedded within a methodology with the following features (Ellis 2003, 168):
1. A specific grammatical feature is isolated for focused attention.
2. The learners are required to produce sentences containing the targeted feature.
3. The learners are provided with opportunities for repetition of the targeted feature.
4. There is an expectancy that the learners will perform the grammatical feature correctly;
therefore practice activities are success oriented.
5. The learners receive feedback on whether their performance of the grammatical structure
is correct or not. This feedback may be immediate or delayed.
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of a general English course, and as we saw in Chapter 1, grammar syllabuses of this kind have
become a core component in the development of language courses, tests, and materials. And it is still
seen as an important strand in major international four-skill integrated courses such as Interchange,
/LHK^H`, Cutting Edge, and so on. (See Appendix 3 for a grammatical syllabus from an integrated
course.) There are several reasons for this. On the one hand, including an explicit grammar strand in
a language course represents a familiar approach to teaching for many people. Many teachers and
students expect to see a grammar strand in a course and react negatively to its absence. At the same
time, grammar is a component of many high-stakes tests.
Why do you think grammar continues to be a component of most “communicative” courses?
Issues with grammatical syllabuses

The use of grammar-based syllabuses in general English courses has been criticized on a number
of grounds:
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VM NYHTTHY KVLZ UV[ ULJLZZHYPS` [YHUZSH[L PU[V [OL HIPSP[` [V \ZL ,UNSPZO LќLJ[P]LS` MVY ZWVRLU HUK
written purposes.
There is a lack of focus on discourse. The focus of a grammar syllabus is typically the sentence rather
than longer units of discourse. In many grammar-based courses, grammar is taught through isolated
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grammar in communication.
There is a lack of research basis. The choice or sequence of grammatical items typically found in
grammar syllabuses is typically based on intuition and tradition rather than being derived from the
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materials. Current understanding of the status of grammar rests on the distinction between
grammatical knowledge and grammatical ability. Grammatical RUV^SLKNLrefers to knowledge of the
rules that account for grammatically correct language. Its unit of focus is the sentence. In traditional
approaches to language teaching, it was typically viewed as an independent component of language
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items. Grammatical knowledge of this kind can be contrasted with grammatical ability.
Grammatical ability refers to knowing how to use grammar as a communicative resource in spoken
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the text(Z*\SSLU W\[ZP[!
The grammatical choice that speakers or writers make – for example, whether to use an active
or passive be + verb form, or whether to use the modal can or would when making a request
– are not made in a vacuum, but in a context of language use. They are thus text-based, not
sentence-level, choices made in the act of participating in a communicative event, whether it
be a conversation with friends or writing an e-mail to a colleague. In each situation there is
“text” being created and an audience.
Currently, therefore, grammar is more often seen as one strand of a multi-skilled or integrated syllabus
rather than as the sole basis for a syllabus, and grammar is taught through meaning rather than
simply through form. It is approached as a communicative resource that is used in spoken and written
discourse. For example, Richards and Reppen (2014) describe 12 principles for integrating grammar
with the teaching of texts:
1. Identify the grammatical resources the learners need.
2. Teach awareness of the nature of texts.
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4. Use corpora to explore texts.
Use a variety of teaching approaches, both deductive and inductive.
6. Provide opportunities for guided noticing.
7. Provide opportunities for meaningful communicative practice.
8. Provide opportunities for students to produce stretched output.
9. Make links between grammar and vocabulary.
10. Use student errors to inform instruction.
11. Integrate grammar with the four skills.
12. Use the resources of the Internet and technology.
Hence, grammar can be treated as a micro-level course component and linked to its role in texts,
tasks, and skills. Its status will depend on the syllabus framework that is being used – be it text-
based, task-based, content-based, skill-based. The syllabus planner is typically mapping out
grammar together with other potential course content in the form of topics, skills, texts, and tasks,
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What might the role of grammar be in a reading course?
8.4 Vocabulary syllabus

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developed in language teaching. Today there is a large degree of consensus in English language teaching
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to keep materials within target vocabulary bands. Corpus research has enabled older syllabuses to be
revised and other types of syllabuses developed, such as the Academic Word List (Coxhead 2000,
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Elementary level: 1,000 words
Intermediate level: an additional 2,000 words
Upper Intermediate level: an additional 2,000 words
Advanced level: an additional 2,000+ words
Of course vocabulary is central to all language use, so no matter what syllabus framework is adopted,
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genres of spoken communication, in reading texts, composing essays, and so on.
In terms of the quantitative dimension of vocabulary learning, vocabulary development can be
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genres, and text types, as well as the accumulation of more specialized vocabulary related to the
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Researchers suggest that a minimum vocabulary of 3,000 words is required to provide coverage
of a high percentage of words on an average page of a text. This represents a target for the lower-
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vocabulary, there are another 600 or so words common to academic disciplines that form the basis
of an academic vocabulary (see Appendix 1).
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A receptive vocabulary of some 5,000 to 6,000 words would appear to be a good threshold
at which to consider learners at the top of the intermediate level and ready to take on an
advanced program. Such a program would ideally have the following aims:
• To increase the receptive vocabulary size to enable comprehension targets above 90% (e.g.
up to 95%) for typical texts to be reached.
• To expose the learner to a range of vocabulary at frequency levels beyond the first 5000–6000
word band, but which is not too rare or obscure to be of little practical use.
• To inculcate the kinds of knowledge required for using words at this level, given their often
highly specific lexical meanings and connotations.
• To train awareness skills and strategies that will help the learner become an independent
vocabulary-learner.
What are some ways in which learners can expand their receptive listening and reading
vocabularies?
Vocabulary is addressed at the micro level in syllabus design. However, some applied linguists have
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chunks, lexical phrases, and vocabulary in course design. This is referred to as a lexical approach.
A lexical approach in language teaching derives from the belief that the building blocks of language
learning and communication are not grammar, functions, notions, or some other unit of planning
and teaching, but lexis, that is, words and particularly multi-word combinations or “chunks” that are
learned and used as single items. These may consist of either collocations, a term that refers to the
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An interest in the role of chunks in language learning goes back at least to Palmer ([1922] 1968), but
their status in language theory has undergone reassessment, beginning with a classic paper by Pawley
and Syder (1983), as a consequence of the development of corpus-based studies of language use
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The relevance of chunks for second and foreign language learners has meanwhile stimulated
dictionary makers to include more information about collocation in learners’ dictionaries gen-
erally and to produce dictionaries of collocations in particular. Concrete proposals for instruc-
tional methods targeting chunks have also been launched and resource books for teachers are
becoming available.
A lexical approach in language teaching thus seeks to develop proposals for syllabus design and language
teaching founded on a view of language in which multi-word units, or chunks, play the central role. As with
lexis in general, proponents of the lexical approach recommend, for lower-level students, direct teaching
of the chunks that occur most frequently in the kinds of texts students engage with in their learning.
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provide a list of the most frequent chunks that occur in spoken English. However, for intermediate-level
and advanced-level learners, similar information is not readily available. Since there are potentially many
thousands of multi-word units that students may encounter in their exposure to English that often cannot
be predicted in advance, some advocates of the lexical approach argue that the goal for learners at higher
levels is not to teach a core set of lexical units but rather to develop students’ awareness of the nature of
lexical units and to provide them with strategies for recognizing, learning, structuring, storing, and using
chunks which they encounter. The “syllabus” will therefore consist of an organized record of the chunks
SLHYULYZOH]LLUJV\U[LYLKPUKPќLYLU[^YP[[LUHUKZWVRLU[L_[Z¶PLP[PZHYL[YVZWLJ[P]LZ`SSHI\Z
An early and relatively rare example of an application of the lexical approach was the Collins COBUILD
English Course (Willis and Willis 1989), whose rationale and design was described in The Lexical
Syllabus >PSSPZ ;OL*6)<03+JV\YZLYLWYLZLU[LKHIYLHR^P[OLHYSPLYHWWYVHJOLZ[VJV\YZLIVVR
KLZPNUZPUJLP[^HZ[OLÄYZ[W\ISPZOLKJV\YZLIVVR[OH[PUJVYWVYH[LKHSL_PJHSYH[OLY[OHUHNYHTTH[PJHS
syllabus (although the syllabus mainly consisted of single-word lexical items rather than chunks). In
Q\Z[PM`PUN[OLPYZ`SSHI\Z>PSSPZYLWVY[LK[OH[[OH[[OL*6)<03+JVTW\[LYHUHS`ZLZVM[L_[Z[OH[MVYTLK
the basis for the vocabulary syllabus indicated that “the 700 most frequent words of English account
for around 70% of all English text.” This “fact” led to the author’s decision that “word frequency would
KL[LYTPUL[OLJVU[LU[ZVMV\YJV\YZL3L]LS^V\SKHPT[VJV]LY[OLTVZ[MYLX\LU[^VYKZ[VNL[OLY
with their common patterns and uses” (Willis 1990, vi). Interestingly, this approach resembled the earlier
MYLX\LUJÌHZLKHUHS`ZLZVM]VJHI\SHYÌ`>LZ[ HUKV[OLYZYLMLYYLK[VPU*OHW[LY>P[O[OL
*6)<03+JV\YZLOV^L]LY[OLMVJ\Z^HZVU^VYKWH[[LYUZKLYP]LKMYVT[OLJVTW\[LYHUHS`ZPZ>PSSPZ
stresses, however, that “the lexical syllabus not only subsumes a structural syllabus, it also indicates how
[OLZ[Y\J[\YLZÔPJOTHRL\WHZ`SSHI\ZZOV\SKILL_LTWSPÄLK¹ZPUJL[OLJVTW\[LYJVYW\ZYL]LHSZ[OL
JVTTVULZ[Z[Y\J[\YHSWH[[LYUZPUÔPJO^VYKZHYL\ZLK ]P7LYOHWZ[OLMHJ[[OH[[OL*6)<03+
course marked a break with traditional course design procedures accounts for the lack of success of the
course.) A more recent global coursebook – the Touchstone series (McCarthy, McCarten, and Sandiford
PZHUV[OLYL_HTWSLVMHJV\YZLIVVR[OH[PUJVYWVYH[LZHJVYW\ZIHZLKSL_PJHSZ`SSHI\ZPUJS\KPUN
both single-word units and chunks. In this case the lexical syllabus is based on the most common words
HUKWOYHZLZPU[OL5VY[O(TLYPJHUZWVRLUZLNTLU[VM[OL*HTIYPKNL,UNSPZO*VYW\Z
Have you added any news words to your vocabulary recently? If so, where did they come from?
Issues with vocabulary syllabuses

