2020 Book FundamentalsOfElectricalPowerS

Md.
Abdus Salam
Fundamentals
of Electrical
Power Systems
Analysis
Fundamentals of Electrical Power Systems Analysis
Md. Abdus Salam
Fundamentals of Electrical
Power Systems Analysis
123
Md. Abdus Salam
Department of Electrical
and Computer Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
Western University
London, ON, Canada
ISBN 978-981-15-3211-5 ISBN 978-981-15-3212-2 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3212-2
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard
to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
To my parents, wife Asma Ara Bagum,
children Syeed Hasan, Yusra Salam, and
Sundus Salam for their constant support and
patience during the writing of this book. As
well as to all of my teachers and well-wishers
who have helped me grow professionally over
the years.
Md. Abdus Salam
Preface
Power generation, transmission, and distribution are the core topics usually taught
in power system courses for electrical and electronics engineering students. In
addition, the demand for renewable energy and its integration with the existing grid
system is increasing and will be increasing in the future due to the depletion of
conventional fuel. Therefore, undergraduate and graduate students need basic
concepts to advance their knowledge in power systems. At least six credit hours are
allocated in a standard electrical and electronic engineering course curriculum for
the power system courses in all universities and colleges that provide this knowl-
edge. I have taught several courses, including power transmission, power distri-
bution, and power systems at different universities around the world. The main
purpose of this book Fundamentals of Electrical Power Systems Analysis is to
cover various aspects of power systems. This book introduces straightforward and
step-by-step methods to discuss different theories along with their mathematical
representation aiming at solving the problems. This book also explores a different
power system software to ease calculations by exposing the underlying principles of
complex power system networks.
I have targeted two main audiences for this book, namely students and researchers
who are learning power systems engineering in their academic institutions and who
need to enhance their understanding. Students with different backgrounds will also
get fundamental knowledge of power systems through this book.
The second major audience consists of electrical engineers and other profes-
sionals working in the power industry. Other professionals may be those whose
educational background is not in electrical engineering, but intend to learn the
fundamental knowledge of power systems. These groups of the audience could also
gain more knowledge of power systems.
I believe that this book can make a meaningful contribution to the students,
researchers, and power system engineers in their practical field.
vii
viii Preface
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge Karin Koonings and Maureen Mallonee, Fluke

Corporation, USA, and Elang Kumaran Suppiah, Jeremy Ang, Eric Ng, Jauharie
Azhary, and Gracelyn Soon, Fluke South East Asia Pte Ltd, Singapore, for pro-
viding relevant information and photographs of some of their equipment and giving
permission to include in this book. I would also like to acknowledge Mr. Paul
Bernat, Principal Software Engineer, TNEI, 2nd Floor Bainbridge House, 86–90
London Road, Manchester, M1 2PW, UK, for giving permission to use IPSA
software (latest version) in some of the worked-out example simulations. I like to
acknowledge my former student Mr. Mustafa Nasir Hassan (P. Eng.), Project
Management Engineer, Electric Generation Utilities Division, Medicine Hat, The
Gas City, Alberta, for providing the photograph of transmission lines covered with
ice. I also like to acknowledge Dr. Loyola D’Silva, Springer Nature Singapore Pte
Ltd, and Mr. Boopalan Renu, Springer Nature Scientific Publishing Services
(P) Ltd, India.
Last but not least, I would like to acknowledge my son Syeed Hasan, Associate
Manufacturing Equipment Engineer, Tesla Inc., for revising the whole manuscript.
Features
The key features of this book are as follows.

• Basics of AC circuit, three-phase circuit, and different types of electrical power.
• Each topic is presented clearly and represented with their mathematical
illustrations.
• Worked-out examples and practice problems are included after each topic.
• Worked-out examples are solved by step-by-step methods for easy
understanding.
• Power system simulation softwares such as CYME, IPSA, and PowerWorld are
used for easy calculation and comparison.
• Large numbers of exercise problems are included at the end of each chapter.
• Answers to practice and exercise problems are included.
Organization of Book
Basics of instantaneous power, apparent power, average power, and reactive power
analysis of electrical power have been discussed in Chap. 1.
In Chap. 2, fundamentals of a transformer, equivalent circuit, efficiency,
three-phase transformer connection, vector diagrams, and per unit systems have
been discussed.
Preface ix
Power generation, turbines, different types of power system-related factors, and

tariff have been included in Chap. 3.
In Chap. 4, transmission line parameters and their analysis are discussed.
Modeling and performance of transmission lines are discussed in Chap. 5.
In Chap. 6, the analysis of symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults is included.
The load flow analysis is mentioned in Chap. 7.
In Chap. 8, underground cables and their detailed analysis have been discussed.
Power system stability has been discussed in Chap. 9.
Power system harmonics are discussed in Chap. 10, and insulators, sag, and their
analysis are discussed in Chap. 11.
Aids for Instructors
Instructors, who will adopt this publication as a textbook, may obtain the solution
manual as a supplement copy by contacting the publishers.
Finally, I am confident that this book is free of factual errors and
omissions. However, I encourage all readers to send their comments to my email
msalam7@uwo.ca, if any. I would like to thank all production staff of Springers
who tirelessly work to publish this book successfully.
London, Canada Md. Abdus Salam

Contents
1 Analysis of Electrical Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Instantaneous Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Average Power and Reactive Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Apparent Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Complex Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 Complex Power Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.7 Power Factor and Reactive Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.8 Power Factor Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.9 Three-Phase Voltage Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.10 Phase Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.11 Wye Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.12 Analysis for Wye Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.13 Delta Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.14 Analysis for Delta Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.15 Analysis for Three-Phase Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.16 Basic Measuring Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Exercise Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2 Transformer: Principles and Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.2 Working Principle of Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.3 Flux in a Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.4 Ideal Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.5 EMF Equation of Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.6 Turns Ratio of Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.7 Rules for Referring Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
xi
xii Contents
2.8 Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

2.8.1 Exact Equivalent Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.8.2 Approximate Equivalent Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.9 Polarity of a Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.10 Three-Phase Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.11 Transformer Vector Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.12 Voltage Regulation of a Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.13 Efficiency of a Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.14 Iron and Copper Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.15 Condition for Maximum Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.16 Transformer Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.16.1 Open Circuit Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.16.2 Short Circuit Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.17 Autotransformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.18 Parallel Operation of a Single-Phase Transformer . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.19 Three-Phase Transformer Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.19.1 Wye-Wye Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.19.2 Wye-Delta Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2.19.3 Delta-Wye Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.19.4 Delta-Delta Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.20 Instrument Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.21 Transformer Oil Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.22 Standard Symbols and Reactance Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2.23 Per Unit System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2.23.1 Single-Phase System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.23.2 Three-Phase System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3 Power Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.2 Power Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.3 Steam Power Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.4 Hydro Power Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.5 Gross and Net Heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.6 Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.7 Pelton Wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.8 Velocity Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.9 Hydraulic Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.10 Diesel Power Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.11 Nuclear Power Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.12 Variable Load and Different Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.13 Different Terms and Factors of Power Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Contents xiii
3.14 AC Power Supply System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

3.15 Secondary Distributions and Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.16 Tariff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.16.1 Classification of Tariff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4 Transmission Line Parameters and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.2 Ampere’s Circuital Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.3 Line Resistance and Conductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.4 Internal Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.5 External Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.6 Concept of GMD and GMR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.7 Inductance of a Single-Phase Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4.8 Self- and Mutual Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
4.9 Inductance of Three-Phase Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
4.9.1 Symmetrical Spacing Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
4.9.2 Unsymmetrical Spacing Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.10 Transposition of Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.11 Bundled Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.12 Line Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4.13 Capacitance of Single-Phase Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
4.14 Capacitance of Three-Phase Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
4.14.1 Capacitance of Three-Phase Lines
with Equal Spacing Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
4.14.2 Capacitance of Three-Phase Lines
with Unequal Spacing Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
4.15 Effect of Earth on Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
4.16 Capacitance of Single Conductor to Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
4.17 Single-Phase Line Capacitance with Effect of Earth . . . . . . . . 185
4.18 Three-Phase Line Capacitance with Effect of Earth . . . . . . . . . 188
4.19 Effect of Bundling in Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
5 Modeling and Performance of Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
5.2 Classification of Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
5.3 Efficiency and Voltage Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
5.4 Analysis of Short Transmission Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.5 Medium Transmission Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
5.6 Long Transmission Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.7 Surge Impedance Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
xiv Contents
5.8 ABCD Parameters and Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

5.9 Series Transmission Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
5.10 Parallel Transmission Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
5.11 Ferranti Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
5.12 Ground Wires and Corona Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
5.13 Traveling Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
6 Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
6.2 Symmetrical Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
6.3 Calculation of Short Circuit Current and kVA . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
6.4 Unsymmetrical Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
6.5 Symmetrical Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
6.6 Representation of Symmetrical Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
6.7 Complex Power in Symmetrical Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
6.8 Sequence Impedance of Power System Equipment . . . . . . . . . 275
6.9 Zero Sequence Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
6.10 Classification of Unsymmetrical Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
6.11 Sequence Network of an Unloaded Synchronous
Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
6.12 Single-Line-to-Ground Fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
6.13 Line-to-Line Fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
6.14 Double-Line-to-Ground Fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
7 Load Flow Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
7.2 Classification of Buses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
7.3 Power Flow in Two-Bus System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
7.4 Load Flow Equations for Two-Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
7.5 Load Flow Equations for Three-Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
7.6 Gauss–Seidel Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
7.7 Newton–Raphson Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
7.8 Newton–Raphson Method for Two Nonlinear Equations . . . . . 344
7.9 Newton–Raphson Method for Power Flow Cases . . . . . . . . . . 347
7.10 Fast Decoupled Load Flow Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Contents xv
8 Underground Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
8.2 Construction of Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
8.3 Classification of Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
8.4 Insulation Resistance of Single-Core Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
8.5 Electric Stress of a Single-Core Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
8.6 Economical Size of Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
8.7 Grading of Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
8.7.1 Capacitance Grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
8.7.2 Intersheath Grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
8.8 Cables Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
8.9 Capacitance of a Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
8.10 Capacitance of a Three-Core Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
8.11 Measurement of Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
8.12 Measurement of Insulation Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
9 Power System Stability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
9.2 Pattern of Stability Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
9.3 Synchronous Machine Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
9.4 Single Machine with Infinite Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
9.5 Swing Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
9.6 Steady-State Stability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
9.7 Swing Equation for Multimachine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
9.8 Swing Equations of Coherent Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
9.9 Equal Area Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
9.10 Critical Clearing Angle and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
9.11 Step-by-Step Solution of Swing Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
9.12 Alternate Solution of Swing Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
9.12.1 Dominant Root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
9.12.2 Extension for a Multimachine System . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
10 Power System Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
10.2 Generation of Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
10.3 Single-Phase Circuit with Linear Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
10.4 Single-Phase with Nonlinear Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
10.5 Non-sinusoidal Voltage and Nonlinear Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
10.6 Non-sinusoidal Voltage and Nonlinear Loads
Active Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
xvi Contents

Reactive Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
10.8 Non-sinusoidal Voltage and Nonlinear Loads Apparent
Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
10.9 Modeling Concept of Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
10.10 Resistive Load Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
10.11 Modeling of Induction Motor Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
10.12 Harmonic Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
10.13 Power Quality Parameters and Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
11 Overhead Line Insulators and Sags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
11.2 String Efficiency of Suspension Insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
11.3 Equalization of Voltage Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
11.4 Transmission Lines Sag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
11.5 Sag Calculation with Equal Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
11.6 Sag Calculation with Unequal Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
11.7 Sag Calculation with the Effect of Ice and Wind . . . . . . . . . . . 518
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Appendix: Answers to Practice and Exercise Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Chapter 1
Analysis of Electrical Power
1.1 Introduction
AC generator, transformer, and other related high-voltage devices are required to

generate, transmit, and distribute alternating voltage and current. These types of
equipment are rated by megawatt (MW) and mega voltage-ampere (MVA).
Electrical appliances, such as DVD player, television, microwave, light bulb,
refrigerator, ceiling fan, and many more are rated in a Watt (W). Careful attention is
required in designing these kinds of equipment to address their power ratings,
which in turn addresses the varying electricity bill. In this case, the analysis of AC
power plays an important role. This chapter will discuss instantaneous power,
average power, complex power, power factor, maximum power transfer theorem,
and power factor correction.
1.2 Instantaneous Power
Figure 1.1 shows a circuit with an AC voltage source v(t) with an impedance
connected in series. In this case, the resultant current i(t) varies with time. The
instantaneous power also varies with time, and it is defined as the product of
the instantaneous voltage and the instantaneous current. Let us consider that the
expression of the instantaneous voltage is
vðtÞ ¼ Vm sin xt ð1:1Þ
The expression of the current can be derived as [1, 2]
vðtÞ
iðtÞ ¼ ð1:2Þ
Z jh
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1

Md. A. Salam, Fundamentals of Electrical Power Systems Analysis,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3212-2_1
2 1 Analysis of Electrical Power
Fig. 1.1 Circuit with an i (t )

impedance
+
v(t )
Zθ
−
Substituting Eq. (1.1) into Eq. (1.2) yields
Vm sin xt
iðtÞ ¼ ð1:3Þ
Z jh
V m j 0 Vm
iðtÞ ¼ ¼ jh ð1:4Þ
Z jh Z
iðtÞ ¼ Im jh ¼ Im sinðxt hÞ ð1:5Þ
The expression of instantaneous power is written as
pðtÞ ¼ vðtÞ iðtÞ ð1:6Þ
Substituting Eqs. (1.1) and (1.5) into Eq. (1.6) yields
pðtÞ ¼ Vm sin xt Im sinðxt hÞ ð1:7Þ
Vm Im
pðtÞ ¼ 2 sin xt sinðxt hÞ ð1:8Þ
2
Vm Im
pðtÞ ¼ ½cosðxt xt þ hÞ cosðxt þ xt hÞ ð1:9Þ
2
Vm Im Vm Im
pðtÞ ¼ cos h cosð2xt hÞ ð1:10Þ
2 2
Equation (1.10) provides the expression for the instantaneous power for a series
AC circuit. The first part of Eq. (1.10) is the average power.
Example 1.1
The excitation voltage and impedance of a series circuit are given by vðtÞ ¼
15 sin xt V and Z ¼ 5 j10 X, respectively. Calculate the instantaneous power.
1.2 Instantaneous Power 3
Solution
The value of the current is calculated as
15 j0
iðtÞ ¼ ¼ 3 j10 A ð1:11Þ
5 j10
The instantaneous power is calculated as
15 3
pðtÞ ¼ 2 sin xt sinðxt 10 Þ ð1:12Þ
2
45 45
pðtÞ ¼ cos 10 cosð2xt 10 Þ ð1:13Þ
2 2
pðtÞ ¼ 22:16 22:5 cosð2xt 10 Þ ð1:14Þ
Practice Problem 1.1

The current and impedance of a series circuit are given by iðtÞ ¼ 10 sinðxt þ 15 Þ A
and Z ¼ 2 j20 X, respectively. Calculate the instantaneous voltage and power.
1.3 Average Power and Reactive Power
The average power is related to the sinusoidal voltage and current, which are shown
in Eqs. (1.1) and (1.5), respectively. The average power for a periodic waveform
over one cycle can be derived as [3, 4]
ZT
1
P¼ pðtÞ ð1:15Þ
T
0
Substituting Eq. (1.10) into the Eq. (1.15) yields
ZT ZT
V m Im Vm Im
P¼ cos h dt cosð2xt hÞ dt ð1:16Þ
2T 2T
0 0
ZT
V m Im Vm Im
P¼ cos h½T cosð2xt hÞ dt ð1:17Þ
2T 2T
0
The second term of Eq. (1.17) is a cosine waveform. The average value of any
cosine waveform over one cycle is zero. Therefore, from Eq. (1.17), the final
expression of the average power can be represented as
Vm Im
P¼ cos h ð1:18Þ
2
Similarly, the expression of the average reactive power can be written as
Vm Im
Q¼ sin h ð1:19Þ
2
The term cos h in Eq. (1.18) is the power factor of the circuit, and it is deter-
mined by the phase angle h of the circuit impedance, where h is the phase difference
between the voltage and current phases, i.e., h ¼ hv hi . The average power is
often known as the true power or real power. The units of average power and
reactive power are watts (W) and volt-ampere reactive (Var), respectively. The
average power from Eq. (1.18) can be represented in terms of rms values of the
voltage and current as
Vm Im Vm Im
P ¼ pffiffiffi pffiffiffi cos h ¼ pffiffiffi pffiffiffi cosðhv hi Þ ð1:20Þ
2 2 2 2
Vmffiffi
Substituting Vrms ¼ p 2
and Irms ¼ pImffiffi2 into Eq. (1.20) yields
P ¼ Vrms Irms cos h ¼ Vrms Irms cosðhv hi Þ ð1:21Þ
Similarly, from Eq. (1.19), reactive power can be represented as
Q ¼ Vrms Irms sin h ¼ Vrms Irms sinðhv hi Þ ð1:22Þ
Due to a sufficient magnitude of the reactive power, the current flows back and
forth between the source and the network. The reactive power does not dissipate
any energy in the load. However, in practice, it produces energy losses in the line.
Therefore, extra care needs to be taken in designing a power system network.
For a purely resistive circuit, the voltage (V ¼ Vm jhv ) and the current
(I ¼ Im jhi ) are in phase. It means that the phase angle between them is zero, and it
can be expressed as
h ¼ hv hi ¼ 0 ð1:23Þ
Vm Im
PR ¼ cos 0 ð1:24Þ
2
V m Im
PR ¼ ð1:25Þ
2
1.3 Average Power and Reactive Power 5
Equation (1.25) can be rearranged by substituting Vm = ImR as
Im2 R Vm2
PR ¼ ¼ ð1:26Þ
2 2R
The phase difference between the voltage and current due to inductance and
capacitance is
h ¼ hv hi ¼ 90 ð1:27Þ
Substituting Eq. (1.27) into Eq. (1.18) yields the average power for either an
inductance or a capacitance
Vm Im
PL ¼ PC ¼ cos 90 ¼ 0 ð1:28Þ
2
The reactive power is usually stored in a circuit, and it can be expressed for the
inductor and capacitor as
VL2
QL ¼ IL2 XL ¼ ð1:29Þ
XL
VC2
QC ¼ IC2 XC ¼ ð1:30Þ
XC
From Eqs. (1.26) and (1.28), it can be concluded that the resistive load absorbs
power, whereas inductive or capacitive loads do not absorb any power.
Example 1.2
An electrical series circuit with resistance, inductive, and capacitive reactance is
shown in Fig. 1.2. Calculate the average power supplied by the source and the
power absorbed by the resistor.
Solution
The net impedance is calculated as
Zt ¼ 2 þ j5 j9 ¼ 4:47 j63:43 X ð1:31Þ
Fig. 1.2 Circuit for Example i (t ) 2Ω 5Ω