Vocabulary is generally a micro-level strand of a course and in theory can be dealt with either directly
or indirectly. A direct approach suggests that appropriate consideration is given to the selection of
words in a course, to the number of new lexical items to be introduced in each unit and each level of a
course, and to the recycling of words throughout the course. With a direct approach, developing such
a syllabus is often necessary before other components of the course are planned. However, except
MVY]LY`SV^SL]LSTH[LYPHSZ^P[OH]LY`YLZ[YPJ[LK]VJHI\SHY`JVU[LU[P[PZVM[LUKPѝJ\S[[VLUZ\YL[OH[
[OL]VJHI\SHY`\ZLKPUHJV\YZLPZNYHKLKZ\ѝJPLU[S`HUK[OH[[OLYLPZHJVU[YVSSLKPU[YVK\J[PVUVMUL^
words, since the primary planning units are normally macro-level units such as topics, content, skills
or functions, which tend to dictate the selection of lexical items needed in each lesson or unit. An
indirect approach to vocabulary in a course is therefore more typical, one where other components of
the course are given priority during the planning stages and vocabulary is addressed as it is needed
for the introduction of content, skills, texts, and tasks. The disadvantage of this approach is that there
might be considerable gaps in the learners’ vocabulary knowledge and development.
8.5 Situational syllabus

The last type of syllabus we will consider is one that is organized around the language needed for
KPќLYLU[ ZP[\H[PVUZ Z\JO HZ at the airport or at a hotel. A situation is a setting in which particular
JVTT\UPJH[P]LHJ[Z[`WPJHSS`VJJ\Y(ZP[\H[PVUHSZ`SSHI\ZPKLU[PÄLZ[OLZP[\H[PVUZPUÔPJO[OLSLHYULY
will use the language and the typical communicative acts and language used in that setting. Features
of a “situation” include the following:
The setting: where the interaction takes place, the physical locale.
Participants: who is involved and what their roles are.
Goals: what the purpose or purposes of the interaction are.
Activities: what sequence of activities take place.

Procedures: how these activities take place.
Resources: what resources are used.
Language: what language is used in order to complete the interaction.
Outcomes: what the outcomes of the interaction are.
:P[\H[PVUHSZ`SSHI\ZLZOH]LILLUHMHTPSPHYMLH[\YLVMSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUN[L_[IVVRZMVYJLU[\YPLZ2LSS`
1969) and are often used in travel books such as Passport )\JRPUNOHTHUK>OP[UL` ÔPJO
was organized around situations such as On an airplane, At an immigration counter, At a bank, In a
restaurant,([[OLWVZ[VѝJL. Syllabus frameworks such as Threshold, for example, include “situation”
as one of the many interrelated factors that need to be considered in planning a syllabus.
*V\YZLZ WYLWHYPUN SLHYULYZ [V \ZL H SHUN\HNL PU ZWLJPÄJ JVU[L_[Z LN VJJ\WH[PVUHS HUK ZVJPHS
survival courses) have often used “situation” as the focus for the choice of syllabus items. It is
HSZV H MLH[\YL VM [OL KLZPNU VM ,:7 JVTWL[LUJÌHZLK HUK [L_[IHZLK JV\YZLZ 5LLKZ HUHS`ZPZ
WYVJLK\YLZ KL]LSVWLK I` 4\UI` HUK I` HK]VJH[LZ VM ;HZR)HZLK 0UZ[Y\J[PVU 3VUN
similarly start with the situations where language is used and the activities or tasks the learners are
engaged in within those situations as a central focus in course planning and syllabus design (Holmes
"3VUN/V^L]LYPUJ\YYLU[HWWYVHJOLZ[VJV\YZLKLZPNUZP[\H[PVUPZ\Z\HSS`\UKLYZ[VVK
as a micro-level aspect of a course rather than a macro-level organizational principle.
/V^KV`V\[OPUR[OLSHUN\HNL\ZLKPUHWHY[PJ\SHYZP[\H[PVULNH[[OLKVJ[VY»ZVѝJLJV\SK
ILPKLU[PÄLKHUKKLZJYPILK&
Issues with situational syllabuses

Situation syllabuses have been criticized on a number of grounds:
;OL` YLÅLJ[ H ZPTWSPZ[PJ ]PL^ VM SHUN\HNL HUK JVU[L_[ As with functional approaches, critics of
situationally organized courses (particularly those designed for travel and work-related situations such
as English for telephone operators,,UNSPZOMVYYLZ[H\YHU[^VYRLYZ, English for shopping, etc.) argue
[OH[ H ZP[\H[PVUHS HWWYVHJO YLÅLJ[Z H ILSPLM [OH[ [OL SHUN\HNL \ZLK PU ZP[\H[PVUZ PZ WYLKPJ[HISL HUK
Ä_LKYH[OLY[OHULTLYNPUNMYVTHJVTWSL_WYVJLZZVMPU[LYHJ[PVUIL[^LLUWHY[PJPWHU[Z
There is a lack of transferability. 3HUN\HNL \ZLK PU ZWLJPÄJ ZP[\H[PVUZ TH` UV[ [YHUZMLY [V V[OLY
situations, and hence the learner’s ability is restricted to those situations that have been presented
and practiced in the course or course materials.
;OL` YLÅLJ[ H WOYHZLIVVR HWWYVHJO Situational courses often lead to a dialog and phrase-book
HWWYVHJO[OH[PZ[VHMVJ\ZVUÄ_LKL_WYLZZPVUZHUKPKPVTZ^P[OSP[[SLZ`Z[LTH[PJSHUN\HNLKL]LSVWTLU[
They lead to an unsystematic treatment of grammar. Since grammar is dealt with incidentally, it may
result in gaps in a student’s grammatical knowledge.
They lead to an uneven syllabus. 0[PZKPѝJ\S[[VZLX\LUJL[OLKPќLYLU[Z[YHUKZVMHZP[\H[PVUHSJV\YZL
in such a way that each of its components develops in a well-sequenced progression.
Can you suggest a case where a situational approach to course design might be the most
appropriate one to use?
8.6 Determining the scope and sequence

Decisions about course content also need to address the distribution of content throughout the
course. This is known as planning the scope and sequence of the course. Scope is concerned with the
breadth and depth of coverage of items in the course. The sequencing of content in the course also
needs to be determined. This involves deciding which content is needed early in the course, and which
provides a basis for things that will be learned later. Sequencing may be based on the following criteria:
Simple to complex. 6ULVM[OLJVTTVULZ[^H`ZVMZLX\LUJPUNTH[LYPHSPZI`KPѝJ\S[`SL]LS*VU[LU[
presented earlier is thought to be simpler than later items. This is typically seen in relation to grammar
JVU[LU[ I\[ HU` [`WL VM JV\YZL JVU[LU[ JHU IL NYHKLK PU [LYTZ VM KPѝJ\S[` -VY L_HTWSL YLHKPUN
[L_[ZPUHYLHKPUNJV\YZLTHÌLZPTWSPÄLKH[[OLILNPUUPUNVM[OLJV\YZLHUK\UZPTWSPÄLKH[SH[LY
levels. Simple skills such as “literal comprehension” may be required early on, and more complex skills
such as “inferencing” taught at a later stage. Or topics that are not cognitively demanding will occur
LHYSPLYPUHJV\YZL[OHU[OVZL[OH[HYLJVTWSL_HUKKPѝJ\S[
How could a writing course be sequenced in terms of simple to complex?
Chronology. Content may be sequenced according to the order in which events occur in the real
world. For example, in a writing course the organization might be based on the sequence writers
are assumed to employ when composing: (1) brainstorming, (2) drafting, (3) revising, (4) editing. In a
WYVÄJPLUJ`JV\YZLZRPSSZTPNO[ILZLX\LUJLKHJJVYKPUN[V[OLZLX\LUJLPUÔPJO[OL`HYLUVYTHSS`
acquired: (1) listening, (2) speaking, (3) reading, (4) writing.
Need. Content may be sequenced according to when learners are most likely to need it outside of
the classroom. For example, the sequencing of content in a social-survival curriculum consists of the
following topics (Mrowicki 1986, xi):
1. basic literacy skills 9. directions
2. WLYZVUHSPKLU[PÄJH[PVU 10. transportation
3. money 11. housing
4. shopping 12. WVZ[VѝJL
time and dates 13. IHURPUNIPSSZ
6. telephone 14. social language
7. health JSHYPÄJH[PVU
8. emergencies
Prerequisite learning. ;OL ZLX\LUJL VM JVU[LU[ TH` YLÅLJ[ ÔH[ PZ ULJLZZHY` H[ VUL WVPU[ HZ H
foundation for the next step in the learning process. For example, a certain set of grammar items may
be taught as a prerequisite to paragraph writing. Or, in a reading course, word attack skills may be
[H\NO[LHYS`VUHZHWYLYLX\PZP[L[VYLHKPUN\UZPTWSPÄLK[L_[ZH[SH[LYZ[HNLZVM[OLJV\YZL
>OVSL[VWHY[VYWHY[[VÔVSLIn some cases, material at the beginning of a course may focus on the
overall structure or organization of a topic before considering the individual components that make
it up. Alternatively, the course might focus on practicing the parts before the whole. For example,
students might read short stories and react to them as whole texts before going on to consider
ÔH[[OLLSLTLU[ZHYL[OH[JVUZ[P[\[LHULќLJ[P]LZOVY[Z[VY`6YZ[\KLU[ZTPNO[Z[\KÒV^[V^YP[L
paragraphs before going on to practice putting paragraphs together to make an essay.
Spiral sequencing. This approach involves the recycling of items to ensure that learners have repeated
opportunities to learn them.
8.7 Developing instructional segments