1.2
20 15 V 9Ω
−
Fig. 1.3 Circuit for Practice i (t ) 2Ω

Problem 1.2
+ 4Ω 5Ω
20 15 V
−
8Ω 9Ω
The source current in phasor form is calculated as
20 j15
I¼ ¼ 4:47 j78:43 A ð1:32Þ
4:47 j63:43
The average power supplied by the source is calculated as
20 4:47
Ps ¼ cosð15 78:43 Þ ¼ 20 W ð1:33Þ
2
The average power absorbed by the resistor is calculated as
4:472 2
PR ¼ ¼ 20 W ð1:34Þ
2
A series–parallel circuit with resistance, inductive, and capacitive reactance is
shown in Fig. 1.3. Determine the average power supplied by the source and the
power absorbed by the resistors.
1.4 Apparent Power
The apparent power can be derived from the average power. But, the apparent
power is related to the sinusoidal voltage and current. Let us consider that the
expressions for sinusoidal voltage and current are [5, 6]
vðtÞ ¼ Vm sinðxt þ hv Þ ð1:35Þ
iðtÞ ¼ Im sinðxt þ hi Þ ð1:36Þ
The phasor forms of these voltage and current components are

1.4 Apparent Power 7
V ¼ Vm jhv ð1:37Þ
I ¼ I m j hi ð1:38Þ
According to Eqs. (1.20) and (1.21), the average power is
Vm Im
P¼ cosðhv hi Þ ¼ Vrms Irms cosðhv hi Þ ð1:39Þ
2
The apparent power is the product of the rms voltage and rms current. The unit
of apparent power is volt-amps (VA) and is denoted by the letter S. The apparent
power can be expressed as
V m Im
S¼ ¼ Vrms Irms ð1:40Þ
2
P ¼ S cosðhv hi Þ ð1:41Þ
In addition, the apparent power can be determined by the vector sum of the real
power (P) and the reactive power (Q). In this case, the expression of reactive power
becomes
S ¼ P þ jQ ð1:42Þ
The power triangle (Power Triangle: A right-angle triangle that shows the vector
relationship between active power, reactive power, and apparent power) with a
lagging and leading power factor is shown in Fig. 1.4. The power triangles with an
inductance and the capacitance loads will be lagging and leading, respectively.
Fig. 1.4 Power triangles Im
S
+ Q L (lag)
(θ v − θi ) P
Re
(θ v − θi )
− QC (Lead)
S
Example 1.3
An industrial load draws a current of iðtÞ ¼ 16 sinð314t þ 25 Þ A from an alter-
nating voltage source of vðtÞ ¼ 220 sinð314t þ 60 Þ V. Determine the apparent
power, circuit resistance, and inductance.
Solution
The apparent power is calculated as
Vm Im 220 16
S¼ ¼ ¼ 1:76 kVA ð1:43Þ
2 2
The circuit impedance is calculated as
220 j60
Z¼ ¼ 11:26 þ j7:89 X ð1:44Þ
16 j25
The value of the circuit resistance is
R ¼ 11:26 X ð1:45Þ
The circuit inductance is calculated as
7:89
L¼ ¼ 0:025 H ð1:46Þ
314
An industrial load draws a current of iðtÞ ¼ 10 sinð100t þ 55 Þ A from an alter-
nating voltage source of vðtÞ ¼ 120 sinð100t þ 10 Þ V. Calculate the apparent
power, circuit resistance, and capacitance.
1.5 Complex Power
The complex power is the combination of real power and reactive power. The
reactive power creates an adverse effect on power generation, which can be studied
by analyzing the complex power. Mathematically, the product of half of the phasor
voltage and the conjugate of the phasor current is known as complex power. The
complex power is represented by the letter Sc and is expressed as
1
Sc ¼ VI ð1:47Þ
2

1.5 Complex Power 9
1
Sc ¼ Vm jhv Im jhi ð1:48Þ
2
Sc ¼ Vrms jhv Irms jhi ð1:49Þ
The complex power in terms of phasor form of rms voltage and current can be
written as
Sc ¼ Vrms Irms ð1:50Þ
From Eq. (1.50), the complex power is defined as the product of rms voltage and
the conjugate of the rms current.
Equation (1.50) can be rearranged as
Sc ¼ Vrms Irms jhv hi ð1:51Þ
Sc ¼ Vrms Irms cosðhv hi Þ þ jVrms Irms sinðhv hi Þ ð1:52Þ
Consider the circuit as shown in Fig. 1.5 to explain complex power. The
impedance of this circuit is
Z ¼ R þ jX ð1:53Þ
Equation (1.54) can be represented by the impedance triangle as shown in

Fig. 1.6.
The rms value of the current is
Vrms
Irms ¼ ð1:54Þ
Z

2
Vrms Vrms
S ¼ Vrms ¼ ð1:55Þ
Z Z
Fig. 1.5 Simple AC circuit I rms
+
Vrms
Z
−
Fig. 1.6 Impedance triangle Z

X
θ
R
Equation (1.50) again can be represented as

Sc ¼ Irms ZIrms ¼ Irms
2
Z ð1:56Þ
Sc ¼ Irms
2
ðR þ jXÞ ¼ Irms
2
R þ jIrms
2
X ¼ P þ jQ ð1:57Þ
where P and Q are the real and the imaginary parts of the complex power, and in
this case, the expressions of P and Q can be written as
P ¼ ReðSc Þ ¼ Irms
2
R ð1:58Þ
Q ¼ ImðSc Þ ¼ Irms
2
X ð1:59Þ
The real power, reactive power, and apparent power of Eq. (1.57) are shown in
Fig. 1.7. The complex power for a resistive branch can be written as
ScR ¼ PR þ jQR ¼ Irms

2
R ð1:60Þ
From Eq. (1.60), the real power and the reactive power for the resistive branch
can be expressed as
PR ¼ Irms
2
R ð1:61Þ
Q¼0 ð1:62Þ
The complex power for an inductive branch is
ScL ¼ PL þ jQL ¼ jIrms

2
XL ð1:63Þ
Fig. 1.7 Power triangle S

Q
θ
P
1.5 Complex Power 11
From Eq. (1.63), the real power and the reactive power for an inductive branch
can be separated as
PL ¼ 0 ð1:64Þ
QL ¼ Irms
2
XL ð1:65Þ
The complex power for a capacitive branch is
ScC ¼ PC þ jQC ¼ jIrms

2
XC ð1:66Þ
From Eq. (1.66), the real power and the reactive power for a capacitive branch
can be separated as
Pc ¼ 0 ð1:67Þ
QC ¼ Irms
2
XC ð1:68Þ
In the case of reactive power, the following points are summarized:

Q¼0 for resistive load, i.e., unity power factor,
Q[0 for inductive load, i.e., lagging power factor,
Q\0 for capacitive load, i.e., leading power factor.
Example 1.4
A series AC circuit is shown in Fig. 1.8. Calculate the source current, apparent,
real, and reactive powers.
The expression of the alternating voltage source is vðtÞ ¼ 16 sinð10t þ 25 Þ V.
Solution
The rms value of the source voltage is calculated as
pffiffiffi
Vrms ¼ 2 16 j25 ¼ 22:63 j25 V ð1:69Þ
Fig. 1.8 Circuit for Example i (t )

1.4
+
4Ω
v(t )
−
0.9 H
The inductive reactance is
XL ¼ 10 0:09 ¼ 9 X ð1:70Þ
Z ¼ 4 þ j9 ¼ 9:85 j66:04 X ð1:71Þ
The source current is calculated as
22:63 j25
Irms ¼ ¼ 2:30 j41:04 A ð1:72Þ
9:85 j66:04
The complex power is calculated as

S ¼ Vrms Irms ¼ 22:63 j25 2:30 j41:04 ¼ 50:02 W j14:38 Var ð1:73Þ
The apparent power is determined as
Sap ¼ jSj ¼ 52:05 VA ð1:74Þ
The real power is calculated as
P ¼ ReðSÞ ¼ 52:02 W ð1:75Þ
The reactive power is determined as
Q ¼ ImðSÞ ¼ 14:38 Var ð1:76Þ
Example 1.5
A 220 V rms delivers power to a load. The load absorbs an average power of
10 kW at a leading power factor of 0.9. Determine the complex power and the
impedance of the load.
Solution
The power factor is
cos h ¼ 0:9 ð1:77Þ
h ¼ 25:84 ð1:78Þ
The reactive component is calculated as
sin h ¼ sin 25:84 ¼ 0:44 ð1:79Þ

1.5 Complex Power 13
The magnitude of the complex power is calculated as
P 10
j Sj ¼ ¼ ¼ 11:11 kVA ð1:80Þ
cos h 0:9
The reactive power is determined as
Q ¼ jSj sin h ¼ 11:11 0:44 ¼ 4:89 kVar ð1:81Þ
The complex power is calculated as
S ¼ P þ jQ ¼ 10 kW j4:89 kVar ð1:82Þ
The rms voltage can be determined as
P ¼ Vrms Irms cos h ¼ 10000 ð1:83Þ
10000
Irms ¼ ¼ 50:51 A ð1:84Þ
220 0:9
The value of the impedance is calculated as
jVrms j 220
jZ j ¼ ¼ ¼ 4:36 X ð1:85Þ
jIrms j 50:51
Z ¼ 4:36 j25:84 X ð1:86Þ

A series RC circuit is shown in Fig. 1.9. Find the source current, apparent, real, and
reactive powers. The expression of the alternating voltage source is
vðtÞ ¼ 10 sinð2t þ 12 Þ V.
Fig. 1.9 Circuit for Practice i (t )

Problem 1.4
+
2Ω
v(t )
−
200 mF

An electrical load absorbs an average power of 12 kW from a source of 230 V rms
at a lagging power factor of 0.95. Calculate the complex power and the impedance
of the load.
1.6 Complex Power Balance
Two electrical loads are connected in parallel with a voltage source as shown in
Fig. 1.10. According to the conservation of energy, the real power delivered by the
source will be equal to the total real power absorbed by the loads [7, 8]. Similarly,
the complex power delivered by the source will be equal to the total complex power
absorbed by the loads. According to KCL, the rms value of the source current is
equal to the sum of the rms values of the branch currents I1 and I2, i.e.,
I ¼ I1 þ I2 ð1:87Þ
The total complex power is defined as the product of the rms value of the source
voltage and the conjugate of the current supplied by the source, and it is expressed
as
S ¼ Vrms I ð1:88Þ
Substituting Eq. (1.87) into Eq. (1.88) yields the complex power of the parallel
circuit as
Sp ¼ Vrms ½I1 þ I2 ð1:89Þ
Sp ¼ Vrms I1 þ Vrms I2 ð1:90Þ
Sp ¼ S1 þ S2 ð1:91Þ
Fig. 1.10 Circuit with two I

parallel impedances
I1 I2
+
V rms
− Z1 Z2
1.6 Complex Power Balance 15
Fig. 1.11 Circuit with series I +V1 −

impedances
Z1
+
Vrms +
− Z2 V2
−
The electrical loads are again connected in series with a voltage source as shown
in Fig. 1.11. According to KVL, the rms value of the source voltage is equal to the
sum of the rms values of the load voltages, and it is written as
Vrms ¼ V1 þ V2 ð1:92Þ
Substituting Eq. (1.92) into Eq. (1.88) yields the complex power of the series
circuit as
Ss ¼ ðV1 þ V2 ÞI ð1:93Þ
Ss ¼ V1 I þ V2 I ð1:94Þ
Ss ¼ S1 þ S2 ð1:95Þ
From Eqs. (1.91) and (1.95), it is observed that the total complex power
delivered by the source is equal to the sum of the individual complex power
absorbed by the loads.
Example 1.6
A series–parallel circuit is supplied by a source of 60 V rms as shown in Fig. 1.12.
Find the complex power for each branch and the total complex power.
Fig. 1.12 Circuit for 2Ω

Example 1.6 I
+ 3Ω I1 I2
4Ω
60 V
−
8Ω 9Ω
Solution
ð4 þ j9Þð3 j8Þ
Zt ¼ 2 þ ¼ 13:87 j9:88 X ð1:96Þ
4 þ j9 þ 3 j8
The source current is determined as

60
I¼ ¼ 4:33 j9:88 A ð1:97Þ
13:87 j9:88
The branch currents can be calculated as

4 þ j9
I1 ¼ 4:33 j9:88 ¼ 6:03 j67:79 A ð1:98Þ
7 þ j1
3 j8
I2 ¼ 4:33 j9:88 ¼ 5:23 j67:69 A ð1:99Þ
7 þ j1
The voltage across the parallel branches is
Vp ¼ 60 2 4:33 j9:88 ¼ 51:49 j1:65 V ð1:100Þ
The complex power in the branches is calculated as
S1 ¼ 51:49 j1:65 6:03 j67:79 ¼ 310:48 j69:44 VA ð1:101Þ
S2 ¼ 51:49 j1:65 5:23 j67:69 ¼ 269:29 j66:04 VA ð1:102Þ
The voltage drops across the 2X resistor are calculated as
V2X ¼ 2 4:33 j9:88 ¼ 8:66 j9:88 V ð1:103Þ
The complex power for 2X resistor is calculated as
S2X ¼ 8:66 j9:88 4:33 j9:88 ¼ 37:50 VA ð1:104Þ
The total complex power is calculated as
St ¼ 310:48 j69:44 þ 269:29 j66:04 þ 37:50 ¼ 259:76 j9:89 VA

ð1:105Þ
Alternatively, the total complex power can be calculated as
S ¼ 60 4:33 j9:88 ¼ 259:8 j9:88 VA ð1:106Þ
1.6 Complex Power Balance 17
Fig. 1.13 Circuit for Practice

I 3Ω
Problem 1.6
I2
+ 4Ω I1 2Ω
20 15 V I3
9Ω
−
8Ω
12 Ω

A series–parallel circuit is supplied by a rms voltage source as shown in Fig. 1.13.
Determine the complex power for each branch and the total complex power.
1.7 Power Factor and Reactive Power
In an AC circuit, power is calculated by multiplying a factor with the rms values of

current and voltage. This factor is known as power factor. The power factor is
defined as the cosine of the difference in phase angles between the voltage and the
current, whereas the reactive factor is defined as the sine of the difference in the
phase angles between the voltage and the current. The power factor is also defined
as the cosine of the phase angle of the load impedance. A close to unity power
factor represents an efficient power transfer from the source to a load, whereas a low
power factor identifies an inefficient transmission of power. Low power factor
usually affects power generation devices. Mathematically, the power factor is
written as [9]
pf ¼ cosðhv hi Þ ð1:107Þ
The reactive factor is written as
rf ¼ sinðhv hi Þ ð1:108Þ
From impedance and power triangles as shown in Figs. 1.6 and 1.7, the power
factor can be written as
R kW
pf ¼ cos h ¼ ¼ ð1:109Þ
Z kVA
The angle h is positive if the current lags the voltage, and in this case, the power
factor is considered as lagging. Whereas, the angle h is negative if the current leads
the voltage, and in this case, the power factor is considered as leading. The leading
power factor is usually considered for capacitive loads. The industrial loads are
inductive and have a low lagging power factor.
A low power factor has many disadvantages, which are outlined below:
• kVA rating of electrical machines is increased,
• larger conductor size is required to transmit or distribute electric power at a
constant voltage,
• copper losses are increased, and
• voltage regulation is small.
1.8 Power Factor Correction
In the electrical domain, heavy and medium-sized industry applications contain

inductive loads which draw a lagging current from the source. As a result, the
reactive power for these applications is increased. In this scenario, the transformer
rating and the conductor size need to be increased to carry out the additional
reactive power.
In order to cancel this reactive component of power, an opposite type of reac-
tance needs to be included in the circuit. Let us consider that a single-phase
inductive load is connected across a voltage source as shown in Fig. 1.14, and this
load draws a current with a lagging power factor of cos h1 .
Figure 1.15 shows a circuit where the capacitor is connected in parallel with the
load to improve the power factor. The capacitor will draw current from the source
that leads the source voltage by 90°. The line current is the vector sum of the
currents in the inductive load and the capacitor. The current in the inductive load
circuit lags the supply voltage by h1, and the current in the capacitor leads the
voltage by 90° as shown in the vector diagram in Fig. 1.16.
The exact value of the capacitor needs to be identified to improve the power
factor from cos/1 to cos/2 without changing the real power. A power triangle is
drawn using the inductive load and the capacitor as shown in Fig. 1.17.
Fig. 1.14 Single-phase

inductive circuit IL
+ R
V
−
L
1.8 Power Factor Correction 19
Fig. 1.15 Capacitor is in I

parallel with inductive load
IL
+ IC
R
V C
−
L
Fig. 1.16 Vector diagram IC

with different currents
V
θ2
θ1 I
IC
IL
Fig. 1.17 Power triangles for

inductive load and capacitor
QC
S1
S2 Q1
Q2
θ1 θ2
P
The reactive power of the original inductive load is written as
Q1 ¼ P tan /1 ð1:110Þ
The expression of new reactive power is written as
Q2 ¼ P tan /2 ð1:111Þ
The reduction in reactive power due to parallel capacitor is expressed as
QC ¼ Q1 Q2 ð1:112Þ
QC ¼ Pðtan /1 tan /2 Þ ð1:113Þ
The reactive power due to the capacitor can be calculated as

2
Vrms
QC ¼ ¼ xCVrms
2
ð1:114Þ
XC
Substituting Eq. (1.114) into Eq. (1.115) yields the expression for the capacitor
as
xCVrms
2
¼ Pðtan /1 tan /2 Þ ð1:115Þ
Pðtan /1 tan /2 Þ
C¼ ð1:116Þ
xVrms
2
Example 1.7
A load of 6 kVA, 50 Hz, 0.75 lagging power factor is connected across a voltage
source of 120 V rms as shown in Fig. 1.18. A capacitor is connected across the load
to improve the power factor to 0.95 lagging. Determine the capacitance of the
connected capacitor.
Solution
The initial power factor is
cos /1 ¼ 0:75 ð1:117Þ
/1 ¼ 41:41 ð1:118Þ
The final power factor is
cos /2 ¼ 0:95 ð1:119Þ
/2 ¼ 18:19 ð1:120Þ
Fig. 1.18 Circuit for I

Example 1.7
+ 6 kVA
C
0.75 Lag
120 V
−
1.8 Power Factor Correction 21
Fig. 1.19 Circuit for

I 0.02 Ω 1.2 Ω
Example 1.8
+ 10 kVA +
50 Hz 120 V
0.8 Lag
Vs −
−
The real power is calculated as
P ¼ 6 0:75 ¼ 4:5 kW ð1:121Þ
The value of the parallel capacitance can be calculated as
4:5 1000ðtan 41:41 tan 18:19 Þ

C¼ ¼ 0:55 mF ð1:122Þ
2p 50 1202
Example 1.8
A load of 10 kVA, 50 Hz, 0.8 lagging power factor is connected across the voltage
source shown in Fig. 1.19. A capacitor is connected across the load to improve the
power factor to 0.90 lagging. Calculate the value of the capacitance and line loss
with and without the capacitor.
Solution
The initial power factor is
cos /1 ¼ 0:8 ð1:123Þ
/1 ¼ 36:87 ð1:124Þ
The final power factor is
cos /2 ¼ 0:9 ð1:125Þ
/2 ¼ 25:84 ð1:126Þ
The power of the load is calculated as
P ¼ 10 0:8 ¼ 8 kW ð1:127Þ
The capacitor is calculated as
8 1000ðtan 36:87 tan 25:84 Þ

C¼ ¼ 0:47 mF ð1:128Þ
2p 50 1202
The line current before adding the capacitor is calculated as
8000
I1 ¼ ¼ 83:33 A ð1:131Þ
0:8 120
The power loss in the line before the adding capacitor is calculated as
P1 ¼ 83:332 0:02 ¼ 138:88 W ð1:130Þ
The apparent power with a power factor of 0.9 lagging is calculated as
8000
S¼ ¼ 8888:89 VA ð1:131Þ
0:9
The line current after adding the capacitor is calculated as
8888:89
I2 ¼ ¼ 74:07 A ð1:132Þ
120
The power loss in the line after adding the capacitor is calculated as
P2 ¼ 74:072 0:02 ¼ 109:73 W ð1:133Þ

A load of 0.85 lagging power factor is connected across a voltage source of 220 V
rms as shown in Fig. 1.20. A 0.56 mF capacitor is connected across the load to
improve the power factor to 0.95 lagging. Find the value of the load, P.
Two loads are connected to a source through a line as shown in Fig. 1.21.
Determine the value of the voltage source.
Fig. 1.20 Circuit for Practice I

Problem 1.7
+ P
220 V 0.85 Lag
0.56 mF
−
1.9 Three-Phase Voltage Generation 23
Fig. 1.21 Circuit for Practice

I 0.02 Ω 1.2 Ω
Problem 1.8
+
+ 6 kVA 10 kVA
50 Hz
0.85 Lag 120 V 0.8 Lead
Vs −
−
1.9 Three-Phase Voltage Generation
Figure 1.22 shows a two-pole three-phase AC generator for three-phase voltage

generation. Coils aa0 , bb0 , and cc0 represent the whole coils into a three-phase
system as shown in Fig. 1.22a. The rotor of the AC machine is energized by the DC
source, which creates the magnetic field. This rotor is attached to the turbine
through a soft coupling, and this turbine rotates the rotor. According to Faraday’s
law of electromagnetic induction, three-phase voltages Van, Vbn, and Vcn will be
generated across the generator terminals.
The magnitudes of these voltages are constant and are displaced from each other
by 120 electrical degrees as shown in Fig. 1.22b. The waveforms of the generated
voltages are shown in Fig. 1.23. The expression of the generated voltages can be
represented as [1, 2]
van ¼ Van sin xt ð1:134Þ
vbn ¼ Vbn sinðxt 120 Þ ð1:135Þ
a vcn
. 120
c'
b' x
x
N
120
120 n
.
van
.
b 120
c S
x
a' 120 vbn

(b) Line to neutral voltages
(a) AC generator
Fig. 1.22 Schematic of AC generator and phase voltages

Fig. 1.23 Three-phase

v(t )
voltage waveforms
van vbn vcn
vcn ¼ Vcn sinðxt 240 Þ ð1:136Þ
where Van, Vbn, and Vcn are the magnitudes of the line to neutral or phase voltages.
These voltages are constant in magnitude, and it can be expressed as
jVan j ¼ jVbn j ¼ jVcn j ¼ Vp ð1:137Þ
The phasor of the generated voltages can be written as
Van ¼ VP j0 ð1:138Þ
Vbn ¼ VP j120 ð1:139Þ
Vcn ¼ VP j240 ¼ VP j120 ð1:140Þ
The sum of phasor voltages and the sum of sinusoidal voltages are zero, and
these can be expressed as
V ¼ Van þ Vbn þ Vcn ¼ VP j0 þ VP j120 þ VP j240 ¼ 0 ð1:141Þ
v ¼ van þ vbn þ vcn ¼ Van sin xt þ Vbn sinðxt 120 Þ þ Vcn sinðxt 240 Þ ¼ 0
ð1:142Þ
1.10 Phase Sequence
The phase sequence is very important for the interconnection of the three-phase
transformer, motor, and other high-voltage equipment. The three-phase systems are
numbered either by the numbers 1, 2, and 3 or by the letters a, b, and c. Sometimes,
these are labeled by the colors red, yellow, and blue or RYB in short. The generator
is said to have a positive phase sequence when the generated voltages reach their
maximum or peak values in the sequential order of abc, whereas the generator is
said to have a negative phase sequence when the generated voltages reach their
maximum or peak values in the sequential order of acb. Figure 1.24 shows the
1.10 Phase Sequence 25
vbn
v cn
ω ω
120 120
120 120 n
n v an
v an
120 120
vbn v cn
(a) Positive phase sequence (b) Negative phase sequence
Fig. 1.24 Phase sequence identification
positive and negative phase sequences. Here, the voltage Van is considered to be the
reference voltage while the direction of rotation is considered to be anticlockwise.
In the positive phase sequence, the crossing sequence of voltage rotation is iden-
tified by Van – Vbn – Vcn, whereas for negative phase sequence, it is identified as
Van – Vcn – Vbn.
1.11 Wye Connection
Three-phase transformer, AC generator, and induction motor are connected either in

wye or in delta connection. In wye connection, one terminal of each coil is con-
nected to form a common or neutral point, and other terminals are to the three-phase
supply. The voltage between any line and neutral is known as the phase voltage,
and the voltage between any two lines is called the line voltage. The line voltage
and phase voltage are usually represented by VL and VP, respectively. The important
pffiffiffi
points of this connection are the line voltage is equal to 3 times the phase voltage,
the line current is equal to the phase current, and the current (In) in the neutral wire
is equal to the phasor sum of the three-line currents. For a balanced three-phase
load, the neutral current is zero i.e., In ¼ 0. The wye-connected generator and load
are shown in Fig. 1.25.
Fig. 1.25 Wye-connected a b

generator and load
a b c
Zy Zy
+ + +
van vbn vcn
Zy
− n
c
1.12 Analysis for Wye Connection
A three-phase wye-connected AC generator shown in Fig. 1.26 is considered for

analysis. Here, Van, Vbn, and Vcn are the phase voltages, whereas Vab, Vbc, and Vca
are the line voltages. Applying KVL to the circuit to find the line voltage between
lines a and b yields
Van Vbn Vab ¼ 0 ð1:143Þ
Vab ¼ Van Vbn ð1:144Þ
Vab ¼ VP j0 VP j120 ð1:145Þ

pffiffiffi
Vab ¼ 3 VP j 30 ð1:146Þ
Applying KVL between lines b and c yields the expression of line voltage as
Vbc ¼ Vbn Vcn ð1:147Þ
Fig. 1.26 Wye-connected IP = IL

generator a
+
+ −
Van Vab Vca
− − +
Vcn Vbn
+ + b
IP = IL
Vbc
IP = IL
c
1.12 Analysis for Wye Connection 27
Fig. 1.27 Phasor diagram Vca = 3V p 150

with line and phase voltages
vbn Vab = 3V p 30
150
30
n van
90
vcn
Vbc = 3V p −90

pffiffiffi
Vbc ¼ VP j120 VP j240 ¼ 3 VP j 90 ð1:148Þ
Applying KVL between lines c and a yields the expression of the line voltage as
Vca ¼ Vcn Van ð1:149Þ

pffiffiffi
Vca ¼ VP j240 VP j0 ¼ 3 VP j 150 ð1:150Þ
Line voltages with angles are drawn as shown in Fig. 1.27. From Eqs. (1.146),
pffiffiffi
(1.148), and (1.150), it is seen that the magnitude of the line voltage is equal to 3
times the magnitude of the phase voltage. The general relationship between the line
voltage and the phase voltage can be written as
pffiffiffi
VL ¼ 3 VP ð1:151Þ
From Fig. 1.26, it is also observed that the phase current is equal to the line
current, and it is written as
IL ¼ IP ð1:152Þ
Alternative approach: A vector diagram with phase voltages is drawn using the
lines a and c as shown in Fig. 1.28. A perpendicular line is drawn from point A,
which divides the line BD equally. From the triangle ABC, the following expression
relation can be written as
BC
cos 30 ¼ ð1:153Þ
AB
Fig. 1.28 Vector diagram Vbn A Vca

Vnc
D
120 30 C
x
120 B 60
n
120 Van
Vcn
pffiffiffi
3 x
¼ ð1:154Þ
2 jVncj
According to Fig. 1.28, the following expression can be written as
BD ¼ 2AC ð1:155Þ
Vca ¼ 2x ð1:156Þ

pffiffiffi
3
Vca ¼ 2 jVnc j ð1:157Þ
2
pffiffiffi
Vca ¼ 3Vnc ð1:158Þ
In general, the following equation can be written as

pffiffiffi
VL ¼ 3V p
Example 1.9
The phase voltage is given by Van ¼ 230 j10 V. For abc phase sequence, deter-
mine Vbn and Vcn.
Solution
The phase voltage for line a is calculated as
Van ¼ 230 j10 V ð1:159Þ
The phase voltage for line b is calculated as
Vbn ¼ 230 j10 120 ¼ 230 j110 V ð1:160Þ

1.12 Analysis for Wye Connection 29
Fig. 1.29 Circuit for a

Example 1.10
+ +
−
180 V Vab
Vca
− −
180 V
+
+
+ 180 V b
+
Vbc
−
c
The phase voltage for line c is calculated as
Vcn ¼ 230 j10 240 ¼ 230 j230 V ð1:161Þ

The phase voltage is given by Vbn ¼ 200 j10 V. For abc phase sequence, calculate
Van and Vcn.
Example 1.10
A wye-connected generator generates a voltage of 180 V rms as shown in
Fig. 1.29. For abc phase sequence, write down the phase and line voltages.
Solution
The phase voltages are
Van ¼ 180 j0 V ð1:162Þ
Vbn ¼ 180 j120 V ð1:163Þ
Vcn ¼ 180 j240 V ð1:164Þ
The line voltages are calculated as

pffiffiffi
Vab ¼ 3 180 j30 ¼ 311:77 j30 V ð1:165Þ
pffiffiffi
Vbc ¼ 3 180 j120 þ 30 ¼ 311:77 j90 V ð1:166Þ
pffiffiffi
Vca ¼ 3 180 j240 þ 30 ¼ 311:77 j210 V ð1:167Þ

A wye-connected generator generates the line-to-line voltage of 200 V rms as
shown in Fig. 1.30. For abc phase sequence, write down the phase voltages.
Fig. 1.30 Circuit for Practice a

Problem 1.10
+
+ −
van
200 V Vca
− −
vbn +
vcn +
+ b
+
Vbc
−
c
1.13 Delta Connection
The coils in a delta-connected circuit are arranged in such a way that a looking
structure is formed. The delta connection is formed by the connecting point a2 of
a1a2 coil to the point b1 of b1b2 coil, the point b2 of b1b2 coil to the point c1 of c1c2
coil, and the point c2 of c1c2 coil to the point a1 of a1a2 coil. In this connection, the
pffiffiffi
phase voltage is equal to the line voltage, and line current is equal to 3 times the
phase current. Figure 1.31 shows delta-connected generator and load.
1.14 Analysis for Delta Connection
A three-phase delta-connected load is shown in Fig. 1.32. In this connection, Iab,

Ibc, and Ica are the phase currents and Ia, Ib, and Ic are the line currents. For abc
phase sequence, the phase currents can be written as
Iab ¼ IP j0 ð1:168Þ
Ibc ¼ IP j120 ð1:169Þ
a1 a
a c2 a
+
−
−
+ c1 b
a2
b
+ − b b2 b1
c
c Generator c
Generator Load
Fig. 1.31 Delta-connected generator and load

1.14 Analysis for Delta Connection 31
Fig. 1.32 Delta-connected a

load
Ia
+ −
I ca
Vca Vab I ab
− +
I bc Ib
b
c
+ V − Ic
bc
Ica ¼ IP j240 ð1:170Þ
Applying KCL at the node a of the circuit in Fig. 1.32 yields
Ia ¼ Iab Ica ð1:171Þ

pffiffiffi
Ia ¼ IP j0 IP j120 ¼ 3 IP j 30 ð1:172Þ
Applying KCL at the node b of the circuit in Fig. 1.32 yields
Ib ¼ Ibc Iab ð1:173Þ

pffiffiffi
Ib ¼ IP j120 IP j0 ¼ 3 IP j 150 ð1:174Þ
Applying KCL at the node c of the circuit in Fig. 1.32 yields
Ic ¼ Ica Ibc ð1:175Þ

pffiffiffi
Ic ¼ IP j240 IP j120 ¼ 3 IP j 90 ð1:176Þ
From Eqs. (1.172), (1.174), and (1.167), it is found that the magnitude of the line
pffiffiffi
current is equal to 3 times the phase current. The general relationship between the
line current and the phase current is
pffiffiffi
IL ¼ 3 IP ð1:177Þ
Fig. 1.33 Phasor diagram I c = 3 I p 90

using line and phase currents I ca
90
I ab
30
150 I a = 3 I p −30
I b = 3 I p −150
I bc
According to Fig. 1.32, it is observed that the phase voltage is equal to the line
voltage i.e.,
VL ¼ VP ð1:178Þ
The line and phase currents with their phase angles are drawn as shown in
Fig. 1.33, where the phase current Iab is arbitrarily chosen as reference.
1.15 Analysis for Three-Phase Power
Consider a balanced three-phase wye-connected generator that delivers power to the

balanced three-phase wye-connected load as shown in Fig. 1.34. The total power of
the three-phase system is calculated by considering the instantaneous voltages and
currents.
I Aa
A a
+
v AN Zy = Z θ Ω
I nN
− N n
vCN
+ vBN Zy = Z θ Ω
+
C B c Zy = Z θ Ω b
I Cc
I Bb
Fig. 1.34 Wye-wye system for power calculation

1.15 Analysis for Three-Phase Power 33
The instantaneous voltages are
vAN ¼ Vm sin xt ð1:179Þ
vBN ¼ Vm sinðxt 120 Þ ð1:180Þ
vCN ¼ Vm sinðxt 240 Þ ð1:181Þ
The phase currents of the three-phase wye-connected load can be expressed as
vAN Vm sin xt
iAa ¼ ¼ ¼ Im sinðxt hÞ ð1:182Þ
Zy Z jh
vBN Vm sinðxt 120 Þ

iBb ¼ ¼ ¼ Im sinðxt h 120 Þ ð1:183Þ
Zy Z jh
vCN Vm sinðxt 240 Þ

iCc ¼ ¼ ¼ Im sinðxt h 240 Þ ð1:184Þ
Zy Z jh
The instantaneous power for phase a can be expressed as [8, 9]
ZT
1
pa ðtÞ ¼ vAN iAa dt ð1:185Þ
T
0
ZT
Vm Im
pa ðtÞ ¼ sin xt sinðxt hÞ dt ð1:186Þ
T
0
ZT
V m Im
pa ðtÞ ¼ 2 sin xt sinðxt hÞ dt ð1:187Þ
2T
0
ZT
V m Im
pa ðtÞ ¼ ½cos h cosð2xt hÞ dt ð1:188Þ
2T
0
Vm Im
pa ðtÞ ¼ cos h T 0 ð1:189Þ
2T
V m Im
pa ðtÞ ¼ pffiffiffi pffiffiffi cos h ¼ VP IP cos h ð1:190Þ
2 2
where Vp and Ip are the rms values of phase voltage and phase current.
Similarly, the expressions of the instantaneous power for the phase b and phase
c can be written as
pb ðtÞ ¼ VP IP cos h ð1:191Þ
pc ðtÞ ¼ VP IP cos h ð1:192Þ
Therefore, the average three-phase power P can be calculated as
P ¼ pa ðtÞ þ pb ðtÞ þ pc ðtÞ ð1:193Þ
Substituting Eqs. (1.190), (1.191) and (1.192) into Eq. (1.193) yields
Pt ¼ 3Vp Ip cos h ð1:194Þ
Similarly, the expression of three-phase reactive power can be expressed as
Qt ¼ 3 Vp Ip sin h ð1:195Þ

Therefore, the per-phase average Ppp and reactive Qpp power can be written
as
Ppp ¼ VP IP cos h ð1:196Þ
Qpp ¼ VP IP sin h ð1:197Þ
The complex power per phase Spp is represented as
Spp ¼ Ppp þ jQpp ð1:198Þ
Spp ¼ VP IP cos h þ jVP IP sin h ð1:199Þ
Equation (1.199) can be expressed as
Spp ¼ VP IP jh ð1:200Þ
From Eq. (1.200), it is seen that the per-phase complex power is equal to the
product of the voltage per phase and the phase current with an angle.
Y-connection: Substituting Eqs. (1.151) and (1.152) into Eq. (1.194) yields
VL
PtY ¼ 3 pffiffiffi IL cos h ð1:201Þ
3
pffiffiffi
PtY ¼ 3 VL IL cos h ð1:202Þ
VL
QtY ¼ 3 pffiffiffi IL sin h ð1:203Þ
3
pffiffiffi
QtY ¼ 3 VL IL sin h ð1:204Þ
Delta connection: Again, substituting Eqs. (1.177) and (1.178) into Eq. (1.196)
yields
IL
PtD ¼ 3 pffiffiffi VL cos h ð1:205Þ
3
pffiffiffi
PtD ¼ 3 VL IL cos h ð1:206Þ
VL
QtD ¼ 3 pffiffiffi IL sin h ð1:207Þ
3
pffiffiffi
QtD ¼ 3 VL IL sin h ð1:208Þ
In general, the total real and reactive power can be expressed as

pffiffiffi
Pt ¼ 3 VL IL cos h ð1:209Þ
pffiffiffi
Qt ¼ 3 VL IL sin h ð1:210Þ
The total complex power can be written as
St ¼ Pt þ jQt ð1:211Þ

pffiffiffi pffiffiffi
St ¼ 3 VL IL cos h þ j 3 VL IL sin h ð1:212Þ
pffiffiffi
St ¼ 3 VL IL jh ð1:213Þ
Three-phase system uses less amount of copper wire than the single-phase
system for the same line voltage and same power factor to transmit the same
I1φ L R1
I 3φ L R3
+
3 −φ VL 0
+ I 3φ L R3
1−φ VL
3-wire −
+ 3 −φ
2-wire − Balanced
VL −120 Load
system I 3φ L R3
R1 −
Fig. 1.35 Single-phase and three-phase systems with loads
amount of power over a fixed distance. From Fig. 1.35, the real power for a
single-phase two wire system is
P1/2w ¼ VL I1/L cos h ð1:214Þ
From Fig. 1.35, the real power for a three-phase three wire system is
pffiffiffiffi
P3/3w ¼ 3 VL I3/L cos h ð1:215Þ
Equations (1.214) and (1.215) will be equal for transmitting or delivering the
same amount of power over a fixed distance. It can be expressed as
pffiffiffiffi
VL I1/L cos h ¼ 3 VL I3/L cos h ð1:216Þ
pffiffiffiffi
I1/L ¼ 3 I3/L ð1:217Þ
The power loss in the single-phase wire is
P1/2wloss ¼ 2I1/L
2
R1 ð1:218Þ
P3/3wloss ¼ 3I3/L
2
R3 ð1:219Þ
From Eqs. (1.218) and (1.219), the ratio of power loss of a single-phase system
to a three-phase system can be derived as
2
P1/2wloss 2I1/L R1
¼ 2 ð1:220Þ
P3/3wloss 3I3/L R3
For equal losses (P1/2wloss ¼ P3/3wloss ), Eq. (1.220) can be modified as
2
2I1/L R1
1¼ 2 R
ð1:221Þ
3I3/L 3
2
3I3/L R1
2
¼ ð1:222Þ
2I1/L R3