So far we have described the processes used to make decisions about the content of a course
as well as its syllabus framework. A course also needs to be mapped out in terms of instructional
segments. An instructional segment is a self-contained learning sequence that has its own goals and
VIQLJ[P]LZHUK[OH[HSZVYLÅLJ[Z[OLV]LYHSSVIQLJ[P]LZMVY[OLJV\YZL0UZ[Y\J[PVUHSZLNTLU[ZYLWYLZLU[
[OLPUZ[Y\J[PVUHSMVJ\ZVM[OLJV\YZLHUKTHÌL]LY`ZWLJPÄJLNHZPUNSLSLZZVUVYTVYLNLULYHS
(e.g., a unit of work consisting of several lessons). Planning the organizational structure in a course
involves selecting appropriate segments and deciding on the sequence in which these will appear. In
organizing a course into teaching segments, one seeks to achieve the following:
• To make the course more teachable and learnable.
• ;VWYV]PKLHWYVNYLZZPVUPUSL]LSVMKPѝJ\S[`
• To create overall coherence and structure for the course.
Two commonly used instructional segments are planning by modules and by units.
Modules. This is a self-contained and independent learning sequence with its own objectives. For
example, a 120-hour course might be divided into four modules of 30 hours each. Assessment is
JHYYPLKV\[H[[OLLUKVMLHJOTVK\SL4VK\SLZHSSV^MVYÅL_PISLVYNHUPaH[PVUVMHJV\YZLHUKJHUNP]L
SLHYULYZHZLUZLVMHJOPL]LTLU[ILJH\ZLVIQLJ[P]LZHYLTVYLPTTLKPH[LHUKZWLJPÄJ*HYLULLKZ[V
be taken, however, to ensure that the course does not appear fragmented and unstructured.
Units. This teaching block is normally longer than a single lesson but shorter than a module and is the
commonest way of organizing courses and teaching materials. It is normally a group of lessons that
is planned around a single instructional focus. (Sometimes units are referred to as a ZJOLTLVM^VYR)
A unit seeks to provide a structured sequence of activities that lead toward a learning outcome. The
factors that account for a successful unit include:
• Length: :\ѝJPLU[I\[UV[[VVT\JOTH[LYPHSPZPUJS\KLK
• Development: 6ULHJ[P]P[`SLHKZLќLJ[P]LS`PU[V[OLUL_["[OL\UP[KVLZUV[JVUZPZ[VMHYHUKVT
sequence of activities.
• Coherence: The unit has an overall sense of coherence.
• Pacing: ,HJOHJ[P]P[`^P[OPU[OL\UP[TV]LZH[HYLHZVUHISLWHJL-VYL_HTWSLPM[OLYLHYLÄ]L
activities in the unit, one does not require four times as much time to complete as the others.
• Outcome: At the end of the unit, students should be able to know or do a series of things that
are related.
>OH[V[OLYMHJ[VYZTPNO[HJJV\U[MVY[OLLќLJ[P]LULZZVMH\UP[&
Conclusions
(Z ^L Z\NNLZ[LK HIV]L HU` NLULYHS SHUN\HNL JV\YZL ^PSS ULLK [V PUJS\KL THU` KPќLYLU[ Z`SSHI\Z
strands, including texts, skills, content, tasks, grammar, and vocabulary, and these will therefore all
need to be addressed at some stage in a course and integrated into an overall syllabus framework.
Rather than be restricted to a single syllabus approach, it is often more practical to consider what
HZWLJ[ZVMKPќLYLU[Z`SSHI\ZTVKLSZJHUILKYHÛ\WVU[VILZ[ZLY]L[OLNVHSZVMV\YWYVNYHTHUK
[OL ULLKZ VM V\Y Z[\KLU[Z (ZWLJ[Z VM KPќLYLU[ Z`SSHI\Z MYHTL^VYRZ JHU VM[LU IL \ZLK [VNL[OLY
HUK TH` PU MHJ[ IL TVYL LќLJ[P]L ÔLU ZV \ZLK -VY L_HTWSL [OLYL HYL VI]PV\Z SPURZ IL[^LLU
text-based and skill-based, between content-based and task-based, and between skill-based and
grammar-based approaches.
Proponents of particular syllabus frameworks often present them as a superior alternative to other
options. For example, Mickan (2013), an advocate of a text-based approach, reviews alternative
syllabus proposals in a few pages before concluding that they all have failed with the exception of a
[L_[IHZLKHWWYVHJO3VUNPZZPTPSHYS`KPZTPZZP]LVMHS[LYUH[P]LZ[VH[HZRIHZLKHWWYVHJO@L[
ÔLU^LL_HTPUL[OLHWWSPJH[PVUZVMZWLJPÄJZ`SSHI\ZTVKLSZ[OLKPќLYLUJLZIL[^LLU[OLTT\JO
as with the various competing method proposals of the 1980s and 1990s, are often less distinct at
the level of classroom processes and practices. Many of the accounts of task-based approaches
NP]LU PU ;OVTHZ HUK 9LPUKLYZ MVY L_HTWSL JV\SK LX\HSS` IL ZLLU HZ HWWSPJH[PVUZ VM [L_[
based and skill-based approaches. Moreover, the accounts of text-based approaches in Mickan
JV\SK ZPTPSHYS` IL PU[LYWYL[LK HZ UV[ ILPUN ]LY` KPќLYLU[ MYVT HJJV\U[Z VM ZRPSSIHZLK HUK
task-based approaches.
0UWYHJ[PJHS[LYTZ[OLYLMVYLHSSZ`SSHI\ZLZYLÅLJ[ZVTLKLNYLLVMPU[LNYH[PVU2YHOURLTHKL[OPZWVPU[
ULHYS``LHYZHNVÔLUOLJVTTLU[LK !
For almost all instructional programs, it is clear that some combination of types of instruc-
tional content will be needed to address the complex goals of the program … for most general
teaching applications, whose goal is functional ability in broadly defined settings and struc-
tural knowledge and communicative ability in specific situations, a combination of functional,
structural, situational, and skill-based instruction is the probable choice. On the other hand,
in some second language teaching settings, skills and tasks can be more narrowly specified,
instructional resources are richer, or specific structural or formal knowledge is not required by
the program for students to succeed, and a combination of task-based, skill-based, situational,
functional, and content instruction may be chosen.
The priority given to any particular organizing element (e.g., competencies, skills, or content),
however, depends on a number of factors, including the following:
Current practice. Particular approaches in syllabus design emerge in what appear to be ten-
`LHY J`JSLZ YLÅLJ[PUN LK\JH[PVUHS MHZOPVUZ HUK [YLUKZ PU KPќLYLU[ WHY[Z VM [OL ^VYSK ;L_[IHZLK
HWWYVHJOLZ MVY L_HTWSL OH]L H[[YHJ[LK TVYL H[[LU[PVU PU (\Z[YHSPH HUK 5L^ ALHSHUK [OHU PU [OL
<:(VY[OL<2
Government or institutional mandates. Teachers may sometimes have little choice over a syllabus
framework, since it may have been selected or mandated by higher authorities.
Tests. Teaching in many contexts is aligned with assessment practices, and a particular syllabus
approach may provide better preparation for a school or national test.
Expediency. Some approaches are more easily used than others as a basis for course and materials
design or are supported by published materials and textbooks, such as skill-based courses.
However, while a syllabus provides the design framework for a language course, teaching involves
more than simply reproducing or realizing the intentions of the syllabus. It is a more creative and
WLYZVUHSWYVJLZZ[OH[YLÅLJ[Z[OLSLHYUPUNJVU[L_[HUK[OLPU[LYHJ[PVUZVM[OLWHY[PJPWHU[Z^P[OPUP[
We explore the nature of this process in the next chapter.
Discussion questions
1. Compare two or more textbooks for the same skill area and level (e.g., reading, listening). Do
they cover the same skills?
2. How do you think the skills involved in reading a text in print, as opposed to reading it online,
KPќLY&0M[OLYLHYLKPќLYLUJLZÔH[PTWSPJH[PVUZHYL[OLYLMVY[LHJOPUNYLHKPUN&
3. *OVVZL [OYLL KPќLYLU[ HWWYVHJOLZ [V Z`SSHI\Z KLZPNU [OH[ HYL WVZZPISL MVY [OL MVSSV^PUN [`WLZ
of courses and consider the advantages and limitations of each approach: a reading course, a
speaking course,H^YP[PUNJV\YZL.
4. :LSLJ[ [^V VY [OYLL YLSH[LK M\UJ[PVUZ MYVT [OL ;OYLZOVSK 3L]LS Z`SSHI\Z ZLL *OHW[LY
Appendix 1) and consider the language that would be needed to teach these functions to lower-
intermediate learners in a speaking course. What decisions are involved in selecting the language
realizations (or exponents) for functions in a functional syllabus?
Compare two textbooks for teaching reading or writing. Do they include a grammar strand? If so,
on what basis is the grammar chosen?
6. Review the treatment of grammar in an integrated-skills course. To what extent do the grammar
activities in the course teach grammar as RUV^SLKNL or grammar as ability?
7. Review the treatment of vocabulary in a vocabulary textbook or a four-skills coursebook. To what
extent are multi-word units included?
8. Compare two units from two coursebooks that are designed for the same area and level. What
\UP[Z[Y\J[\YLKVLZLHJOIVVRLTWSV`&/V^LќLJ[P]LPZ[OL\UP[Z[Y\J[\YLMVYLHJOIVVR&
9. Examine the curriculum for a listening course in Appendix 2. What criteria do you think were used
for sequencing the objectives in the course?
10. Read Case study 12 by Phil Wade at the end of this chapter.
• How would you describe the approach used to develop the syllabus for this course?
• How is accuracy addressed in the course?
• How is a learner-centered focus addressed in the course?
11. 5V^YLHK*HZLZ[\KÌ`-YHUR9VNLYZ
• How does CEFR inform the design of the course?
• What is the role of textbooks and technology in the course?
APPENDIX 1 Skills syllabus for listening and speaking

From Malaysian Secondary School Syllabus form IV (1989).
1.0 Listening and Speaking

The component on listening and speaking deals with the skills of sound discrimination, extracting information,
HUKWYLKPJ[PVUPUVYKLY[VWLYMVYTZWLJPÄJM\UJ[PVUZ;OLZRPSSZHSZVPUJS\KL[OVZLVMKL[LYTPUPUNHUK\ZPUN
YLNPZ[LYZ[VZ\P[KPќLYLU[H\KPLUJLZHUKMVYKPќLYLU[W\YWVZLZZV[OH[Z[\KLU[ZHYLHISL[VL_WYLZZ[OLPY
thoughts clearly and succinctly and be able to fully participate in conversations and discussions.
The sub-skills that follow the main skills in this component are to be taught together with the main
skills. These sub-skills are not arranged in a hierarchy and are thus not intended to be followed as a
YPNPKZLX\LUJL;OLÙLLK[VILYLWLH[LKPUKPќLYLU[I\[TLHUPUNM\SJVTIPUH[PVUZ
Objectives of the component on listening and speaking

3PZ[LUPUN[VHUKKPZJYPTPUH[PUN!JVUZVUHU[JS\Z[LYZZLU[LUJLZ[YLZZHUKPU[VUH[PVUKPWO[OVUNZHUK
homonyms
3PZ[LUPUN[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKPUN!^VYKZWOYHZLZHUKZLU[LUJLZ"PUZ[Y\J[PVUZTLZZHNLZ"Z[VYPLZ"[HSRZ"
YLWVY[Z" VWPUPVUZ" WVLTZ" KPHSVN\LZ" PUMVYTH[PVU PU YLWVY[Z N\PKLZ JOHY[Z NYHWOZ THU\HSZ
MVYTZHUKSL[[LYZ"KLZJYPW[PVUVMZJLULZL]LU[ZWSHJLZ[OPUNZHUKWYVJLZZLZHUKWYVJLK\YLZ
Speaking with correct pronunciation, intonation, word stress and sentence rhythm
(ZRPUN MVY HUK NP]PUN! TLHUPUNZ VM ^VYKZ WOYHZLZ HUK ZLU[LUJLZ" PUZ[Y\J[PVUZ" TLZZHNLZ" [HSRZ"
YLWVY[Z" VWPUPVUZ" PUMVYTH[PVU PU YLWVY[Z N\PKLZ JOHY[Z NYHWOZ THU\HSZ MVYTZ HUK SL[[LYZ"
KLZJYPW[PVUZVMZJLULZL]LU[ZWSHJLZ[OPUNZHUKWYVJLZZLZHUKWYVJLK\YLZ"HUK
Telling stories
:RPSSZWLJPÄJH[PVUZ
([[OLLUKVM[OL,UNSPZO3HUN\HNL7YVNYHTTLMVY-VYT0=Z[\KLU[ZZOV\SKILHISL[V
3PZ[LU[VHUKKPZJYPTPUH[LIL[^LLU!JVUZVUHU[JS\Z[LYZKPWO[OVUNZHUKOVTVU`TZ
3PZ[LU[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKHUKHZRMVYHUKNP]LTLHUPUNZVM^VYKZWOYHZLZHUKZLU[LUJLZ
1.3 Speak with correct intonation, word stress and sentence rhythm.
3
PZ[LU [V HUK \UKLYZ[HUK HUK HZR MVY HUK NP]L PUZ[Y\J[PVUZ VU OV^ [V Ä_ [OPUNZ Z\JO HZ H
leaking tap.
3
PZ[LU [V HUK \UKLYZ[HUK HZR MVY HUK NP]L HUK YLSH` TLZZHNLZ YLJLP]LK [OYV\NO [OL THZZ
media, such as the radio and the television.
3
PZ[LU[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKHUK[LSSZ[VYPLZVUTVYHS]HS\LZZ\JOHZZLSMYLSPHUJLKPSPNLUJLHUK
public-spiritedness.
3
PZ[LU[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKHZRMVYHUKNP]LPUMVYTH[PVUJVU[HPULKPU[HSRZVUJ\YYLU[PZZ\LZZ\JO
as consumerism and health care.
3
PZ[LU[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKHZRMVYHUKNP]LPUMVYTH[PVUJVU[HPULKPUYLWVY[ZZ\JOHZUL^ZWHWLY
reports and book reports.
3PZ[LU[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKHZRMVYHUKNP]LPUMVYTH[PVUJVU[HPULKPUJOHY[ZNYHWOZHUKTHU\HSZ
3PZ[LU [V HUK \UKLYZ[HUK HZR MVY HUK NP]L PUMVYTH[PVU JVU[HPULK PU PUMVYTHS SL[[LYZ PU
newspapers and in formal letters of enquiry and complaint.
3PZ[LU[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKHZRMVYHUKNP]LKLZJYPW[PVUZVMZJLULZZ\JOHZ[V\YPZ[ZWV[ZPU[OL
(:,(5YLNPVU
3PZ[LU[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKHZRMVYHUKNP]LKLZJYPW[PVUZVML]LU[ZZ\JOHZ[OL:,(NHTLZ
3PZ[LU[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKHZRMVYHUKNP]LVWPUPVUZVUJ\YYLU[PZZ\LZZ\JOHZ\ULTWSV`TLU[
3PZ[LU[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKZLSLJ[LKWVLTZVM^YP[LYZMYVT(:,(5YLNPVU
3PZ[LU[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKHZRMVYHUKNP]LKLZJYPW[PVUZVMWYVJLZZLZHUKWYVJLK\YLZZ\JOHZ
the recycling of material.
3PZ[LU[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKHUKL_WYLZZKPZWSLHZ\YLHUKYLNYL[
1.17 Practice social skills such as interrupting a conversation, and joining in and participating in a
conversation.
The following sub-skills need to be combined and taught simultaneously with the above main skills
where appropriate.
Sub-skills of listening
a. Discerning main ideas
b. Understanding sequence
J 5V[PJPUNZWLJPÄJKL[HPSZ
d. Inferring
e. Comparing
f. Predicting
g. Determining relevance
O +PZ[PUN\PZOPUNMHJ[HUKÄJ[PVU
P +PќLYLU[PH[PUNIL[^LLUMHJ[HUKVWPUPVU
j. Generalizing
k. Classifying
Sub-skills of speaking
l. Using correct pronunciation
m. Questioning
n. Paraphrasing
o. Supporting and clarifying
p. Summarizing
q. Using registers
r. Speaking coherently
APPENDIX 2*\YYPJ\S\TMVYHSPZ[LUPUNJSHZZ̸
Curriculum design: Low-Intermediate Adult ESL Listening Class
by Rebecca Nicholson
Course Foundation
;OPZJ\YYPJ\S\TPZMVYHSV^PU[LYTLKPH[LSL]LSRUVÛHZ0U[LYTLKPH[L3PZ[LUPUNJSHZZ;OLJSHZZY\UZ
for 2 hours a week and is part of a 20-hour a week, ten-week, intensive adult English course. The course
PZJVUK\J[LKH[[OL<UP]LYZP[`VM*HUILYYH,UNSPZO3HUN\HNL0UZ[P[\[L<*,30HWYP]H[LMHJPSP[`ÔPJOPZ
part of the University of Canberra College. The course is a general English course, with the move to an
academic English course in upper-intermediate. The other classes in the course are: Core Text, Writing,
Speaking, Reading, and Grammar & Vocab. A formal needs analysis will be conducted at the beginning
of the course. The users will be the students and their teacher, but results will also be passed on to the
level coordinator and school directors. It will take place in the form of a questionnaire and class activities
K\YPUN [OL ÄYZ[ SLZZVU ;OL HUHS`ZPZ ^PSS IL \ZLK [V PKLU[PM` Z[\KLU[Z» ULLKZ PU[LYLZ[Z JOHSSLUNLZ
L_WLJ[H[PVUZHIV\[SLHYULYHUK[LHJOLYYVSLZÔPJOTHÙLLK[VILULNV[PH[LK[VÄ[[OLSLHYULYJLU[YLK
TVKLSHUKHSZVWLYZVUHSNVHSZ(ZOVY[LYTPKJV\YZLULLKZHUHS`ZPZ^PSSILNP]LUPU^LLR[VHZZLZZ
how students think the course is going and how they are moving towards their goals. Ongoing, informal
needs analysis will complement the formal needs analyses as part of classroom events (Richards 2001).
By the end of the 10 weeks, students are expected to have met the following aims and objectives, which
OH]LILLUHTLUKLKZPUJL[OLWYVWVZHSPUVYKLY[VIL[[LYZ\P[[OLÄUHSZ`SSHI\Z
Aim 1: Students will be able to understand spoken passages on familiar matters, including current
HќHPYZ HUK [VWPJZ VM WLYZVUHS PU[LYLZ[ ;OL` ^PSS JVTWYLOLUK LUV\NO [V WHY[PJPWH[L LќLJ[P]LS` PU
simple, everyday communications, with both native and non-native English Speakers.
Objectives:
• )LJVTLMHTPSPHY^P[OHUKI\PSK]VJHI\SHY`PU[OLHYLHZVMMVVKJVVRPUNSPRLZKPZSPRLZWOVIPHZ
stories, opinions, feelings, describing places, holidays, weather reports, job enquiries, time
phrases, gestures, health, the environment and news reports.
• Develop skills in listening for details, understanding gist, identifying the topic and main ideas,
making inferences, following instructions and note-taking.
• Develop active listening skills (such as feedback) and listening for cues.
• +L]LSVWJVUÄKLUJLPUMHJL[VMHJLHUK[LSLWOVULJVU]LYZH[PVUZ
Aim 2: Students will become active participants in their own learning.
Objectives:
• Identify their own goals for improving listening ability and consciously work towards them.
• 9LÅLJ[VU[OLPYVÛWYVNYLZZ
• Participate in class discussions, ask questions and use only English in the classroom.
Aim 3: Students will begin to think critically.
Objectives:
• Understand and draw conclusions of others’ opinions, and from their own in regards to the
topics presented.
• Make predictions by considering what they already know about a topic, and formulate questions.
• Relate listening topics to their own personal experiences.
Aim 4: Students will develop an understanding of the way of life of people in English-speaking
countries, with a particular emphasis on Australia.
Objectives:
• Be exposed to a range of native-English accents.
• )LJVTLTVYLMHTPSPHY^P[OJ\S[\YHSKPќLYLUJLZIL[^LLU(\Z[YHSPHHUK[OLPYVÛJV\U[YPLZHZ^LSS
as those of their classmates.
References
Richards, J. C. 2001. Curriculum development in language teaching*HTIYPKNL3HUN\HNL,K\JH[PVU
Series. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
APPENDIX 3.YHTTHYP[LTZHUK[OLPYZLX\LUJLPUHÄYZ[`LHY,UNSPZOJV\YZL
(from Richards and Bohlke 2012)
The verb be
Possessive adjectives
UNIT 1
Subject pronouns
Yes/No questions with be
Plural subject pronouns
UNIT 2 Questions with be
Who and /V^VSK with be
Demonstratives
Articles a and an
Plurals
UNIT 3
Possessive pronouns
Whose
’s and s’
Simple present statements
UNIT 4
Simple present yes/no questions
Adverbs of frequency
UNIT 5
Simple present Wh-questions with do
Simple present Wh-questions with does
UNIT 6 Can for ability
And, but, and or
Count and noncount nouns

Some and any
UNIT 7
How often
Time expressions
Prepositions of location
UNIT 8
There is, there are
Present continuous statements
UNIT 9
Present continuous questions
Simple past regular verbs
UNIT 10 Simple past irregular verbs
Yes/No questions
Past of be
UNIT 11
Simple past Wh-questions
Be going to
Yes/no questions
UNIT 12
Wh-questions with be, going to
Object pronouns
CASE STUDY 14(JV\YZLMVYÄYZ[`LHY\UP]LYZP[`Z[\KLU[Z

Phil Wade
What is the context of the course?
6YHS,UNSPZOPZHÄYZ[`LHY\UP]LYZP[`JV\YZLPU[LYTVULMVYHSS,UNSPZOTHQVYZ[\KLU[Z;OL<UP]LYZP[`
PZ SVJH[LK PU 3H 9L\UPVU 0ZSHUK BH -YLUJO départment in the Indian Ocean, JCR]. The course also
includes some students from other departments taking English as an option, working adult students
who are not required to attend classes, and repeating students who failed last year and so have to do
the course again. The average age range is 17 to 23, and class sizes are about 20 due to the seating
capacity of the classrooms. English levels start at A2 and go up to C1, and speaking is generally
students’ weakest skill. The students do several related courses, such as grammar, vocabulary,
phonetics, translation, culture and literature.
What are the goals of the course?