2
3I3/L R1
¼ ð1:223Þ
2 2
3I3/L R3
R1 1
¼ ð1:224Þ
R3 2
The following ratio can be written as
Copper for 3/ system number of wires in 3/ system R1

¼ ð1:225Þ
Copper for 1/ system number of wires in 1/ system R3
Substituting Eq. (1.224) and the number of wires for both systems in Eq. (1.225)
yields
Copper for 3/ system 3 1

¼ ð1:226Þ
Copper for 1/ system 2 2
3
Copper for 3/ system ¼ Copper for 1/ system ð1:227Þ
4
From Eq. (1.227), it is seen that the copper required for three-phase system is
equal to the three-fourths of the copper required for a single-phase system.
Example 1.11
A balanced three-phase wye-wye system is shown in Fig. 1.36. For ABC phase
sequence, calculate the line current, power supplied to each phase, power absorbed
by each phase, and the total complex power supplied by the source.
Solution
The line currents are calculated as
230 j15
IAa ¼ ¼ 27:89 j60:96 A ð1:228Þ
2 þ j8
I Aa
A a
+
230 15 V 2 + j8 Ω
− I nN
N n
vCN
+ v BN 2 + j8 Ω
+
C B c 2 + j8 Ω
b
I Cc
I Bb
Fig. 1.36 Circuit for Example 1.11
IBb ¼ IAa j120 ¼ 27:89 j180:96 A ð1:229Þ
ICc ¼ IAa j þ 120 ¼ 27:89 j59:04 A ð1:230Þ
Power supplied to each phase is calculated as
PA ¼ Vp Ip cos h ¼ VAN IAa cosðhv hi Þ ¼ 230 27:89 cosð15 þ 60:96Þ

¼ 1556:20 W
ð1:231Þ
Per-phase power absorbed by the load is calculated as
PL1/ ¼ 27:892 2 ¼ 1555:70 W ð1:232Þ
The total complex power supplied by the source is calculated as

St ¼ 3VAn IAa ¼ 3 230 j15 27:89 j60:96 ¼ 4668:60 þ j18669:21 VA
ð1:233Þ

A balanced three-phase wye-delta system is shown in Fig. 1.37. For ABC phase
sequence, find the line current, power supplied to each phase, power absorbed by
each phase, and the total complex power supplied by the source.
1.16 Basic Measuring Equipment 39
I Aa
a
A
11 −45 Ω +
I ca
11 −45 Ω I ab 180 −10 V
I bc 11 −45 Ω I Bb
b
c −
I Cc
+ +
C B
Fig. 1.37 Circuit for Practice Problem 1.11
1.16 Basic Measuring Equipment
In laboratory experiments, students usually verify fundamental electrical theories

through the measurement of voltage, current, resistance, and power. The voltmeter,
ammeter, ohmmeter, and wattmeter are used to measure those parameters.
Nowadays, almost every educational laboratory is equipped with digital meters. An
ohmmeter is used to measure resistance within a circuit, check the circuit conti-
nuity, identify short circuit and open circuit, and to identify the specific lead of a
multilead cable. The voltmeter is used to measure the voltage of a circuit, and it
always connects in parallel with a specific element. The voltmeter has high input
impedance. An ammeter is an instrument that is used to measure the current in the
circuit. An ammeter has low input impedance, and it connects in series with an
element of the circuit. Under the energized condition, the ammeter cannot be dis-
connected from the circuit, whereas the voltmeter can be disconnected from the
circuit. A wattmeter has two coils, namely a voltage coil and a current coil. The
voltage coil is connected across the element, and the current coil is connected in
series. The symbols of voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeter, and ohmmeter are shown in
Fig. 1.38.
There are many advanced electrical meters available for use in the practical field
and can be obtained at a low price from hardware stores. Fluke Corporation
introduced different types of digital multimeter as shown in Fig. 1.39, which
Fig. 1.38 Symbols of basic

CC
electrical meters
V A Ω
W
VC
Fig. 1.39 Digital multimeters courtesy by Fluke Corporation
includes advanced safety features during practical measurements. These meters

have proprietary functions that prevent accidents resulting from breakers that
suddenly trip due to incorrect connections. These meters also have high accuracy,
reliability, extensive additional functionality, and a broad range of measurement
activities.
References
1. Alexander CK, Sadiku MNO (2016) Fundamentals of electric circuits, 6th edn. McGraw-Hill
Higher Education
2. Boylestad RL (2016) Introductory circuit analysis, 13th edn. Pearson
3. Nilsson JW, Riedel SA (2015) Electric circuits, 10th edn. Prentice-Hall International Edition
4. Jackson HW, Temple D, Kelly BE (2015) Introduction to electric circuits, 9th edn. Oxford
University Press
5. Bell D (2007) Fundamentals of electric circuits, 7th edn. Oxford University Press
6. Rizzoni G, Kearns J (2014) Principles and applications of electrical engineering, 6th edn.
McGraw-Hill Education
References 41
7. Irwin JD, Nelms RM (2015) Basic engineering circuit analysis, 11th edn. Wiley, USA
8. Hayt W, Kemmerly J (2012) Engineering circuit analysis, 8th edn. McGraw-Hill Education
9. Salam MA, Rahman QM (2018) Fundamentals of electrical circuits analysis, 1st edn. Springer
Exercise Problems
1:1 The excitation voltage and the impedance of a series circuit are given by
vðtÞ ¼ 8 sin 10t V and Z ¼ 5 j10 X, respectively. Calculate the instanta-
neous power.
1:2 The excitation current and the impedance of a series circuit are given by
iðtÞ ¼ 4 sinð100t 20 ÞA and Z ¼ 5 j10 X, respectively. Determine the
instantaneous power.
1:3 Calculate the average power supplied by the source and the power absorbed
by the resistors as shown in Fig. P1.1.
1:4 Determine the average power supplied by the source and the power absorbed
by the 8X resistor shown in Fig. P1.2.
1:5 Calculate the average power supplied by the source and the power absorbed
by the 3X resistor as shown in Fig. P1.3.
1:6 Determine the average power supplied by the source and the power absorbed
by the 2X resistor shown in Fig. P1.4.
Fig. P1.1 Circuit for I 2Ω 8Ω

Problem 1.3
+ 4Ω
60 V
3Ω
−
7Ω
Fig. P1.2 Circuit for

I 4Ω 8Ω 3Ω
Problem 1.4
5Ω 2Ω
+
60 V
3Ω
9Ω
−
7Ω
Fig. P1.3 Circuit for 3Ω 2Ω 5Ω

Problem 1.5
30 10 V + 6Ω 3Ω
4Ω
−
9Ω 6Ω
Fig. P1.4 Circuit for 4Ω 5Ω

Problem 1.6
25 10 A 2Ω 4Ω
9Ω
6Ω 5Ω
Fig. P1.5 Circuit for 4Ω 5Ω

Problem 1.7
25 10 A 2Ω 3Ω
6Ω 9Ω
1:7 Find the total average power absorbed by all the resistors in the circuit shown
in Fig. P1.5.
1:8 An industrial load is connected across an alternating voltage source vðtÞ ¼
230 sinð314t þ 20 Þ V that draws a current of iðtÞ ¼ 15 sinð314t þ 45 Þ A.
Determine the apparent power, circuit resistance and capacitance.
1:9 The rms values of voltage and current are given by V ¼ 20 j15 V, and
I ¼ 3 j25 A. Calculate the complex power, real power and reactive power.
1:10 The rms values of voltage is given by V ¼ 34 j25 V, and the impedance is
Z ¼ 6 j15 X. Determine the complex power, real power and reactive
power.
Exercise Problems 43
Fig. P1.6 Circuit for 7Ω

Problem 1.11
I 4Ω 8Ω 3Ω
2Ω
+ 3Ω
60 V
9Ω
−
5Ω
Fig. P1.7 Circuit for 7Ω

Problem 1.12
I 4Ω 8Ω 3Ω
2Ω
+ 3Ω 1.2 Ω
60 V
9Ω
−
5Ω
Fig. P1.8 Circuit for I

Problem 1.13
+ 10 kVA
220 V 0.60 Lag
C
−
1:11 A series-parallel circuit is supplied by a rms source of 60 V as shown in

Fig. P1.6. Find the total complex power.
1:12 Calculate the total complex power of the circuit shown in Fig. P1.7.
1:13 A 10 kVA, 50 Hz, 0.6 lagging power factor load is connected across an rms
voltage source of 220 V as shown in Fig. P1.8. A capacitor is connected
across the load to improve the power factor to 0.85 lagging. Find the value of
the capacitor.
I 0.02 Ω 4Ω
+
+ 5 kW 10 kVA
120 V
Vs 0.80 Lead 0.85 Lag
−
−
Fig. P1.9 Circuit for Problem 1.14
I 0.02 Ω 4Ω
+
+ 5 kW 10 kVA 5 kVA
Vs 0.80 Lead 120 V 0.85 Lag 0.95 Lead
−
−
Fig. P1.10 Circuit for Problem 1.15
1:14 Two loads with different power factor are connected with the source through
a transmission line as shown in Fig. P1.9. Determine the source current and
the source voltage.
1:15 A voltage source delivers power to the three loads shown in Fig. P1.10. Find
the source current and the source voltage.
1:16 The line voltage of a three-phase wye-connected generator is found to be
440 V. For abc phase sequence, calculate the phase voltages.
1:17 The phase voltage of a three-phase wye-connected generator is given by
Van ¼ 100 j10 V. Determine the voltages Vbn and Vcn for abc phase
sequence.
Chapter 2
Transformer: Principles and Practices
2.1 Introduction
There are many devices such as three-phase AC generators, transformers, etc.,

which are used in a power station to generate and supply electrical power to a
power system network. In the power station, the three-phase AC generator gener-
ates a three-phase alternating voltage in the range between 11 and 20 kV. The
magnitude of the generated voltage is increased to 120 kV or more using a power
transformer. This higher magnitude of voltage is then transmitted to the grid sub-
station by three-phase transmission lines. A lower line voltage of 415 V is achieved
by stepping down either from the 11 kV or 33 kV lines by a distribution trans-
former. In these cases, a three-phase transformer is used either to step up or step
down the voltage. Since a transformer plays a vital role in feeding an electrical
network with the required voltage, it becomes an important requirement of a power
system engineer to understand the fundamental details about a transformer along
with its analytical behavior in the circuit domain. This chapter is dedicated to this
goal. On the onset of this discussion, it is worth mentioning that a transformer,
irrespective of its type, contains the following characteristics: (i) it has no moving
parts, (ii) no electrical connection between the primary and secondary windings,
(iii) windings are magnetically coupled, (iv) rugged and durable in construction,
(v) efficiency is very high, i.e., more than 95%, and (vi) frequency is unchanged.
2.2 Working Principle of Transformer
Figure 2.1 shows a schematic diagram of a single-phase transformer. There are two
types of windings in a single-phase transformer. These are called primary and
secondary windings or coils. The primary winding is connected to the alternating
voltage source, and the secondary winding is connected to the load.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3212-2_2
46 2 Transformer: Principles and Practices
φm I2
I1
+ +
E1 E2 N2 V2 ZL
V1 N1
− −
Fig. 2.1 Single-phase transformer
The primary and secondary winding parameters are represented by the suffix p or
1 and s or 2, respectively. A sinusoidal current flows in the primary winding when it
is connected to an alternating voltage source. This current establishes a flux / that
moves from the primary winding to the secondary winding through low reluctance
magnetic core [1].
About 95% of this flux moves from the primary to the secondary through the low
reluctance path of the magnetic core, and this flux is linked by both windings and a
small percent of this flux links to the primary winding. According to Faraday’s laws
of electromagnetic induction, a voltage will be induced across the secondary
winding as well as in the primary winding. Due to this voltage, a current will flow
through the load if it is connected with the secondary winding. Hence, the primary
voltage is transferred to the secondary winding without a change in frequency.
2.3 Flux in a Transformer
The current in the primary winding establishes a flux. The flux that moves from
primary to secondary and links both the windings is called the mutual flux, and its
maximum value is represented by /m . Flux which links only the primary winding
and completes the magnetic path through the surrounding air is known as primary
leakage flux. The primary leakage flux is denoted by /1l . Similarly, secondary
leakage flux is that flux which links only the secondary winding and completes the
magnetic path through the surrounding air. The secondary leakage flux is denoted
by /2l . Mutual and leakage fluxes are shown in Fig. 2.2.
2.4 Ideal Transformer 47
φm I2
I1
+ N2 +
N1 E2
V1 V2 ZL
E1
− −
φ2l
φ1l
Fig. 2.2 Mutual and leakage fluxes
2.4 Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is one that does not supply any energy to the load, i.e., the
secondary winding is open circuited. The main points of an ideal transformer are
(i) no winding resistance, (ii) no leakage flux and leakage inductance,
(iii) self-inductance and mutual inductance are zero, (iv) no losses due to resistance,
inductance, hysteresis, or eddy current, and (v) coefficient of coupling is unity [2].
Figure 2.3a shows an ideal transformer where the secondary winding is left
open. A small magnetizing current Im will flow in the primary winding when it is
connected to the alternating voltage source, V1 . This magnetizing current lags
behind the supply voltage, V1 by 90 and produces the flux /, which induces the
primary and secondary emfs. These emfs lag behind the flux, / by 90 . The
magnitude of primary induced emf E1 and the supply voltage V1 is the same, but are
180 out of phase as shown in Fig. 2.3b.
(a) φm
I1
+ +
V1 E1 E2 N2 V2
N1
− −
(b) V2
V1
E2 E1 90
I m = I1
φm
Fig. 2.3 Ideal transformer and phasor diagram

2.5 EMF Equation of Transformer
The primary winding draws a current when it is connected to an alternating voltage

source. This primary sinusoidal current produces a sinusoidal flux / that can be
expressed as [2],
/ ¼ /m sin xt ð2:1Þ
Instantaneous emf induced in the primary winding is,
d/
e1 ¼ N1 ð2:2Þ
dt
Similarly, instantaneous emf induced in the secondary winding is,
d/
e2 ¼ N2 ð2:3Þ
dt
Substituting Eq. (2.1) into the Eq. (2.2) yields,
d
e1 ¼ N1 ð/ sin xtÞ ð2:4Þ
dt m
e1 ¼ N1 x/m cos xt ð2:5Þ
e1 ¼ N1 x/m sinðxt 90 Þ ð2:6Þ
The maximum value of e1 is,
Em1 ¼ N1 x/m ð2:7Þ
The rms value of the primary emf is,
Em1
E1 ¼ pffiffiffi ð2:8Þ
2
Substituting Eq. (2.7) into Eq. (2.8) yields,
N1 2pf /m
E1 ¼ pffiffiffi ð2:9Þ
2
E1 ¼ 4:44 f /m N1 ð2:10Þ
Similarly, the expression of the secondary emf is,

2.5 EMF Equation of Transformer 49
E2 ¼ 4:44 f /m N2 ð2:11Þ
The primary and secondary voltages can be determined from equations

Eqs. (2.10) and (2.11) if other parameters are known.
2.6 Turns Ratio of Transformer
Turns ratio is an important parameter for drawing an equivalent circuit of a

transformer. The turns ratio is used to identify step-up and step-down transformers.
According to Faraday’s laws, the induced emfs in the primary ðe1 Þ and the sec-
ondary ðe2 Þ windings are,
d/
e1 ¼ N1 ð2:12Þ
dt
d/
e2 ¼ N2 ð2:13Þ
dt
Dividing Eq. (2.12) by Eq. (2.13) yields,
e1 N 1
¼ ð2:14Þ
e2 N 2
e1 N1
¼ ¼a ð2:15Þ
e2 N2
Similarly, dividing Eq. (2.10) by (2.11) yields,
E1 N1
¼ ¼a ð2:16Þ
E2 N2
where a is the turns ratio of a transformer. In case of N2 [ N1 , the transformer is

called a step-up transformer. Whereas for N1 [ N2 , the transformer is called a
step-down transformer. The losses are zero in an ideal transformer. In this case, the
input power of the transformer is equal to its output power and this yield,
V1 I1 ¼ V2 I2 ð2:17Þ
Equation (2.17) can be rearranged as,
V1 I2
¼ ¼a ð2:18Þ
V2 I1
The ratio of primary current to the secondary current is,
I1 1
¼ ð2:19Þ
I2 a
Again, the magnetomotive force produced by the primary current will be equal
to the magnetomotive force produced by the secondary current and it can be
expressed as,
= ¼ =1 =2 ¼ 0 ð2:20Þ
N1 I1 ¼ N2 I2 ð2:21Þ
I1 N2 1
¼ ¼ ð2:22Þ
I2 N1 a
From Eq. (2.22), it is concluded that the ratio of primary to secondary current is
inversely proportional to the turns ratio of the transformer.
The input and output powers of an ideal transformer are,
Pin ¼ V1 I1 cos /1 ð2:23Þ
Pout ¼ V2 I2 cos /2 ð2:24Þ
For an ideal condition, the angle /1 is equal to the angle /2 and the output
power can be rearranged as,
V1
Pout ¼ aI1 cos /1 ð2:25Þ
a
Pout ¼ V1 I1 cos /1 ¼ Pin ð2:26Þ
From Eq. (2.26), it is seen that the input and the output powers are the same in
case of an ideal transformer. Similarly, the input and output reactive powers are,
Qout ¼ V2 I2 sin /2 ¼ V1 I1 sin /1 ¼ Qin ð2:27Þ
From Eqs. (2.26) and (2.27), the input and output power and reactive power can
be calculated if other parameters are given.
Example 2.1
The number of turns in the secondary coil of a 22 kVA, 2200 V/220 V
single-phase transformer is 50. Find the number of primary turns, primary full
load current, and secondary full load current. Neglect all kinds of losses in the
transformer.
2.6 Turns Ratio of Transformer 51
Solution
The value of the turns ratio is,
V1 2200
a¼ ¼ ¼ 10 ð2:28Þ
V2 220
The value of the primary turns can be determined as,
N1 ¼ aN2 ¼ 10 50 ¼ 500 ð2:29Þ
The value of the primary full load current is,
22 103
I1 ¼ ¼ 10 A ð2:30Þ
2200
The value of the secondary full load current is,
22 103
I2 ¼ ¼ 100 A ð2:31Þ
220
Example 2.2
A 25 kVA single-phase transformer has the primary and secondary number of turns
of 200 and 400, respectively. The transformer is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz
source. Calculate the turns ratio and mutual flux in the core.
Solution
The turns ratio is,
N1 200
a¼ ¼ ¼ 0:5 ð2:32Þ
N2 400
The value of the mutual flux can be calculated as,
V1 220
/m ¼ ¼ ¼ 4:95 mWb ð2:33Þ
4:44 fN1 4:44 50 200
The primary voltage of an iron core single-phase transformer is 220 V. The number
of primary and secondary turns of the transformer is 200 and 50, respectively.
Calculate the voltage of the secondary coil.
The number of primary turns of a 30 kVA, 2200 V/220 V, 50 Hz single-phase
transformer is 100. Find the turns ratio, the mutual flux in the core, and full load
primary, and secondary currents.
2.7 Rules for Referring Impedance
For developing an equivalent circuit of a transformer, it is necessary to refer the

parameters from the primary to the secondary or the secondary to the primary.
These parameters are resistance, reactance, impedance, current, and voltage. The
ratio of primary voltage to secondary voltage is,
V1
¼a ð2:34Þ
V2
The ratio of primary current to secondary current is,
I1 1
¼ ð2:35Þ
I2 a
V1
V2 a
¼ ð2:36Þ
I1 1
I2 a
V1
I1
¼ a2 ð2:37Þ
V2
I2
Z1
¼ a2 ð2:38Þ
Z2
Alternative approach: The impedances in the primary and secondary windings

are,
V1
Z1 ¼ ð2:39Þ
I1
V2
Z2 ¼ ð2:40Þ
I2
V1
Z1 I
¼ 1 ð2:41Þ
Z2 V2
I2
2.7 Rules for Referring Impedance 53
Z1 V1 I2
¼ ð2:42Þ
Z2 V2 I1
Z1
¼aa ð2:43Þ
Z2
Z1
¼ a2 ð2:44Þ
Z2
From Eq. (2.44), it can be concluded that the impedance ratio is equal to the
square of the turns ratio. The important points for transferring parameters are (i) R1
in the primary becomes Ra21 when referred to the secondary, (ii) R2 in the secondary
becomes a2 R2 when referred to the primary, (iii) X1 in the primary becomes Xa21 when
referred to the secondary, and (iv) X2 in the secondary becomes a2 X2 when referred
to the primary.
Example 2.3
The number of primary and secondary turns of a single-phase transformer is 300
and 30, respectively. The secondary coil is connected with a load impedance of 4 X.
Calculate the turns ratio, load impedance referred to the primary, and primary
current if the primary coil voltage is 220 V.
Solution
N1 300
a¼ ¼ ¼ 10 ð2:45Þ
N2 30
The value of the load impedance referred to the primary is,
ZL0 ¼ a2 ZL ¼ 102 4 ¼ 400 X ð2:46Þ
The value of the primary current is,
V1 220
I1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:55 A ð2:47Þ
ZL0 400

A load impedance of 8 X is connected to the secondary coil of 400/200 turns
single-phase transformer. Determine the turns ratio, load impedance referred to
primary and primary current if the primary coil voltage is 120 V.
2.8 Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
Windings of a transformer are not connected electrically and are magnetically

coupled with each other. In this case, it is tedious to do a proper analysis. Therefore,
for easy computation and visualization, the practical transformer needs to be con-
verted into an equivalent circuit by maintaining the same properties of the main
transformer [3]. In the equivalent circuit, the related parameters need to be trans-
ferred either from the primary to the secondary or vice versa. A two windings ideal
transformer is shown in Fig. 2.4.
2.8.1 Exact Equivalent Circuit
Figure 2.5 shows an exact equivalent circuit referred to the primary where all the
parameters are transferred from the secondary to the primary and these parameters
are,
R02 ¼ a2 R2 ð2:48Þ
X20 ¼ a2 X2 ð2:49Þ
ZL0 ¼ a2 ZL ð2:50Þ
I2
I20 ¼ ð2:51Þ
a
V20 ¼ aV2 ð2:52Þ
Figure 2.6 shows the exact equivalent circuit referred to the secondary where all
the parameters are transferred from the primary to the secondary.
I1 R1 X1 R2 X2 I2
I0 N1 N2
Iw +
+
Im V2 ZL
V1 R0 X0 E2
E1 −
−
Fig. 2.4 Two windings transformer

2.8 Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer 55
I1 R1 X1 R2 ' X2 ' I2 '
I0
Iw +
+
Im V2 ' ZL '
V1 R0 X0
− −
Fig. 2.5 Exact equivalent circuit referred to the primary
I1 ' R1 ' X1 ' R2 X2 I2
I0 '
Iw ' +
+
Im ' V2 ZL
V1 ' R0 ' X0 '
− −
Fig. 2.6 Exact equivalent circuit referred to as the secondary
These parameters are,
R1
R01 ¼ ð2:53Þ
a2
X1
X10 ¼ ð2:54Þ
a2
I10 ¼ aI1 ð2:55Þ
V1
V10 ¼ ð2:56Þ
a
Iw0 ¼ aIw ð2:57Þ

Im0 ¼ aIm ð2:58Þ
I00 ¼ aI0 ð2:59Þ
2.8.2 Approximate Equivalent Circuit
The no-load current is very small as compared to the rated primary current.
Therefore, there is a negligible voltage drop due to R1 and X1 . In this condition, it
can be assumed that the voltage drop across the no-load circuit is the same as the
applied voltage without any significant error. The approximate equivalent circuit
can be drawn by shifting the no-load circuit across the supply voltage, V1 .
Figure 2.7 shows an approximate equivalent circuit referred to the primary. The
total resistance, reactance, and impedance referred to the primary are,
R01 ¼ R1 þ R02 ¼ R1 þ a2 R2 ð2:60Þ
X01 ¼ X1 þ X20 ¼ X1 þ a2 X2 ð2:61Þ
Z01 ¼ R01 þ jX01 ð2:62Þ
The no-load circuit resistance and reactance are,
V1
R0 ¼ ð2:63Þ
Iw
V1
X0 ¼ ð2:64Þ
Im
I1 I2 ' R01 X 01
I0
Iw +
+
Im V2 ' ZL '
V1 R0 X0
− −
Fig. 2.7 Approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary

2.8 Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer 57
I1 ' I2 R02 X 02
I0 '
Iw ' +
+
Im ' V2 ZL
V1 ' R0 ' X0 '
− −
Fig. 2.8 Approximate equivalent circuit referred to secondary
Figure 2.8 shows an approximate equivalent circuit referred to the secondary.

The total resistance, reactance, and impedance referred to the secondary are,
R1
R02 ¼ R2 þ R01 ¼ R2 þ ð2:65Þ
a2
X1
X02 ¼ X2 þ X10 ¼ X2 þ ð2:66Þ
a2
Z02 ¼ R02 þ jX02 ð2:67Þ
The no-load circuit resistance and reactance referred to the secondary are,
V10
R00 ¼ ð2:68Þ
Iw0
V10
X00 ¼ ð2:69Þ
Im0
Example 2.4
A 2.5 kVA, 200 V/40 V single-phase transformer has the primary resistance and
reactance of 3 Ω and 12 Ω, respectively. On the secondary side, these values are
0.3 Ω and 0.1 Ω, respectively. Find the equivalent impedance referred to the pri-
mary and the secondary.
Solution
V1 200
a¼ ¼ ¼5 ð2:70Þ
V2 40
The total resistance, reactance, and impedance referred to the primary can be
determined as,
R01 ¼ R1 þ a2 R2 ¼ 3 þ 25 0:3 ¼ 10:5 X ð2:71Þ
X01 ¼ X1 þ a2 X2 ¼ 12 þ 25 0:1 ¼ 14:5 X ð2:72Þ

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Z01 ¼ 10:52 þ 14:52 ¼ 17:9 X ð2:73Þ
The total resistance, reactance, and impedance referred to the secondary are
calculated as,
R1 3
R02 ¼ R2 þ 2
¼ 0:3 þ ¼ 0:42 X ð2:74Þ
a 25
X1 12
X02 ¼ X2 þ ¼ 0:1 þ ¼ 0:58 X ð2:75Þ
a2 25
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Z01 ¼ 0:422 þ 0:582 ¼ 0:72 X ð2:76Þ

A 1.5 kVA, 220 V/110 V single-phase transformer has the primary resistance and
reactance of 6 Ω and 18 Ω, respectively. The resistance and reactance at the sec-
ondary side are 0.6 Ω and 0.5 Ω, respectively. Calculate the equivalent impedance
referred to as the primary and the secondary.
2.9 Polarity of a Transformer
The relative directions of induced voltages between the high voltage and low
voltage terminals are known as the polarity of a transformer. The polarity of a
transformer is very important to construct a three-phase transformer bank, the
parallel connection of transformer, the connection of the current transformer (CT),
and potential transformer (PT) power with the metering device. Two polarities,
namely additive and subtractive, are used in the transformer [4].
The polarity of a transformer is said to be an additive if the measured voltage
between the high voltage and the low voltage terminals is greater than the supply
voltage at the high voltage terminals. The additive polarity of a transformer is
marked by the orientation of dots as shown in Fig. 2.9. Whereas, a polarity is said
2.9 Polarity of a Transformer 59
Fig. 2.9 Additive polarity
H1
X1
VH1H 2
H2
X2
Fig. 2.10 Subtractive

polarity
H1
X1
VH1H 2
H2
X2
to be subtractive if the measured voltage between the high voltage and the low
voltage terminals is lower than the supply voltage at the high voltage terminals. The
subtractive polarity of a transformer is marked by the orientation of dots as shown
in Fig. 2.10. Consider a 220 V/110 V single-phase transformer with the high
voltage and the low voltage terminals for testing polarities. The high voltage ter-
minal H1 is connected to the low voltage terminal X1 by a cable. The voltmeter is
connected between H2 and X2. In this case, the turns ratio of the transformer is,
V1 220
a¼ ¼ ¼2 ð2:77Þ
V2 110
For safety, a lower voltage needs to be applied to the primary side, i.e., high
voltage terminals. Suppose, a voltage of 110 V is applied to the primary side.
In this case, a voltage of 55 V (110/2) will appear at the secondary terminals. If
the meter reads out the voltage of 165 V (110 + 55), then the transformer is said to
be in additive polarity. This connection is shown in Fig. 2.11.
Whereas, if the voltmeter reads the voltage of 55 V (110 – 55), then the
transformer is said to be in subtractive polarity as shown in Fig. 2.12.
Fig. 2.11 Testing of additive

H1
polarity
X1
VH1H 2
110 V 55 V
H2
X2
165 V
Fig. 2.12 Testing of

H1
subtractive polarity
X1
VH1 H2
110 V 55 V
H2
X2
55 V
2.10 Three-Phase Transformer
A three-phase power transformer is used at the power generating station to step up

the voltage from 11 to 120 kV. Whereas in the power distribution substation, the
three-phase voltage is again stepped down to 11 kV voltage through a three-phase
distribution transformer.
Therefore, a three-phase transformer can be made either by three windings
wound on a common core or by three single-phase transformers connected together
in a three-phase bank. The first approach is a cheaper one that results in a trans-
former with a smaller size and less weight. The main disadvantage of the first
approach is that if one phase becomes defective, then the whole transformer needs
to be replaced. Whereas in the second approach, if one of the transformers becomes
defective, then the system can be given power by an open delta at a reduced
capacity. In this case, the defective transformer is normally replaced by a new one.
A three-phase transformer with a wye-delta connection is shown in Fig. 2.13 and
the three single-phase transformers are shown in Fig. 2.14.
2.10 Three-Phase Transformer 61
A1 B1 C1
N11 N 21 N31
N12 N 22
N32
a1 b1 c1
Fig. 2.13 Three windings on a common core and wye-delta connection
N11 N12 N 21 N 22
N 31 N 32
Fig. 2.14 Three single-phase transformers

2.11 Transformer Vector Group
The most common configurations of three-phase transformers are the delta and star
configurations used in the power utility companies. The primary and secondary
windings of a three-phase transformer are connected either in the same (delta-delta
or star–star) or different (delta–star or star–delta) configuration pair. The secondary
voltage waveforms of a three-phase transformer are in phase with the primary
waveforms when the primary and secondary windings are connected in the same
configuration. This condition is known as “no phase shift” condition. If the primary
and secondary windings are connected in different configuration pairs, then the
secondary voltage waveforms will differ from the corresponding primary voltage
waveforms by 30 electrical degrees. This condition is called a “30-degree phase
shift” condition. The windings and their position to each other are usually marked
by a vector group. The vector group is used to identify the phase shift between the
primary and secondary windings. In the vector group, the secondary voltage may
have the phase shift of 30 lagging or leading, 0 (no phase shift) or 180 reversal
with respect to the primary voltage. The transformer vector group is labeled by
capital and small letters plus numbers from 1 to 12 in a typical clock-like diagram.
The capital letter indicates the primary winding and the small letter represents
secondary winding.
In the clock diagram, the minute hand represents the primary line to neutral line
voltage, and its place is always in the 12. The hour hand represents the secondary
line to neutral voltage and its position in the clock changes based on the phase shift
as shown in Fig. 2.15. There are four vector groups used in the three-phase
transformer connection. These vector groups are (i) Group I: 0 o’clock, zero phase
displacement (Yy0, Dd0, Dz0), (ii) Group II: 6 o’clock, 180° phase displacement
(Yy6, Dd6, Dz6), (iii) Group III: 1 o’clock, −30° lag phase displacement (Dy1,
Yd1, Yz1), and (iv) Group IV: 11 o’clock, 30° lead phase displacement (Dy11,
Yd11, Yz11). Here, Y represents wye connection, D represents delta connection,
and z represents the zigzag connection. The connection diagrams for different
combinations are shown in Figs. 2.16, 2.17, 2.18, 2.19, 2.20, 2.21, 2.22, 2.23, 2.24,
2.25, 2.26, 2.27.
2.12 Voltage Regulation of a Transformer
Different types of loads, such as domestic, commercial, and industrial, are usually
connected with the secondary winding of a transformer. All these loads are operated
with a constant magnitude of the voltage. The secondary voltage of a transformer
changes under operation due to the voltage drop across the internal impedance and
the load. The voltage regulation of a transformer is used to identify the charac-
teristics of the secondary side voltage changes under different loading conditions.
The voltage regulation of a transformer is defined as the difference between the
2.12 Voltage Regulation of a Transformer 63
A A
a a
N n N n
0 shift −30 lag
A A
a
N n N n
180 shift +30 lead
a
Fig. 2.15 Representation of vector groups with the clock
C Y/y/0
C2
c
c2
A1 A2 a1 a2
C1 c1 a
B1 A b1
b b2
B2
B
A1 A2 A a1 a2 a
B1 B2 b1 b2
N B n b
C1 C2 c1 c2
C c
Fig. 2.16 Connection of Y-y-0

C C2 D/d/0
B1
c c2
b1
C1
A c1
a
A2 a2
b2
B2 b a1
B A1
A1 A2 A a1 a2 a
B1 B2 b1 b2
B b
C1 C2 c1 c2
C c
Fig. 2.17 Connection of D-d-0
no-load terminal voltage ðV2NL Þ to full load terminal voltage ðV2FL Þ and is
expressed as a percentage of full load terminal voltage. It is, therefore, can be
expressed as,
V2NL V2FL E2 V2
Voltage regulation ¼ 100% ¼ 100% ð2:78Þ
V2FL V2
Figure 2.28 shows an approximate equivalent circuit referred to as the secondary

without a no-load circuit to find the voltage regulation for different power factors.
Phasor diagrams for different power factors are shown in Fig. 2.29 where the
secondary voltage V2 is considered as the reference phasor.
The phasor diagram with a unity power factor is shown in Fig. 2.29a and the
phasor form of the secondary induced voltage for a unity power factor can be
written as,
E2 ¼ V2 þ I2 ðR02 þ jX02 Þ ð2:79Þ
Figure 2.29b shows the phasor diagram for a lagging power factor, and from this
diagram, the following expressions can be written as,
AC ¼ V2 cos /2 ð2:80Þ
C C2 D/z/0
c2
B1 a2
a4
c4 c1 a1
C1
A c3 b3 a3
A2 b1
B2 c4
B A1 c b2 b4
c3
b1
a2 b2
a
c2 a4
a1
b3 c1 a3
b4
b
A1 A2 A a1 a2 a3 a4 a
B1 B2 b1 b2 b3 b4
B b
n
C1 C2 c1 c2 c3 c4
C c
Fig. 2.18 Connection of D-z-0
BC ¼ DE ¼ V2 sin /2 ð2:81Þ
CD ¼ BE ¼ I2 R02 ð2:82Þ
EF ¼ I2 X02 ð2:83Þ
From the right-angle triangle-ADF, the expression of E2 can be derived as,
AF 2 ¼ AD2 þ DF 2 ð2:84Þ
AF 2 ¼ ðAC þ CDÞ2 þ ðDE þ EFÞ2 ð2:86Þ

C Y/d/1
C2 b1 c c2
30
A1 A2
C1 c1
B1 A b2
b a1 a2 a
B2
B
A1 A2 A a1 a2 a
B1 B2 b1 b2
N B b
C1 C2 c1 c2
C c
Fig. 2.19 Connection of Y-d-1
D/y/1
C
A2 c c2
C1
A1 c1
b1
A a1 30
B2 a
b2 a2
b
C2
B B1
A1 A2 A a1 a2 a
B1 B2 b1 b2
B n b
C1 C2 c1 c2
C c
Fig. 2.20 Connection of D-y-1

C
C2 Y/z/1 c
c4
c3 c2
C1
A c1 a
B1 b1
A1 A2
a1 a2 a3 a4
b2
c4 b3
B2 c
B b4
c3
b
b1
a1 a2 b2
b3
c2
b4 c1 a
a3 a4
b
A1 A2 A a1 a2 a3 a4 a
B1 B2 b1 b2 b3 b4
N B b
n
C1 C2 c1 c2 c3 c4
C c
Fig. 2.21 Connection of Y-z-1
Substituting equations from (2.80) to (2.83) into Eq. (2.86) yields,

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
E2 ¼ ðV2 cos /2 þ I2 R02 Þ2 þ ðV2 sin /2 þ I2 X02 Þ2 ð2:87Þ
In phasor form, Eq. (2.87) can be written as,
E2 ¼ ðV2 cos /2 þ I2 R02 Þ þ jðV2 sin /2 þ I2 X02 Þ ð2:88Þ
Figure 2.29c shows the phasor diagram for a leading power factor and from this
diagram, the following expressions can be written,
MR ¼ V2 cos /2 ð2:89Þ
D/y/11
C C2
a2 a
B1 c
c2
a1 30
C1 c1
A b1
A2
b2
b
B2
B A1
A1 A2 A a1 a2 a
B1 B2 b1 b2
B n b
C1 C2 c1 c2
C c
RN ¼ OQ ¼ V2 sin /2 ð2:90Þ
RQ ¼ NO ¼ I2 R02 ð2:91Þ
PO ¼ I2 X02 ð2:92Þ
The expression of E2 from the right-angle triangle MQP can be derived as,
MP2 ¼ MQ2 þ QP2 ð2:93Þ
MP2 ¼ ðMR þ RQÞ2 þ ðOQ POÞ2 ð2:94Þ