;OLJV\YZLPZKLZPNULK[VOLSWZ[\KLU[ZKL]LSVWWYHJ[PZLHUKYLÄUL[OLPYHJHKLTPJWYLZLU[H[PVU
skills about topics related to their studies and also to improve their listening comprehension skills
[V H Z\ѝJPLU[ SL]LS MVY [OL ÄYZ[ `LHY )V[O ZRPSSZ HYL LZZLU[PHS MVY [OLPY V[OLY JV\YZLZ HZ [OL` HYL
primarily conducted in English with native and non-native teachers and involve extensive lectures
HUK HZZLZZLK JSHZZ WYLZLU[H[PVUZ 6\Y Z[\KLU[Z ULLK [V IL HISL [V M\UJ[PVU LќLJ[P]LS` H[ H
minimum B2 level.
The course goals are:
a) To actively participate in all lessons.
I;VWYLWHYLHUKKLSP]LYHÄ]LTPU\[LHJHKLTPJWYLZLU[H[PVU
c) To ask and answer relevant questions following presentations.
d) To successfully complete all listening comprehension tasks.
What planning was involved in developing the course?

We have a department course program booklet, and this has been one of the core courses for as long
HZ0JHUYLTLTILY;OLYLPZHJVUJPZLVѝJPHSZ`SSHI\ZNVHSZHUKHZ\TTHY`VM[OLJV\YZLÔPJO^L
MVSSV^6]LY[OL`LHYZOV^L]LYHZKPќLYLU[[LHJOLYZOH]LKLSP]LYLK[OLJV\YZL^LOH]LI\PS[\WH
bank of past tests as well as copies. Thus, the course has naturally evolved, and we teachers now
have a certain amount of freedom because of the bank of materials that has been developed. So at
[OL LUK VM L]LY` [LYT ^L YLÅLJ[ VU [OL WYL]PV\Z JV\YZL Z[\KLU[ MLLKIHJR HUK L_HT YLZ\S[Z HUK
select appropriate materials for the next, and then discuss ideas for the exams. We also consider
any issues which have arisen or might arise regarding attendance, public holidays, sickness and the
pass rate compared to other courses.
How is the course organized?

;OL6YHS,UNSPZOJV\YZLZWHUZ[LU^LLRZHUKPZTHKL\WVM^LLRS` TPU\[LSLZZVUZ0U[OLÄYZ[
we explain the course and its objectives, get to know the students and describe how they will be
HZZLZZLKHUKÔH[[OL`ZOV\SKKV[VZ\JJLZZM\SS`JVTWSL[L[OLJV\YZL0UT`ÄYZ[SLZZVUZ0HS^H`Z
give a sample presentation and go over basic presentation structures and language, and then
students brainstorm suitable topics and I give them feedback, so they all know which are acceptable.
0[OLUJOVVZL[OYLLZ[\KLU[Z[VWYLZLU[[OLMVSSV^PUN^LLR-VSSV^PUN[OH[^LKV[OLÄYZ[SPZ[LUPUN
comprehension tasks.
Every lesson then follows the same structure:

1. Five-minute assessed student presentations.
2. Student questions and answers and teacher questions where necessary.
3. A short open discussion about the topic.
4. Peer and teacher feedback with suggestions on how to improve.
7YLZLU[H[PVUZRPSSZSHUN\HNL^VYR
6. A listening comprehension task with several questions.
7. (UV[OLYSPZ[LUPUNJVTWYLOLUZPVU^P[OHNHWÄSS[HZR
8. 3LHYULYZLSLJ[LKHKKP[PVUHSSPZ[LUPUNL_LYJPZLZPM[PTL
0U[OLÄUHS^LLRSLZZVU^LWYV]PKLZVTLL_HTWYLWHYH[PVUI`L_WSHPUPUN[OLL_HTMVYTH[HUK
marking and giving tips based on the students’ levels, strengths and weaknesses. Time is allocated
for any students who were unable to give their presentations during the course.
What teaching and learning methods do you use?

The course is quite structured and there is a lot to accomplish within each session. It is not a typical
,-3SLZZVUHUKZV^LHKHW[[V[OLZP[\H[PVU4VZ[SLZZVUZHYLKVULPUJVTW\[LYSHIVYH[VYPLZHUKZV
JHUILJSHZZPÄLKHZ\ZPUNH)SLUKLK3LHYUPUNHWWYVHJO"Z[\KLU[ZHSZV\ZL[OLPYWOVULZMVYSVVRPUN
\WKLÄUP[PVUZVM^VYKZ>LOH]LHUVUSPUL-SPWIVHYKTHNHaPULÔPJOJVU[HPUZ^LLRS`Z\WWSLTLU[HY`
listening exercises that are done at the end of the session, if there is time, or at home. As it is an app,
students can use it on any device.
The listening tasks are often taken from past exam papers, and so they not only provide good general
listening practice but also help students understand and get accustomed to the exam format and
instructions. Due to job rotation, not every test was written by the current team, so there are some
style variations.
As for the presentation element, it is more of a CBI (Content-Based Instruction) style, as the topic is
central and the students’ language is assessed as a delivery tool for that topic. The questioning is
also aimed at real discussion rather than just practising question-and-answer forms. We are aiming
to develop presentation skills which will help the students throughout their studies.
The feedback part relies completely on the delivered presentations and student peer assessments.
Students are asked to give honest feedback and suggestions using the “feedback sandwich”
method. The teacher then follows that up with a coaching style in which students are encouraged
[V ZLSMHZZLZZ HUK PKLU[PM` [OLPY KPѝJ\S[PLZ VY VIZ[HJSLZ ;OL JSHZZ [OLU ^VYRZ [VNL[OLY [V JYLH[L
strategies for moving forward.
The related language work is done in the Dogme style, where the teacher notes down common
errors, weaknesses and areas that could be developed and then creates some activities to work on
them. These can be an extension of the previous stage or something else. The teacher can also ask
students what they feel they need help with.
;OLSPZ[LUPUN[HZRZHYLJVYYLJ[LKPUKPќLYLU[^H`Z:VTLZ[\KLU[ZQ\Z[WYLMLYL_HTZ[`SLÔLYL[OL`
listen and then are given the answers. Others like the teacher to pause the recording after each
answer and to explain it. The latter is quite helpful, especially with lower-level students. For the
student-selected supplementary listening tasks, students are given a choice from the online magazine
and select the ones they feel are appropriate for their level, their weaknesses or their interests. The
teacher then monitors and supports them and gives further homework suggestions.
What is the role of materials and other resources?

We have a very limited resource budget, so we use photocopies of previous exam papers and
occasionally other listening exercises designed by our current and previous teams. These consist of
VULKV\ISLZPKLKZOLL[^P[OH[HZRVULHJOZPKL;OLÄYZ[[HZRJVUZPZ[ZVMJVTWYLOLUZPVUX\LZ[PVUZ
based on a British or American English recording. The second is a poem or story extract with gaps
that the students try to complete. Each usually has around 20 questions. We use a CD and mp3
players for the recordings, and the computers for the additional work. Students also use paper,
phones and tablets to write on.
The Flipboard magazine is very practical, as it provides listening practice for students who cannot
attend and extra work for those who do. The teacher also knows who subscribes to it, and they can
comment on exercises.
'LG\RXH[SHULHQFHDQ\GLτFXOWLHVLQGHYHORSLQJWKHFRXUVH"
Everything depends on the students that are in each particular class, as we do not separate them
I`SL]LS;O\ZZVTLNYV\WZTHÒH]L]LY`SV^WYVÄJPLUJ`SL]LSZWLYOHWZ(VU*,-96[OLYZTH`
OH]LOPNOWYVÄJPLUJÌ\[[OLTHQVYP[`HYLTP_LK/H]PUNHTP_VMZ[\KLU[ZH[SL]LSZ([V*VYL]LU
*PUVULJSHZZJHUILKPѝJ\S[;OLTH[LYPHSZHYL)*SL]LSZVSV^LYSL]LSZ[\KLU[ZÄUK[OLT]LY`
hard and lose motivation, whereas very high-level students are not as challenged as they might wish
[VIL(ZHYLZ\S[[LHJOLYZKPќLYLU[PH[L[OLILZ[[OL`JHU(Z^LHYLHW\ISPJPUZ[P[\[PVU[OLYLHYL
]HYPV\Z MHJ[VYZ [OH[ HќLJ[ V\Y [LHJOPUN -VY PUZ[HUJL UL^ Z[\KLU[Z JHU IL LUYVSSLK ZL]LYHS ^LLRZ
PU[V[OLJV\YZL:[\KLU[ZHSZVKYVWV\[VYJOHUNLJSHZZVYKLWHY[TLU[;OPZTLHUZ[OH[P[PZKPѝJ\S[
to keep doing continuous development work. We also have a very limited budget, so just ensuring
that we have copied enough handouts as well as tests for our registered students is expensive. We
HYLHK]PZLK[VTHRLL]LY`WHNLJV\U[HUK[VWHJRHZT\JOPUMVYTH[PVUPU[V[OLTHZWVZZPISL5V
big gaps are permitted.
5V[ HSS Z[\KLU[Z ÔV HYL ZLSLJ[LK [V WYLZLU[ JVTL [V [OLPY ZLZZPVU ;OPZ TLHUZ [OH[ [OL` MHPS OHSM
the course, but it also means that there is another ten minutes of class time that the teacher needs
to make use of. When two or even three presenters do not come, the teacher has to extend the
listening work or focus on some presentation skills. If those students turn up the following week with
HSLNP[PTH[LL_J\ZLHUKHZR[VWYLZLU[[OL[LHJOLYTH`[OLUOH]LÄ]LVYL]LUZP_WYLZLU[LYZHUK
must negotiate suitable times for each over the next two weeks.
Our computers are quite old and the Internet is quite slow, so there are often technical problems. The
[LHJOLYZOH]L[VILWYLWHYLKMVY[OPZHUKLP[OLYÄ_[OLWYVISLTZVYJHSSH[LJOUPJPHU
What role does assessment play in the course?

;OLYLPZHÄUHSL_HTÔPJOJHYYPLZVM[OL[V[HSTHYR;OLHZZLZZLKWYLZLU[H[PVUZJHYY`[OLV[OLY
:[\KLU[ZHYLYLX\PYLK[VHJOPL]LV]LYHSS[VWHZZ[OLJV\YZL;OPZTLHUZ[OH[Z[\KLU[ZÔV
HYL^LHRH[[OLWYLZLU[H[PVUZJHUTHRL\W[OLPYZJVYLZPU[OLÄUHS[LZ[
Phil Wade is an English teacher in the Department of English at the University of La Reunion. He
teaches on the Oral English and English Communication courses and is currently developing an
English through Digital Technology course. He has self-published ten teacher development ebooks
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publishers and ELT companies. His articles on teaching methodology and lesson ideas have been
published by numerous ELT associations.
CASE STUDY 15(NLULYHS,UNSPZOJV\YZLMVYPU[LYUH[PVUHSZ[\KLU[Z

Frank S. Rogers
What is the context of the course?
This is a general English (GE) class at the B1 level which I teach at EF Auckland, a private language
ZJOVVS PU 5L^ ALHSHUK 0[»Z H T\S[PUH[PVUHS NYV\W ^P[O THU` ,HZ[ (ZPHU Z[\KLU[Z I\[ HSZV :V\[O
(TLYPJHUZ4PKKSL,HZ[LYULYZHUK,\YVWLHUZ:[\KLU[ZILNPUHUKNYHK\H[LH[KPќLYLU[WVPU[ZI\[
the class size generally consists of between 12 and 17 students. Classes are grouped by CEFR level,
but within that there is inevitably some variation in abilities. A typical student tends to have reasonable
declarative knowledge of grammar but particularly wants to work on speaking and listening. Students
have ten 80-minute GE classes per week and take additional elective courses, such as Grammar,
*VTT\UPJH[PVU0,3;:-V\UKH[PVUL[J
What are the goals of the course?

The CEFR provides a framework for all of our courses, so the most obvious goal is to help students
fully achieve the descriptors for their CEFR level and prime them for the levels beyond. That said, I
also ask students to develop personalized goals, so I try to slot occasional 1-to-1 catch-ups into class
and give support and guidance there. Because students perceive listening to be an area of special
need, I’ve set students the additional goals of becoming comfortable with ungraded speech, aware
of some common sound changes in ungraded speech, and aware of outside, authentic resources
for autonomous work. In terms of speaking, many students come in very tight-lipped, so I aim to get
them feeling comfortable about speaking for an extended stretch of time – two or three minutes and
eventually beyond.
What planning was involved in developing the course?

The textbook lays out a pretty detailed plan, so I start by looking at what’s in the unit and deciding
ÔH[ ZOV\SK IL LTWOHZPaLK KLLTWOHZPaLK VY Z\WWSLTLU[LK 0 KV H ÄYZ[^LLR ULLKZ HUHS`ZPZ
and then another one in the third or fourth week. The information gleaned there gives me a basis for
these judgements. It probably goes without saying, but textbook coverage is generally not performed
verbatim as that would be quite mechanical and unpopular.
I also have the freedom to create ‘bespoke’ lessons of my own, which I usually do at least once a
^LLR0KVU»[[LHJOL]LY`[OPUNPUHNP]LU\UP[I\[0»KZH`0JV]LYHIV\[VM\UP[JVU[LU[:VTL
of that gets done as homework. I think it’s important that derivation is still coherent. For me, that
means keeping a focus on unit grammar and keeping new content and tasks in line with the unit
topic (units are arranged thematically). That way, outside content should reinforce and build on what’s
in the textbook, but students see that there’s more beyond the textbook. Obviously, it’s not realistic
to design ten completely new lessons a week, and there is an implicit expectation that the textbook
should have some purpose, so you need to strike the right balance. Usually I do two to three lessons
per week based primarily on self-designed material and authentic content from other sources.
My particular focus has been on ungraded speech, usually (but not always) from native speakers,
and is meant to provide a balance with the textbook listenings, which are crystal clear, patient and
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notice the contrast.
How is the course organized?

Within a level, we have three sub-levels running for six weeks each. So, ideally, a student spends
18 weeks in a CEFR level. The hypothetical layout for a week is as follows: 2 iPad-based classes,
JVTW\[LYIHZLK JSHZZ WYLZLU[H[PVU ZVM[^HYLIHZLK JSHZZ JVTT\UPJH[PVUMVJ\ZLK JSHZZ

textbook-based classes. Everything has company-provided materials which tie into unit topics. In
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session focused on writing and use iPads less than allotted, and certainly, communication focus is
not limited to a single session. At the end of a six-week cycle, we have a computerized progress test
covering grammar, listening and reading. The content of the test is not directly based on unit content,
but I nevertheless set aside some time in week 6 to revise and consolidate what has been covered.
What teaching and learning methods do you use?