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
E2 ¼ ðV2 cos /2 þ I2 R02 Þ2 þ ðV2 sin /2 I2 X02 Þ2 ð2:95Þ
Y/d/11
C C2
a
c a1 a2 a
30 c2 b1
30
A
C1
B1 A
A1 c1 b2
A2
b
B2
B
A1 A2 A a1 a2 a
N B1 B2 b1 b2
B b
C1 C2 c1 c2
C c
Fig. 2.23 Connection of Y-d-11
In phasor form, Eq. (2.95) can be written as,
E2 ¼ ðV2 cos /2 þ I2 R02 Þ þ jðV2 sin /2 I2 X02 Þ ð2:96Þ
Example 2.5
The primary coil resistance and reactance of a 200 V/400 V single-phase trans-
former are 0:3 X and 0:6 X, respectively. The secondary coil resistance and reac-
tance are 0:8 X and 1:6 X, respectively. Calculate the voltage regulation if the
secondary current of the transformer is 10 A at a 0.8 pf lagging.
Solution
V1 200
a¼ ¼ ¼ 0:5 ð2:97Þ
V2 400
The value of the total resistance referred to the secondary is,

C
C2 Y/z/11
c4
c3 c2
C1
A c1
B1 b1
A1 A2
a1 a2 a3 a4
b2
B2 b3
B a3 a4 b4
c b1 a
c4
b2
c3 c2
a1 a2
c1
b3
b b4
A1 A2 A a1 a2 a3 a4 a
B1 B2 b1 b2 b3 b4
N B b
n
C1 C2 c1 c2 c3 c4
C c
Fig. 2.24 Connection of Y-z-11
R1 0:3
R02 ¼ R2 þ ¼ 0:8 þ ¼ 2X ð2:98Þ
a2 0:25
The total reactance referred to the primary is,
X1 0:6
X02 ¼ X2 þ ¼ 1:6 þ ¼ 4X ð2:99Þ
a2 0:25
The no-load voltage is,
E2 ¼ ðV2 cos /2 þ I2 R02 Þ þ jðV2 sin /2 þ I2 X02 Þ ¼ ð400 0:8 þ 10 2Þ þ jð400 0:6 þ 40Þ
¼ 440:5 j 39:5 : V
ð2:100Þ
C b
C2 Y/y/6
b1
C1 a1 a2
B1 A a b
A1 A2 c2 2
B2 c1 c
B a
A1 A2 A a1 a2
b
N B1 B2 b1 b2 n
B
c
C1 C2 c1 c2
C
Fig. 2.25 Connection of Y-y-6
C C2 a1 b
C C2 D/d/6 b2
b B1
A1 A2 b1 a2
B1 A
C1 C1 a
a1 a2 A c1
b
a c2 2 A2
B2 b1
B c2 c
B2
c1 c A1
B
A1 A2 A a1 a2
a
B1 B2 b1 b2
B b
C1 C2 c1 c2
C c
Fig. 2.26 Connection of D-d-6

C
C2 D/z/6
B1
c c4 a4
C1 a
c3 c2 a3
A
A2 c1 a2
b1 a1
B2 b
A1 b3 b2
B
b3
a4 c2
b4
a3 c1 a2 b4
a a1 b
b1
b2
c4
c3 c
a
A1 A2 a1 a2 a3 a4
A
B1 B2 b1 b2 b3 b4
n
B b
C1 C2 c1 c2 c3 c4
C
c
Fig. 2.28 Approximate R02 I2 X 02

equivalent circuit referred to
secondary
+
+
E2 V2 ZL
−
−
(a) E2 U (b)
E2
I 2 X 02 F
I 2 Z 02
Z
X I2 V2 Y I 2 R02 V2 I 2 X 02
φ2 B
(c) Q A
I 2 R02
P I2
E2 E
R C
I 2 X 02 D
O
I2
I 2 R02
φ2
M V2 N
Fig. 2.29 Phasor diagram for different power factors
The voltage regulation can be determined as,
E2 V2 440:5 400
Voltage regulation ¼ 100% ¼ 100% ¼ 10% ð2:101Þ
V2 400
A 110 V/220 V single-phase transformer has the resistance of 0:2 X and reactance
of 0:8 X in the primary winding. The resistance and reactance in the secondary
winding are 0:9 X and 1:8 X, respectively. Calculate the voltage regulation, when
the secondary current is 6 A at a 0.85 power factor leading.
2.13 Efficiency of a Transformer
Efficiency is an important parameter to identify the characteristics of any machine.

The efficiency g, of any machine, can be defined as the ratio of its output to the
input. Mathematically, it can be expressed as,
output input losses losses

g¼ ¼ ¼1 ð2:102Þ
input input input
Let us consider the following:

Pout is the output power, in W,
Pin is the input power, in W,
Plosses is the total losses, in W.
Equation (2.102) can be modified as,
Pout Plosses
g¼ ¼1 ð2:103Þ
Pin Pin
It is worth noting that the efficiency of a transformer is generally higher than

other electrical machines because it has no moving parts.
2.14 Iron and Copper Losses
The iron loss of a transformer is often called a core loss, which is a result of an
alternating flux in the core of the transformer. The iron loss consists of the eddy
current loss and the hysteresis loss. In the transformer, most of the flux is trans-
ferred from the primary coil to the secondary coil through a low reluctance iron
path. A few portions of that alternating flux links with the iron parts of the trans-
former and as a result, an emf is induced in the transformer core. A current will flow
in that parts of the transformer. This current does not contribute to the output of the
transformer but dissipated as heat. This current is known as eddy current and the
power loss due to this current is known as eddy current loss. The eddy current loss
ðPe Þ is directly proportional to the square of the frequency (f) times the maximum
magnetic flux density ðBm Þ and the eddy current loss can be expressed as,
Pe ¼ ke f 2 B2m ð2:104Þ
where
ke is the proportionality constant
Steel is a very good ferromagnetic material that is used for the core of a
transformer. This ferromagnetic material contains a number of domains in the
structure and magnetized easily. These domains are like small magnets located
randomly in the structure. When an mmf is applied to the core, then those domains
change their position. After removing mmf, most of the domains come back to their
original position and the remaining will be as it is. As a result, the substance is
slightly permanently magnetized. An additional mmf is required to change the
position of the remaining domains. Therefore, hysteresis loss is defined as the
additional energy that is required to realign the domains in the ferromagnetic
material. The hysteresis loss ðPh Þ is directly proportional to the frequency (f) and
2.14 Iron and Copper Losses 75
2.6th power of the maximum magnetic flux density ðBm Þ and the expression of
hysteresis loss is,
Ph ¼ kh fB2:6
m ð2:105Þ
where ke is the proportionality constant.

Now that the magnetic flux density is usually constant, Eqs. (2.104) and (2.105)
can be modified as,
Pe / f 2 ð2:106Þ
Ph / f ð2:107Þ
Practically, hysteresis loss depends on the voltage and the eddy current loss
depends on the current. Therefore, the total losses of the transformer depending on
the voltage and the current but not on the power factor. That is why the transformer
rating is always represented in kVA instead of kW.
In the transformer, copper losses occur due to the primary and the secondary
resistances. The full load copper losses can be determined as,
Pculoss ¼ I12 R1 þ I22 R2 ð2:108Þ
Pculoss ¼ I12 R01 ¼ I22 R02 ð2:109Þ
2.15 Condition for Maximum Efficiency
The expression of the output power of a transformer is written as,
Pout ¼ V2 I2 cos /2 ð2:110Þ
The expression of the copper loss is written as,
Pcu ¼ I22 R02 ð2:111Þ
The expression of an iron loss is written as,
Piron ¼ Peddy þ Phys ð2:112Þ
According to Eq. (2.103), the efficiency can be expressed as,
output output
g¼ ¼ ð2:113Þ
input output þ losses
Substituting Eqs. (2.110), (2.111) and (2.112) into Eq. (2.113) yields,
V2 I2 cos /2
g¼ ð2:114Þ
V2 I2 cos /2 þ Piron þ Pcu
V2 cos /2
g¼ I22 R02
ð2:115Þ
V2 cos /2 þ Piron
I2 þ I2
The terminal voltage at the secondary side is considered to be constant in case of

a normal transformer. For a given power factor, the secondary current is varied with
the variation of load. Therefore, the transformer efficiency will be maximum, if the
denominator of Eq. (2.115) is minimum. The denominator of Eq. (2.115) will be
minimum for the following condition.

d Piron I22 R02
V2 cos /2 þ þ ¼0 ð2:116Þ
dI2 I2 I2
Piron
þ R02 ¼ 0 ð2:117Þ
I22
Piron ¼ I22 R02 ð2:118Þ
From Eq. (2.118), it is concluded that the efficiency of a transformer will be

maximum, when the iron loss is equal to the copper loss. From Eq. (2.118), the
expression of secondary current can be written as,
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Piron
I2 ¼ ð2:119Þ
R02
For maximum efficiency, the load current can be expressed as,

rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Piron
I2g ¼ ð2:120Þ
R02

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Piron
I2g ¼ I2 2 ð2:121Þ
I2 R02
Multiplying both sides of Eq. (2.121) by the secondary rated voltage V2 yields,
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Piron
V2 I2g ¼ V2 I2 2 ð2:122Þ
I2 R02
2.15 Condition for Maximum Efficiency 77
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
iron loss
VImax efficiency ¼ VIrated ð2:123Þ
full load copper loss
Example 2.6
A 30 kVA transformer has the iron loss and full load copper loss of 350 W and
650 W, respectively. Determine the full load efficiency, output kVA corresponding
to maximum efficiency, and maximum efficiency. Consider that the power factor of
the load is 0.6 lagging.
Solution
The total value of full load loss is calculated as,
Ptloss ¼ 350 þ 650 ¼ 1000 W ¼ 1 kW ð2:124Þ
The output power at full load is calculated as,
Pout ¼ 30 0:6 ¼ 18 kW ð2:125Þ
The input power at full load is calculated as,
Pin ¼ 18 þ 1 ¼ 19 kW ð2:126Þ
The efficiency at full load is calculated as,
18
g¼ 100 ¼ 94:74% ð2:127Þ
19
The output kVA corresponding to maximum efficiency is calculated as,

rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Iron loss 350
¼ kVArated ¼ 30 ¼ 22 kVA ð2:128Þ
Cu loss at full load 650
The output power is calculated as,
Po1 ¼ 22 0:6 ¼ 13:2 kW ð2:129Þ
For maximum efficiency, iron loss is equal to copper loss.

The total value of the loss is calculated as,
Ptloss1 ¼ 2 350 ¼ 700 W ð2:130Þ
The value of the input power is calculated as,

Pin1 ¼ 13:2 þ 0:7 ¼ 13:9 kW ð2:131Þ
The efficiency is calculated as,
13:2
g¼ 100 ¼ 94:96% ð2:132Þ
13:9
A 200 kVA transformer is having an iron loss of 1.5 kW and a copper loss of 5 kW
at full load condition. Find the kVA rating at which the efficiency is maximum.
Also, find the efficiency at a unity power factor.
2.16 Transformer Tests
Equivalent circuit parameters are very important to characterize the performance of

the transformer. The parameters of a transformer equivalent circuit can be deter-
mined by the open circuit and the short circuit tests.
2.16.1 Open Circuit Test
The main objectives of open circuit tests are to determine the no-load current and
iron loss. The components of the no-load current are used to determine the no-load
circuit resistance and reactance.
In an open circuit test, the secondary side is considered to be an open circuit, and
the primary coil is connected to the source as shown in Fig. 2.30a, where all
measuring instruments are connected on the primary side. A specific alternating
voltage is applied to the primary winding. Then the wattmeter will measure the iron
loss and small amount of copper loss. The ammeter and voltmeter will measure the
no-load current and the voltage, respectively. Since the no-load current is very
(a) (b)
I0
A
N1 N2
Iw
+ +
Im
V1 V V1 R0 X0
− −
Fig. 2.30 Connection diagrams for open circuit test and no-load circuit
2.16 Transformer Tests 79
small, the copper losses can be neglected. Then the wattmeter reading can be
expressed as,
P0 ¼ V1 I0 cos /0 ð2:132Þ
From Eq. (2.132), the no-load power factor can be determined as,
P0
cos /0 ¼ ð2:133Þ
V1 I0
The working and magnetizing components of the current can be determined as,
Iw ¼ I0 cos /0 ð2:134Þ
Im ¼ I0 sin /0 ð2:135Þ
Then the no-load circuit resistance and reactance can be determined as,
V1
R0 ¼ ð2:136Þ
Iw
V1
X0 ¼ ð2:137Þ
Im
Example 2.7
A 200 V/400 V, 50 Hz single-phase transformer has the no-load test data of 200 V,
0.6 A, 80 W. Calculate the no-load circuit resistance and reactance.
Solution
The power factor can be determined as,
P0 80
cos /0 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:67 ð2:138Þ
V1 I0 200 0:6
sin /0 ¼ 0:74 ð2:139Þ
The values of the working and magnetizing components of the no-load current
are,
Iw ¼ I0 cos /0 ¼ 0:6 0:67 ¼ 0:4 A ð2:140Þ
Im ¼ I0 sin /0 ¼ 0:6 0:74 ¼ 0:44 A ð2:141Þ
The no-load circuit parameters can be determined as,

V1 200
R0 ¼ ¼ ¼ 500 X ð2:142Þ
Iw 0:4
V1 200
X0 ¼ ¼ ¼ 454:5 X ð2:143Þ
Im 0:44
2.16.2 Short Circuit Test
The main objectives of short circuit tests are to determine the equivalent resistance,
reactance, impedance, and full load copper loss. In this test, the supply voltage and
the measuring instruments (e.g., wattmeter, ammeter) are connected to the primary
side, and the secondary winding is shorted out by wire or connected with an
ammeter as shown in Fig. 2.31.
The primary voltage is adjusted until the current in the short-circuited winding is
equal to the rated primary current. Under this condition, the wattmeter will measure
the full load copper loss and it can be written as,
Psc ¼ Isc Vsc cos /sc ð2:144Þ
From Eq. (2.144), the short circuit power factor can be calculated as,
Psc
cos /sc ¼ ð2:145Þ
Isc Vsc
The equivalent impedance can be calculated as,
Vsc
Z01 ¼ Zeq ¼ ð2:146Þ
Isc
In addition, the equivalent resistance and reactance can be calculated as,
A
N1 N2
+ +
V I sc
V1 Vsc
− −
Fig. 2.31 Connection diagram for short circuit test

2.16 Transformer Tests 81
R01 ¼ Z01 cos /sc ð2:147Þ
X01 ¼ Z01 sin /sc ð2:148Þ
Example 2.8
A 25 kVA, 2200 V/220 V, 50 Hz single-phase transformer’s low voltage side is
short-circuited and the test data recorded from the high voltage side are P ¼ 150 W,
I1 ¼ 5 A, and V1 ¼ 40 V. Determine the equivalent resistance, reactance, and
impedance referred to primary, equivalent resistance, reactance, and impedance
referred to secondary, and voltage regulation at unity power factor.
Solution
The parameters referred to primary are,
V1 40
Z01 ¼ ¼ ¼ 8X ð2:149Þ
I1 5
P 150
R01 ¼ ¼ ¼ 6X ð2:150Þ
I12 25

61
/ ¼ cos ¼ 41:4 ð2:151Þ
8
X01 ¼ Z01 sin / ¼ 8 sin 41:4 ¼ 5:2 X ð2:152Þ
The turns ratio is calculated as,
V1 2200
a¼ ¼ ¼ 10 ð2:153Þ
V2 220
The parameters referred to secondary are calculated as,
Z01 8
Z02 ¼ 2
¼ ¼ 0:08 X ð2:154Þ
a 100
R01 6
R02 ¼ 2
¼ ¼ 0:06 X ð2:155Þ
a 100
X01 5:2
X02 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:052 X ð2:156Þ
a2 100
The secondary side current is calculated as,
25000
I2 ¼ ¼ 113:6 A ð2:157Þ
220
The secondary induced voltage is calculated as,
E2 ¼ V2 þ I2 Z02 ¼ 220 þ 113:6 0:08 ¼ 229 V ð2:158Þ
The voltage regulation is calculated as,
E2 V2 229 220
VR ¼ ¼ ¼ 4% ð2:159Þ
V2 220
The no-load test data of a 220 V/2200 V, 50 Hz single-phase transformer are
220 V, 0.4 A, 75 W. Calculate the no-load circuit resistance and reactance.
A 30 kVA, 2200 V/220 V, 50 Hz single-phase transformer’s low voltage side is
short-circuited by a thick wire. The test data recorded from the high voltage side are
P ¼ 400 W, I1 ¼ 8:5 A, and V1 ¼ 65 V. Find the equivalent resistance, reactance,
and impedance referred to a primary and equivalent resistance, reactance, and
impedance referred to secondary, and voltage regulation at a 0.6 lagging power
factor.
2.17 Autotransformer
A small rating transformer with a variable voltage output is usually used in the
academic laboratory as well as in testing laboratories. This type of small rating
transformer with variable output is known as an autotransformer. An autotrans-
former has one continuous winding that is common to both the primary and the
secondary. Therefore, in an autotransformer, the primary and secondary windings
are connected electrically. The advantages of an autotransformer over a two-winding
transformer include lower initial investment, lower leakage reactance, lower losses
compared to the conventional transformer, and lower excitation current.
An autotransformer with primary and secondary windings is shown in Fig. 2.32.
In this connection, the suffix c indicates the common winding and the suffix
s indicates the series winding. From Fig. 2.32, the following equations can be
written as,
Ns Ic
¼ ¼a ð2:160Þ
Nc Is
Vs Ns
¼ ¼a ð2:161Þ
Vc Nc
2.17 Autotransformer 83
Fig. 2.32 Connection

diagram for an
autotransformer Is
+ Ns IL
V1
− +
Nc
VL
Ic
−
The total voltage in the primary side is,

Vs
V1 ¼ Vs þ Vc ¼ Vc 1 þ ð2:162Þ
Vc
V1
¼ ð 1 þ aÞ ð2:163Þ
Vc
VL 1
¼ ð2:164Þ
V1 1 þ a
where the voltage at the load is equal to the voltage at the common terminals, i.e.,
VL ¼ Vc .
The expression of the load current can be written as,
IL ¼ Is þ Ic ¼ aIs þ Is ð2:165Þ
IL ¼ ð1 þ aÞIs ð2:166Þ
IL
¼ ð1 þ aÞ ð2:167Þ
Is
Example 2.9
Figure 2.33 shows a single-phase 120 kVA, 2200 V/220 V, 50 Hz transformer
which is connected as an autotransformer. The voltages of the upper and lower parts
of the coil are 220 V and 2200 V, respectively. Calculate the kVA rating of the
autotransformer.
Fig. 2.33 An autotransformer for p