It’s hard to generalize, but in vocabulary and grammar I try to give students a lot of accurate,
contextualized input and get pairs analysing and discussing this. I like contrasting pairs of sentences
as a teaching device, which might be called a Processing Instruction-esque approach, as well
as textual enhancement in which the students do the highlighting themselves and other students
subsequently analyse this. I used to be a pretty conventional PPP-style teacher, and while I’ve fallen
V\[ VM SV]L ^P[O OLH]` \ZL VM NHWÄSS VY ÄUKHUKJVYYLJ[[OLTPZ[HRL HJ[P]P[PLZ 0 Z[PSS [OPUR L_WSPJP[
instruction, when focused and concise, is very important.
With listening and reading, I prefer activities in which students need to paraphrase or explain content
PU[OLPYVÛ^VYKZYH[OLY[OHUMVJ\ZOLH]PS`VUÄUKPUNZWLJPÄJP[LTZ^P[OPU[OLJVU[LU[0MJVU[LU[PZ
engaging, pausing for a simple comprehension check can spark very engaged discussions. I try to
draw a link between listening and reading by incorporating transcripts whenever possible.
:WVRLU JVTT\UPJH[PVU PZ H THQVY PZZ\L MVY T` Z[\KLU[Z ZV 0 [Y` [V ÄSS T` JSHZZLZ ^P[O HZ THU`
SP[[SLZ[\KLU[¶Z[\KLU[PU[LYHJ[PVUZHZ0JHU"0[OYVÎHJR]PY[\HSS`HU`X\LZ[PVUH[Z[\KLU[ZMVYWHPYLK
discussion and probably say ‘don’t tell me, tell your partner’ at least 20 times a day. I open most of
T` JSHZZLZ HUKVY SVUNLY HJ[P]P[PLZ ^P[O Ä]L¶[LU HNYLLKPZHNYLL Z[H[LTLU[Z YLSH[LK [V [OL JVU[LU[
Many students’ instinctive response to these is to grab a pen and individually write out an answer,
but with diligent enforcement, students come round to setting down their pens and speaking with
VULHUV[OLY0UT`Z[\KPLZ0»]LKVULHSV[VMYLHKPUNHUKYLZLHYJOVUZWLHRPUNHJ[P]P[PLZHUK
0»]L[YPHSSLKZL]LYHSTVKPÄJH[PVUZ[VPUJSHZZ0ÄUK[OPZHWHY[PJ\SHYS`NVVKTL[OVKMVYT`X\PL[LY
B1 students.
Developing autonomy is an important part of my class, and yet another reason that I like incorporating
outside material is that it’s a chance to highlight the wealth of material that is now available online and
start a dialogue about learning strategies.
What is the role of materials and other resources?

EF content is a framework, but that framework gets tailored quite regularly. Outside resources,
WHY[PJ\SHYS`H\[OLU[PJTH[LYPHSMYVT^LIZP[LZZ\JOHZ579HUK[OL))*WSH`HIPNYVSLPUT`JSHZZLZ
as well as extracts from longer podcasts such as This American Life and Invisibilia. It’s helpful in this
regard that the school has a large supply of iPads and projectors, with internet access in every room.
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networking application, JCR] is also an important element of classes for communicating homework
(particularly if the homework involves online content), but also for polling, quizzing or getting online
discussions going. We’ve also begun experimenting with Padlet [an online noticeboard, JCR], which
seems promising. I think it is important, though, that technology remains a means to an end and not
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careful that the game element doesn’t become the overwhelming focus. I’ve had to make rules at
times to keep this in check.
EF provides a lot of content for our iPad app and computer lab, but again, this is a framework to
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and referring back to previous content.
I personally feel that, in many cases, company-provided material could be a bit more challenging and
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B1 is perhaps an earlier exposure than normal and dealing with even short chunks of ungraded audio
or reading has the potential to cause anxiety or frustration. Reducing this and emphasizing that word-
for-word comprehension is not necessarily the goal is thus quite important.
Our evaluation model can require a bit of explaining to those students who expect a test based
directly on the textbook, to be passed or failed. EF’s level progress tests are meant more as indicators
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content or test to determine advancement.
Finally, the test’s target grades do not correspond to the 70% pass threshold that many students
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lower. This can cause initial alarm when students get their results back, and you need to be careful
that certain students aren’t demotivated by test scores which are, in fact, perfectly in line with our
expectations.
What role does assessment play in the course?

We do an entrance test for placement, a progress test every six weeks and an exit test. Alongside the
level-progress test, every six weeks students receive a writing grade. This can be based on a piece of
timed writing, a holistic assessment, or a combination of both (my personal preference). Speaking is
assessed every two weeks in six subcategories. Both the speaking and the writing are assessed on
a 10-point scale. My students tend to get marks between 4 (limited) and 6 (competent). I base these
on how students’ English would be perceived in a non-classroom setting, rather than grading within
the context of their level. There is also a weekly A–F letter grade and a participation grade.
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answer as the test doesn’t incorporate class content. But I can understand why students would want
a measurable score based on what we’ve studied. So, in week 6 I give a self-written, multiple-choice
quiz based on material covered in class. This, however, is just an extra indicator of learning, not a
determiner for advancement.
Before any decisions about advancement are made, I meet one-to-one with each student for an
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chance to give feedback in a number of areas, address concerns and set or adjust goals. While much
more relaxed than a test, this is one of the most important assessments my students will receive, as
our conversation is a major factor in advancement or non-advancement. It is, however, a genuine
discussion, not to be passed or failed.
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9LW\ISPJHUK5LÂLHSHUKÔLYLOLJ\YYLU[S`SP]LZ/LPZ^VYRPUNVUHU4(PU(WWSPLK3PUN\PZ[PJZ
at Victoria University of Wellington and is particularly interested in listening and online educational
YLZV\YJLZ(ZPKLMYVTVUL`LHY^VYRPUNHZHNOVZ[^YP[LYOLOHZILLU[LHJOPUNMVY[OLWHZ[[LU`LHYZ

Course Planning (2) : Skill-Based, Functional, Grammatical, Vocabulary, and Situational Syllabuses

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Course Planning (2) : Skill-Based, Functional, Grammatical, Vocabulary, and Situational Syllabuses

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8 COURSE PLANNING (2):

• Skill-based syllabus • Situational syllabus

Case study 14(JV\YZLMVYÄYZ[`LHY\UP]LYZP[`Z[\KLU[ZPhil Wade

8.1 Skill-based syllabus

What are some of the skills involved in listening to a lecture?

• Recognising the script of the language

• Deducing the meaning and use of unfamiliar items

• Understanding explicitly stated information

• Understanding information not explicitly stated

• Understanding conceptual meaning

• Understanding the communicative value of sentences

• Understanding relations within the sentence

• Understanding relations between parts of a text through cohesion devices

• Recognising discourse markers

• Identifying the main point or key information

• Distinguishing the main idea from supporting details

• Extracting relevant points selectively

• Scanning for specific information

• Converting text into graphic form

What is the advantage of identifying skills and subskills in this way?

Issues with skill-based syllabuses

;OL`KVUV[YLÅLJ[H\[OLU[PJSHUN\HNL\ZLThe advent of the Internet has prompted a rethinking of

8.2 Functional syllabus

Functional syllabuses such as Threshold Level WYV]PKLK[OLÄYZ[ZLYPV\ZHS[LYUH[P]L[VHNYHTTH[PJHS

Table 8.1 Examples of functions and their exponents

Would you mind …

I’d like you to …

Suggestion Why don’t you …

It would be a good idea to …

I think you really should …

Inviting Would you like to …

I’d love you to …

Issues with functional syllabuses

Other criticisms of functional syllabuses include the following:

8.3 Grammatical syllabus

1. A specific grammatical feature is isolated for focused attention.

Why do you think grammar continues to be a component of most “communicative” courses?

Issues with grammatical syllabuses

What might the role of grammar be in a reading course?

8.4 Vocabulary syllabus

Issues with vocabulary syllabuses

8.5 Situational syllabus

Activities: what sequence of activities take place.

Issues with situational syllabuses

8.6 Determining the scope and sequence

How could a writing course be sequenced in terms of simple to complex?

8.7 Developing instructional segments

APPENDIX 1 Skills syllabus for listening and speaking

1.0 Listening and Speaking

Objectives of the component on listening and speaking

Aim 2: Students will become active participants in their own learning.

Aim 3: Students will begin to think critically.

Count and noncount nouns

CASE STUDY 14(JV\YZLMVYÄYZ[`LHY\UP]LYZP[`Z[\KLU[Z

What are the goals of the course?

What planning was involved in developing the course?

How is the course organized?

Every lesson then follows the same structure:

What teaching and learning methods do you use?

Case study 14(JV\YZLMVYÄYZ[`LHY\UP]LYZP[`Z[\KLU[ZPhil Wade

;OL`KVUV[YLÅLJ[H\[OLU[PJSHUN\HNL\ZLThe advent of the Internet has prompted a rethinking of

CASE STUDY 14(JV\YZLMVYÄYZ[`LHY\UP]LYZP[`Z[\KLU[Z

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