Example 2.9
I pq +
I1
2420 V
q
+
-
2200 V
I qr
- r
Solution
The current ratings of the respective windings are,
120; 000
Ipq ¼ ¼ 545:5 A ð2:168Þ
220
120; 000
Iqr ¼ ¼ 54:5 A ð2:169Þ
2200
The current in the primary side is calculated as,
I1 ¼ 545:5 þ 54:5 ¼ 600 A ð2:170Þ
The voltage across the secondary side is calculated as,
V2 ¼ 2200 þ 220 ¼ 2420 V ð2:171Þ
Therefore, the kVA ratings of an autotransformer are calculated as,
600 2200
kVA1 ¼ ¼ 1320 kVA ð2:172Þ
1000
545:5 2420
kVA2 ¼ ¼ 1320 kVA ð2:173Þ
1000
A single-phase 100 kVA, 1100 V/220 V, 50 Hz transformer is connected as an
autotransformer as shown in Fig. 2.34. The voltages of the upper and lower parts of
the coil are 220 V and 1100 V, respectively. Determine the kVA rating of the
autotransformer.
2.18 Parallel Operation of a Single-Phase Transformer 85
Fig. 2.34 An p
autotransformer for Practice
Problem 2.9 I pq
+
I1
q 1320 V
+
1100 V -
I qr
- r
2.18 Parallel Operation of a Single-Phase Transformer
Nowadays, the demand of load is increasing with the increase in population and
industrial sector. Sometimes, it is difficult to meet the excess demand for power by
the existing single unit transformer. Therefore, an additional transformer is required
to connect in parallel with the existing one. The following points should be con-
sidered for making parallel connections of transformers:
• The terminal voltage of both transformers must be the same.
• Polarity must be the same for both transformers.
• For both transformers, the percentage of impedances should be equal in
magnitude.
• The ratio of R to X must be the same for both transformers.
• Phase sequences and phase shifts must be the same (for a three-phase
transformer).
2.19 Three-Phase Transformer Connections
The primary and secondary windings of the transformer may be connected in either
wye (Y) or delta ðDÞ. Three-phase transformer connections are classified into four
possible types, namely Y-Y (wye–wye),Y-D (wye-delta), D-Y (delta-wye), and D-D
(delta-delta).
2.19.1 Wye-Wye Connection
Figure 2.35 shows the Y-Y connection diagram. This type of connection of a
three-phase transformer is rarely used for a large amount of power transmission.
B Primary
A B C N
A
b
a
c a Secondary b c n
Fig. 2.35 Y–Y connection diagram
Neutral point is necessary for both primary and secondary sides in some cases. In
balanced loads, this type of connection works satisfactorily and provides neutral to
each side for grounding. At the primary side, the phase voltage can be written as,
VL1
VP1 ¼ pffiffiffi ð2:174Þ
3
The secondary phase voltage can be written as,
VL2
VP2 ¼ pffiffiffi ð2:175Þ
3
The ratio of the primary line voltage to the secondary line voltage of this
connection is,
VL1
a¼ ð2:176Þ
VL2
pffiffiffi
3 VP1 VP1
a ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ ð2:177Þ
3 VP2 VP2
2.19.2 Wye-Delta Connection
The wye-delta connection is mainly used at the substation where the voltage is
stepped down. In this connection, the current in the secondary coil is 57.7% of the
load current. At the primary side of this connection, a copper wire is used to ground
the neutral point. Figure 2.36 shows the connection diagram of the wye-delta
transformer. In this connection, the expression of the primary line voltage is,
2.19 Three-Phase Transformer Connections 87
B A B C N
Primary
A
C
b
a c
Secondary a c
b
Fig. 2.36 Wye-delta connection diagram
pffiffiffi
VL1 ¼ 3 VP1 ð2:178Þ
At the secondary side, the line voltage is,
VL2 ¼ VP2 ð2:179Þ
The ratio of primary phase voltage to secondary phase voltage is,
VP1
a¼ ð2:180Þ
VP2
The ratio of primary line voltage to secondary line voltage is,

pffiffiffi
VL1 3 VP1 pffiffiffi
¼ ¼ 3a ð2:181Þ
VL2 VP2
The primary phase current is,
IP1 ¼ IL1 ð2:182Þ
In this case, the turns ratio is,
IP2
a¼ ð2:183Þ
IP1
The expression of the secondary phase current is,
IP2 ¼ aIP1 ð2:184Þ

The secondary line current is,

IL2 ¼ 3 IP2 ¼ 3 aIP1 ð2:185Þ
2.19.3 Delta-Wye Connection
The delta-wye connection is generally used at the power generating station to step
up the voltage. Figure 2.37 shows the connection diagram of a delta-wye trans-
former. In this connection, the expression of the primary line voltage is,
VL1 ¼ VP1 ð2:186Þ
The line voltage at the secondary side is,

pffiffiffi
VL2 ¼ 3 VP2 ð2:187Þ
The ratio of primary line voltage to secondary line voltage is,
VL1 VP1 a
¼ pffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffi ð2:188Þ
VL2 3 VP2 3
The phase current at the primary side is,
1
IP1 ¼ pffiffiffi IL1 ð2:189Þ
3
B
A B C
A
C
Primary
b
a
c
Secondary a b c
n
Fig. 2.37 Delta-wye connection diagram

In this connection, the turns ratio is expressed as,
IP2
a¼ ð2:190Þ
IP1
In this case, the secondary phase current can be written as,
IP2 ¼ aIP1 ð2:191Þ
The secondary line current is expressed as,
IL2 ¼ IP2 ¼ aIP1 ð2:192Þ
2.19.4 Delta-Delta Connection
The delta-delta connection is generally used for both high voltage and low voltage
rating transformers where insulation is not an important issue. The connection
diagram for delta-delta transformer is shown in Fig. 2.38.
In this case, the primary line voltage can be written as,
VL1 ¼ VP1 ð2:193Þ
The secondary line voltage is expressed as,
VL2 ¼ VP2 ð2:194Þ
B
A B C
A
C
Primary
a c
Secondary
a b c
Fig. 2.38 Delta-delta connection diagram

The ratio of line-to-line voltage of this connection is,
VL1 VP1
¼ ¼a ð2:195Þ
VL2 VP2
The secondary line current is expressed as,

pffiffiffi
IL2 ¼ 3 IP2 ð2:196Þ
The output capacity in delta-delta connection can be expressed as,

pffiffiffi
P0DD ¼ 3 VL2 IL2 ð2:197Þ

P0DD ¼ 3 VL2 3 IP2 ¼ 3VL2 IP2 ð2:198Þ
The remaining two transformers are able to supply three-phase power to the load
terminal if one of the transformers is removed from the connection. This type of
three-phase power supply by two transformers is known as open delta or V–V
connection. This open delta connection is able to supply three-phase power at a
reduced rate of 57.7%. The connection diagram for an open delta connection is
shown in Fig. 2.39.
In the V–V connection, the secondary line current is,
IL2 ¼ IP2 ð2:199Þ
The output capacity in V–V connection is expressed as,

pffiffiffi
P0VV ¼ 3 VL2 IP2 ð2:200Þ
Fig. 2.39 Open delta or V–V B

connection diagram A B C
A
C
Primary
a c
Secondary
a b c
The ratio of delta-delta output capacity to the V–V output capacity is,
pffiffiffi
P0VV 3 VL2 IP2
¼ ¼ 0:577 ð2:201Þ
P0DD 3VL2 IP2
Example 2.10
A three-phase transformer is connected to an 11 kV supply and draws 6 A current.
Determine line voltage at the secondary side and the line current in the secondary
coil. Consider the turns ratio of the transformer is 11. Consider delta-wye and
wye-delta connections.
Solution
Delta-wye connection:
The phase voltage at the primary side is,
VP1 ¼ VL1 ¼ 11 kV ð2:202Þ
The phase voltage at the secondary side is calculated as,
VP1 11000
VP2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 1000 V ð2:203Þ
a 11
The line voltage at the secondary is determined as,

VL2 ¼ 3 VP2 ¼ 3 1000 ¼ 1732 V ð2:204Þ
The phase current in the primary is calculated as,
IL1 11
IP1 ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 6:35 A ð2:205Þ
3 3
The line current in the secondary is calculated as,
IL2 ¼ IP2 ¼ aIP1 ¼ 11 6:35 ¼ 69:85 A ð2:206Þ
Wye-delta connection:
The line voltage at the primary side is,
VL1 ¼ 11 kV ð2:207Þ
The phase voltage at the primary side is calculated as,
VL1 11000
VP1 ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 6350:85 V ð2:208Þ
3 3
The phase voltage at the secondary side is determined as,
VP1 6350:85
VP2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 577:35 V ð2:209Þ
a 11
The line voltage at the secondary is,
VL2 ¼ VP2 ¼ 577:35 V ð2:210Þ
The phase current in the secondary is calculated as,
IP2 ¼ aIP1 ¼ 11 6 ¼ 66 A ð2:211Þ
The line current in the secondary is calculated as,

IL2 ¼ 3 IP2 ¼ 3 66 ¼ 114:32 A ð2:212Þ

A three-phase transformer is connected to the 33 kV supply and draws 15 A
current. Calculate the line voltage at the secondary side and the line current in the
secondary winding. Consider the turns ratio of the transformer is 8 and wye-delta
connection.
2.20 Instrument Transformers
The magnitude of voltage and the current is normally high in the power system
networks. To reduce the magnitude of voltage and current, instrument transformers
are used. There are two types of instrument transformers, a current transformer
(CT) and potential transformer (PT). If a power system carries an alternating current
greater than 100 A, then it is difficult to connect measuring instruments like low
range ammeter, wattmeter, energy meter, and relay.
The current transformer is then connected in series with the line to step down the
high magnitude of the current to a rated value of about 5 A for the ammeter and the
current coil of the wattmeter. The diagram of a current transformer is shown in
Fig. 2.40. If the system voltage exceeds 500 V, then it is difficult to connect
Fig. 2.40 Connection I To load

diagram of the current
transformer
A
2.20 Instrument Transformers 93
Fig. 2.41 Connection

diagram of the potential
transformer
measuring instruments directly to the high voltage terminals. The potential trans-
former is then used to step down to a suitable value of the voltage at the secondary
for supplying to the voltmeter and the voltage coil of the wattmeter. The secondary
of the instrument transformer is normally grounded for safety. The connection
diagram of a potential transformer is shown in Fig. 2.41.
2.21 Transformer Oil Testing
Power transformer and distribution transformer are identified as the most important
and critical component in the power utility companies in terms of price and relia-
bility of service. Hydrotreated light naphthenic distillate chemical oil in different
names such as “TRANSOL, POWER OIL, SAVITHA, APAR.” is used as an
insulating for inter-winding of a three-phase transformer. Due to age, transformer
oil needs to be tested according to different standards such as IEEE Std 62-1995,
IEC 60156, ASTM D1816, etc. The percentage saturation of water in oil is shown
in Table 2.1. There are several apparatus available in the market to test the
dielectric strength of insulating oils. This equipment automatically tests the
dielectric strength of the insulating oil. In addition to that, it has a high precision oil
breakdown voltage test (0–75 kV ± 1 kV) with a very accurate measurement
principle performed directly on the HV unit as well as monitor the voltage slew (0.5
kV–10 kV/s) or real breakdown monitoring (RBM) as shown in Fig. 2.42. The
equipment provides excellent short switch-off time (<10 µs) after a breakdown
counteracts the contamination of the oil sample, thus ensuring the reliable repro-
ducibility of the measurement results. Most of the available equipment complies
with all types of standards, and its internal temperature recording of the oil sample
varies from 0 to 99 °C.
Table 2.1 Representation of Insulation condition Saturation of water in oil (%)

insulation levels
Dry insulation 0–5
Moderate-wet 6–20
Wet insulation 21–30
Extremely wet insulation >30
Fig. 2.42 A sample of oil

tester equipment
Cover
Place for oil

sample
Control knobs
Result output
display
2.22 Standard Symbols and Reactance Diagram
Standard symbols are used to represent the components of a typical power system
as shown in Fig. 2.43. Generator, transformer, transmission line, and load are the
basic components of a power system. These basic components or symbols are used
to form the one-line or single-line diagram of a typical power system. A single-line
diagram of a typical power system is shown in Fig. 2.44. This typical power system
consists of a synchronous machine, load, two transformers, four buses, and a
transmission line. Circuit breakers are generally used here to protect the power
system components. Initially, a single-line diagram is considered to derive the
impedance and reactance diagrams. Additional information such as ratings of
synchronous machines and transformers can be obtained from the single-line dia-
gram. Power consumed or delivered in the system and impedances of the com-
ponents can be calculated from the single-line diagram. The details of a single-line
diagram along with the simulation of a power system will be discussed in the other
chapters. The following points are considered to derive the impedance diagram:
• The generator is represented by a voltage source in series with reactance,
• The motor is represented by a voltage source in series with resistance and
reactance,
• The transformer is represented by resistance and reactance,
• The load is represented by resistance and reactance,
• The transmission line is represented by resistance and reactance.
The impedance diagram is shown in Fig. 2.45. The reactance diagram is normally
drawn by neglecting the resistances and line capacitance from the impedance dia-
gram shown in Fig. 2.46.
2.22 Standard Symbols and Reactance Diagram 95
G M
Motor or Generator
Transformer
Bus Horizontal
Vertical
Load
Air circuit breaker
Oil circuit breaker
Line
Wye connection
Delta connection
Fig. 2.43 Standard symbols of a power system
Bus 1 Bus 2 Bus 3 Bus 4

Line
Load
G T1 T2
Fig. 2.44 Single-line diagram of a typical power system

Z line
ZT 1 ZT 2
EG
Z load
XG
Fig. 2.45 Impedance diagram
X line
XT 2
X T1
EG
X load
XG
Fig. 2.46 Reactance diagram
2.23 Per Unit System
In a power system, per unit values of voltage, current, power, and impedance are
used for analyzing and interpreting data. These per unit values are normalized on a
selected base voltage in kV and base apparent power in MVA. This normalization is
known as the per unit analysis. There are many advantages to use the per unit
values in a power system and these advantages are as follows:
• It gives a clear idea about voltage, current, and impedance.
• The per unit values of voltage, current, and impedance of a transformer is the
same, whether referred to as primary or secondary.
• The per unit values are ideal for computer simulation and calculation.
• The per unit impedance of any electrical equipment lies within the narrow
numerical range when the equipment ratings are used as base values.
• Manufacturers normally include the necessary information in the nameplate as
per unit values.
2.23 Per Unit System 97
The per unit value is defined as the ratio of the actual value of the quantity to the
base value of the same quantity and it can be expressed as,
actual value
Per unit value ¼ ð2:213Þ
base value
The base value is arbitrarily chosen within the range of voltage and apparent
power. The base value is always a real number and per unit value is dimensionless.
2.23.1 Single-Phase System
Consider the base voltage and base power of a single-phase system Vb (1/) and Sb
(1/), respectively. The expression of base current (Ib) is expressed as [3],
Sbð1/Þ
Ib ¼ ð2:214Þ
VbðLNÞ
The expression of base impedance (Zb) is expressed as,
VbðLNÞ
Zb ¼ ð2:215Þ
Ib
Substituting Eq. (2.214) into the Eq. (2.215) yields,
VbðLNÞ
Zb ¼ Sbð1/Þ
ð2:216Þ
VbðLNÞ
2
VbðLNÞ
Zb ¼ ð2:217Þ
Sbð1/Þ
2.23.2 Three-Phase System
In a three-phase system, the base current can be calculated as,
Sbð3/Þ
Ib ¼ pffiffiffi ð2:218Þ
3VbðLLÞ
The base impedance can be expressed as,

pffiffi
VbðLLÞ
Zb ¼ 3
ð2:219Þ
Ib
pffiffi
VbðLLÞ
Zb ¼ 3
ð2:220Þ
pffiffiffibð3/Þ
S
3 VbðLLÞ
2
VbðLLÞ
Zb ¼ ð2:221Þ
Sbð3/Þ
According to Ohm’s law, the expression of impedance is,
V
Z¼ ð2:222Þ
I
V V
Z V
¼ VIb ¼ Ibb ð2:223Þ
Zb I I
b
Vpu
Zpu ¼ ð2:224Þ
Ipu
where the put unit voltage and current are expressed as,
V
Vpu ¼ ð2:225Þ
Vb
I
Ipu ¼ ð2:226Þ
Ib
In an alternative way, the expression of per unit impedance can be expressed as,
Z
Zpu ¼ ð2:227Þ
Zb
Z
Zpu ¼ V 2 ð2:228Þ
b
Sb
Sb
Zpu ¼ Z ð2:229Þ
Vb2
According to Eq. (2.229), the per unit impedance for new and old systems can
be expressed as,
Sbo
Zpuo ¼ Z 2
ð2:230Þ
Vbo
Sbn
Zpun ¼ Z 2
ð2:231Þ
Vbn

Sbn
Zpun Z Vbn2
¼ ð2:232Þ
Zpuo Z VSbo2
bo

Zpun Sbn Vbo 2
¼ ð2:233Þ
Zpuo Sbo Vbn

Sbn Vbo 2
Zpun ¼ Zpuo ð2:234Þ
Sbo Vbn
where
Zpun is the per unit impedance of the new system,
Zpuo is the per unit impedance of the old system,
Vbn is the base voltage of the new system,
Sbn is the base value of the apparent power of the new system,
Vbo is the base voltage of the old system,
Sbo is the base value of the apparent power of the old system.
Example 2.11
An impedance of 4 þ j8 X is connected in series with a voltage source of 220 V,
50 Hz source. Calculate the per unit values of resistance, reactance, and impedance
by considering the base values of 100 V and 100 VA.
Solution
The base value of the current is calculated as,
100
Ib ¼ ¼ 1A ð2:235Þ
100
The base value of the impedance is calculated as,
Vb 100
Zb ¼ ¼ ¼ 100 X ð2:236Þ
Ib 1
In an alternative way, the base impedance can be calculated as,
Vb2 1002
Zb ¼ ¼ ¼ 100 X ð2:237Þ
Sb 100
Per unit value of the resistance is calculated as,
R 4
Rpu ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:04 ð2:238Þ
Zb 100
Per unit value of the inductance is calculated as,
XL 8
XLpu ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:08 ð2:239Þ
Zb 100
Per unit impedance is calculated as,
Zpu ¼ Rpu þ jXLpu ¼ 0:04 þ j0:08 ¼ 0:089 j63:43 : ð2:240Þ

The reactance referred to the primary side of a 40 MVA, 11 kV/66 kV transformer
is 0.45 X. Calculate the per unit reactance referred to as the primary and the
secondary sides. Consider the base values as 100 kV and 100 MVA.
Example 2.12
A single-line diagram of a typical power system is shown in Fig. 2.47. The ratings
of the components are mentioned below.
Transformer T1 100 MVA, 132 kV/66 kV, X = 0.02 pu,
Transformer T2 40 MVA, 66 kV/11 kV, X = 0.01 pu,
Load 50 MW, 10 Mvar
Line X = 3 X.
Three-phase load absorbs power at a lagging power factor of 0.85 from the
transmission line. Draw a reactance diagram with per unit values and find the grid
to bus voltage.
Fig. 2.47 Single-line

diagram for Example 2.12
Vgb Line
Load
T1 T2
Solution
Let the base power and base voltage are,
Sb ¼ 100 MVA ð2:241Þ
Vb ¼ 100 kV ð2:242Þ
The turns ratio for the first transformer is calculated as,
V1 132
a1 ¼ ¼ ¼2 ð2:243Þ
V2 66
The base voltage of the line is calculated as,
Vb 100
Vbline ¼ Vb2 ¼ Vb3 ¼ ¼ ¼ 50 kV ð2:244Þ
a 2
The base impedance of the line is calculated as,

2
Vbline 502
Zbline ¼ ¼ ¼ 25 X ð2:245Þ
Sb 100
The per unit reactance of the line is calculated as,
3
Xpuline ¼ ¼ 0:12 ð2:246Þ
25
For the first (grid) transformer, the per unit reactance is calculated as,

132 2 100
XpuT1 ¼ 0:02 ¼ 0:034 ð2:247Þ
100 100
The base voltage at the load side is calculated as,
Vb3 11
Vbload ¼ Vb4 ¼ ¼ 50 ¼ 8:33 kV ð2:248Þ
a2 66
For the second (load) transformer, the per unit reactance is,
2
11 100
XpuT2 ¼ 0:01 ¼ 0:04 ð2:249Þ
8:33 40
The base current at the load can be calculated as,

Sb 100 106
Ib ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 693:09 A ð2:250Þ
3 Vb 3 8:33 103
The actual current in the load is calculated as,
50 106
IL ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 3087:43 A ð2:251Þ
3 11 103 0:6
Per unit value of the load current is,
693:09
ILpu ¼ ¼ 0:22 ð2:252Þ
3087:43
Per unit value of the voltage at the load terminal (bus 4) is,
8:33
V4 ¼ VL ¼ ¼ 0:083 pu ð2:253Þ
100
The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.48 and the grid to bus voltage can be
calculated as,

Vgb ¼ 0:22 jcos 1ð0:85Þ : jð0:03 þ 0:04 þ 0:12Þ þ 0:083 ¼ 0:07 j30:22 : pu
ð2:254Þ
The actual value of the grid to the bus voltage is calculated as
Vgb ¼ 0:07 100 ¼ 7 kV ð2:255Þ

The primary side reactance of a 100 kVA, 600 V/300 V transformer is 5 X.
Calculate the per unit value of reactance referred to as the primary side, and to the
secondary side. Consider the base quantities are 100 kVA and 100 V.
Fig. 2.48 Reactance diagram

X T 1 = 0.03 X line = 0.12
for Example 2.12
X T 2 = 0.04 I Lpu
+ +
Vgb VL
− −
References 103
References
1. Wildi T (2006) Electrical machines, drives and power systems, 6th edn. Pearson Education
International, Upper Saddle River
2. Salam MA (2012) Fundamentals of electrical machines, 2nd edn. International Ltd., Alpha
Science
3. Chapman SJ (2002) Electric machinery and power system fundamentals. McGraw-Hill Higher
Education, New York
4. Fitzgerald AE, Kingsley C Jr, Umans SD (2002) Electric machinery, 6th edn. McGraw-Hill
Higher Education, New York
Exercise Problems
2:1 A single-phase transformer is having the primary voltage of 240 V. The

numbers of turns at the primary and secondary coils are 250 and 50,
respectively. Determine the secondary voltage.
2:2 A single-phase transformer is having a secondary voltage of 100 V. The
number of turns at the primary and secondary windings is 500 and 50,
respectively. Calculate the primary voltage.
2:3 The 100 A current flows in the primary coil of a single-phase transformer.
Calculate the secondary current with a turns ratio of 0.05.
2:4 The number of turns at the primary and secondary windings of a single-phase
transformer is 500 and 100, respectively. Find the primary current if the
secondary current is 10 A.
2:5 The ratio of the primary current to the secondary current of a single-phase
transformer is 1:10. Find the voltage ratio. Also, calculate the secondary
voltage if the primary voltage is found to 1000 V.
2:6 A single-phase transformer has a turns ratio of 1:4. The secondary coil has
5000 turns, and the voltage is found to be 60 V. Determine the voltage ratio,
primary voltage, and a number of turns.
2:7 A single-phase transformer has a voltage ratio of 5:1. The voltage and
number of turns at the primary coil are found to be 1100 V and 500,
respectively. Calculate the voltage and a secondary number of turns at the
secondary coil.
2:8 A single-phase transformer is connected to the 120 V source and draws 4 A
current. Calculate the current in the secondary coil when the transformer
steps up the voltage to 500 V.
2:9 The number of turns at the primary and secondary coils of a single-phase
transformer is found to be 480 and 60, respectively. The transformer draws a
current of 0.6 A when connected to 120 V supply. Determine the current and
the voltage at the secondary coil.
2:10 The turns ratio of a 5 kVA single-phase transformer is found to be 2. The
transformer is connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. If the secondary current
of a transformer is 6 A, find the primary current and secondary voltage.
2:11 The secondary number of turns of a 30 kVA, 4400 V/440 V single-phase

transformer is found to be 100. Find the number of primary turns, full load
primary and secondary currents.
2:12 A single-phase transformer of 5 kVA, 1100 V/230 V, 50 Hz is installed near
the domestic area of a country. Find the turns ratio, primary and secondary
full load currents.
2:13 The number of turns of the primary winding of a single-phase 50 Hz
transformer is found to be 50. Find the value of the core flux, if the induced
voltage at this winding is 220 V.
2:14 The number of primary turns of a 60 Hz single-phase transformer is found to
be 50. Calculate the induced voltage in this winding, if the value of the core
flux is 0.05 Wb.
2:15 A 3300 V/330 V, 50 Hz step-down single-phase transformer has a maxi-
mum flux of 0.45 Wb. Calculate the number of primary and secondary turns.
2:16 A 5 kVA, 2200 V/220 V, 50 Hz single-phase step-down transformer has the
cross-sectional area is 25 cm2, and a maximum flux density is 4 Wb/m2.
Calculate the primary and secondary turns.
2:17 The number of turns at the primary and secondary of an ideal single-phase
transformer is found to be 500 and 250, respectively. The primary of the
transformer is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz source and the secondary coil
supplies a current of 5 A to the load. Find the turns ratio, current in the
primary, and maximum flux in the core.
2:18 A 4 kVA, 1100 V/230 V, 50 Hz single-phase transformer has the primary
number of turns of 500. The cross-sectional area of the transformer core is
85 cm2 . Find the turns ratio, number of turns in the secondary, and maximum
flux density in the core.
2:19 A single-phase transformer has the primary and secondary turns of 50 and
500, respectively. The primary winding is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz
supply. Calculate the flux density in the core if the cross-sectional area is
250 cm2 and induced voltage at the secondary winding.
2:20 The primary coil number of turns of a single-phase 2200 V/220 V, 50 Hz
transformer is found to be 1000. Find the area of the core if the maximum
flux density of the core is 1.5 Wb/m2.
2:21 The maximum flux of a single-phase 1100 V/220 V, 50 Hz transformer is
found to be 5 mWb. The number of turns and the voltage at the primary
winding is found to be 900 and 1100 V, respectively. Determine the fre-
quency of the supply system.
2:22 A 6 kVA, 2200 V/220 V, 50 Hz single-phase transformer has the maximum
flux density of 0.6 Wb/m2 and the induced voltage per turn of the trans-
former is 10 V. Calculate the primary number of turns, secondary number of
turns, and cross-sectional area of the core.
2:23 A single-phase transformer is having the primary voltage per turn is 20 V.
Find the magnetic flux density if the cross-sectional area of the core is
0.05 m2.
2:24 A 1100 V/230 V single-phase transformer has a no-load primary current of

0.5 A and absorbs the power of 350 W from the circuit. Calculate the iron
loss and magnetizing components of the no-load current.
2:25 A 3300 V/230 V single-phase transformer draws a no-load current of 0.5 A
at a power factor of 0.4 in an open circuit test. Determine the working and
magnetizing components of the no-load current.
2:26 A single-phase transformer draws a no-load current of 1.4 A from the 120 V
source and absorbs the power of 80 W. The primary winding resistance and
leakage reactance are found to be 0:25 X and 1:2 X, respectively. Find the
no-load circuit resistance and reactance.
2:27 Under the no-load condition, a single-phase transformer is connected to a
240 V, 50 Hz supply and draws a current of 0.3 A at a 0.5 power factor. The
number of turns on the primary winding is found to be 600. Calculate the
maximum value of the flux in the core, magnetizing and working compo-
nents of the no-load current, and iron loss.
2:28 The no-load current of a 440 V/110 V single-phase transformer is measured
0.8 A and absorbs the power of 255 W. Calculate the working and mag-
netizing components of the no-load current, copper loss in the primary
winding if the primary winding resistance is 1:1 X, and core loss.
2:29 A single-phase 1000 V/200 V transformer draws a no-load current of 0.7 A
at 0.4 power factor lagging and the secondary winding supplies a current of
85 A at 0.85 power factor lagging. Find the primary current.
2:30 A single-phase 600 V/200 V transformer supplies a no-load current of 45 A
at 0.6 power factor lagging to the load, and the transformer draws a no-load
current of 3 A at 0.4 power factor lagging. Calculate the primary current and
its power factor.
2:31 The primary winding resistance and reactance of a 300 kVA, 2200 V/220 V
single-phase transformer are 2 Ω and 9 Ω, respectively. The secondary
winding resistance and reactance are found to be 0.02 Ω and 0.1 Ω,
respectively. Determine the equivalent impedance referred to as the primary
and the secondary.
2:32 The primary winding resistance and reactance of a 200 kVA, 3300 V/220 V
single-phase transformer are found to be 5 Ω and 12 Ω, respectively. The
same parameters in the secondary winding are found to 0.02 Ω and 0.05 Ω,
respectively. Find the equivalent impedance referred to as the primary and
the secondary. Also, determine the full load copper loss.
2:33 A 1100 V/400 V single-phase transformer having the resistance of 5 X and
the reactance of 9 X in the primary winding. The secondary winding resis-
tance and reactance are found to be 0:6 X and 1:1 X, respectively. Find the
voltage regulation when the secondary delivers a current of 5 A at a 0.9
lagging power factor.
2:34 A 2200 V/220 V single-phase transformer having the resistance of 6 X and
the reactance of 16 X in the primary coil. The resistance and the reactance in
secondary winding are found to be 0:07 X and 0:15 X, respectively. Find the
voltage regulation when the secondary supplies a current of 6 A at a 0.86

power factor leading.
2:35 A 40 kVA single-phase transformer has the iron loss, and full load copper
loss is 450 W and 750 W, respectively. Calculate the full load efficiency,
output kVA corresponding to maximum efficiency, and maximum efficiency.
Consider the power factor of the load is 0.95 lagging.
2:36 A 40 kVA single-phase transformer has an iron loss of 50% of the full load
copper loss. The full load copper loss is found to be 850 W. Find the full
load efficiency, output kVA corresponding to maximum efficiency and
maximum efficiency. Assume the power factor of the load is 0.9 lagging.
2:37 A 25 kVA single-phase transformer has an iron loss and full load copper loss
of 300 W and 550 W, respectively. Find the full load efficiency, output kVA
corresponding to maximum efficiency, and maximum efficiency. Assume the
power factor of the load is 0.6 lagging.
2:38 A 100 kVA, 2200 V/220 V single-phase transformer has the primary and
secondary windings parameters of R1 ¼ 0:6 X, X1 ¼ 0:9 X, R2 ¼ 0:007 X,
X2 ¼ 0:008 X. The transformer is operating at a maximum efficiency of 75%
of its rated load with 0.9 lagging power factor. Calculate the efficiency of the
transformer at full load, and maximum efficiency, if the iron loss is 350 W.
2:39 A 200 kVA, 2400 V/240 V single-phase transformer has the primary and
windings parameters R1 ¼ 20 X, X1 ¼ 27 X, R2 ¼ 0:18 X, X2 ¼ 0:26 X. The
transformer is operating at a maximum efficiency of 80% of its rated load
with 0.8 pf lagging. Find the efficiency of the transformer at full load, and
maximum efficiency if the iron loss is 400 W.
2:40 The low voltage side of a 30 kVA, 2400 V/220 V, 50 Hz single-phase
transformer is short-circuited. The test data recorded from the high voltage
side are 200 W, 6 A, and 45 V. Find the equivalent resistance, reactance,
and impedance referred to the primary, equivalent resistance, reactance, and
impedance referred to the secondary, and voltage regulation at 0.6 power
factor lagging.
2:41 The low voltage winding of a 25 kVA, 1100 V/220 V, 50 Hz single-phase
transformer is short-circuited, and the test data recorded from the high
voltage side are 156 W, 4 A and 50 V. Calculate the equivalent resistance,
reactance, and impedance referred to the primary, equivalent resistance,
reactance, and impedance referred to the secondary, and voltage regulation at
0.85 power factor leading.
2:42 The test data of a 10 kVA, 440 V/220 V, 50 Hz single-phase transformer are
as follows:
Open circuit test: 220 V, 1.4 A, 155 W;
Short circuit test: 20.5 V, 15 A, 145 W;
Calculate the approximate equivalent circuit parameters.
Fig. P2.1 A autotransformer p

circuit for Problem 2.44
I pq
+
I1
q 1320 V
+
1100 V -
I qr
- r
2:43 The open circuit test data of a single-phase transformer are recorded as the
220 V, 1.2 A, and 145 W. Find the no-load circuit parameters.
2:44 A single-phase 100 kVA, 1100 V/220 V transformer is connected as an
autotransformer, which is shown in Fig. P2.1. The voltage of the upper
portion and the lower portion of the coil are found to be 220 V and 1100 V,
respectively. Calculate the kVA rating of the autotransformer.
2:45 A 200 kVA three-phase, 50 Hz core-type transformer is connected as delta–
wye and has a line voltage ratio of 1100 V/440 V. The core area and the
maximum flux density of the transformer are found to be 0.04 m2 and
2.3 Wb/m2, respectively. Calculate the number of turns per phase of the
primary and secondary coils.
2:46 The number of turns in the primary and secondary coils is found to be 600
and 150, respectively. The transformer is connected to 11 kV, 50 Hz supply.
Find the secondary line voltage when the windings are connected as
(a) delta-wye and (b) wye-delta.
2:47 A single-phase load absorbs 120 kVA power from 22 kV busbar. Calculate
the base current and base impedance by considering base values at rated
MVA and kV.
2:48 A three-phase load absorbs 60 MVA at a 0.8 power factor lagging from
66 kV busbar. Calculate the base current and base impedance. Consider the
base values at rated MVA and kV.
2:49 The per phase reactance of a three-phase, 5 kVA, 220 V, Y-connected
synchronous generator is found to 12 X. Find the per unit reactance by
considering the base values at rated MVA and kV.
2:50 The base values of a system are considered 200 kVA and 22 kV. The per
unit impedance of that system is 0.05. Determine the actual value of the
impedance.
2:51 A 11 kV/66 kV 10 MVA single-phase transformer has the secondary reac-
tance of 6 X. Calculate the per unit reactance referred to as primary and
secondary.
2:52 The per phase impedance of a three-phase 11 kV transmission line is
0:02 þ j0:1 pu. The transmission line delivers a power of 8 MVA to the load.
Find the voltage drop across the line. Consider the base values at rated MVA
and kV.

T1 T2
Line
Load
Fig. P2.2 A single-line diagram for Problem 2.53
2:53 Fig. P2.2 shows a single-line diagram of a power system. The related data for
generator, transformers, and line are given below:
Generator G 65 MVA, 11 kV, X = 0.15,
Transformer T1 25 MVA, 11 kV/220 kV, X = 0.12,
Transformer T2 35 MVA, 220 kV/11 kV, X = 0.0.06,
Line X = 12 X.
A three-phase load absorbs 25 MVA power at a 0.8 power factor lagging

from the busbar 4 at a line voltage of 11 kV. Draw an impedance diagram
with all in per unit values. Also, find the generator voltage. Consider base
values at rated 80 MVA and 11 kV.
2:54 A single-line diagram of a power system is shown in Fig. P2.3. The related
data for generator, transformers, and lines are given below:
Generator G 70 MVA, 11 kV, X = 0.13,
Transformer T4 25 MVA, 11 kV/110 kV, X = 0.08.
The series reactance of the lines 1 and 2 are 35 X and 40 X, respectively.

A three-phase load absorbs 20 MVA at a power factor of 0.85 lagging from
the bus 4. Draw an impedance diagram with per unit values.

T1 T2
Line 1
Load
G
T3 Bus 5 Bus 6 T4
Line 1


T1 T2
Line
Load
G1 M
G2

T1 T2
Line
G1
Load
G2
2:55 Figure P2.4 shows a single-line diagram of a power system. The related data
for generator, transformers, and lines are given below:
Generator G1 15 MVA, 11 kV, X = 0.12,
Motor M 10 MVA, 11 kV, X = 0.04,
Line X = 45 X.
A three-phase load absorbs 50 MVA power at a 0.85 lagging power factor

from 11 kV supply. Draw an impedance diagram with per unit values.
2:56 A single-line diagram of a power system is shown in Fig. P2.5. The related
data for generator, transformers, and lines are given below:
Load M 75 MVA, 11 kV, 0.85 pf lag,
Line X = 25 X.
Draw an impedance diagram by considering base values of 100 MVA and

11 kV.
Chapter 3
Power Generation
3.1 Introduction
Natural gas, water, and fuel are being used for a long time for the generation of
electrical power for use in our daily lives. Day by day, the reserve of fossil fuel is
decreasing due to heavy usages in power generation. At the same time, the demand
for electrical energy is increasing due to the increasing population, increased
industrialization, and increasing residential and commercial sectors. Academicians,
researchers, and practicing engineers are working to generate electricity through
renewable sources such as solar, wind, water, biomass, and nuclear. In solar energy,
heat is radiated by the sun and is focused on the solar panel, which in turn generates
DC voltage. There are many solar farms across the world generating DC voltage
which charges the storage battery. Later, the direct current of the storage battery
converts into alternating current through an inverter. Nowadays, wind energy also
plays an important role to generate electricity. Wind with a suitable speed is used to
turn the windmill, which drives the small generator and produces electrical energy.
There is plenty of water available in tropical countries. Water is stored in a suitable
place by making a dam. The water with sufficient potential head brings to the
turbine house through steel pipes, which drives the turbine. This water turbine
drives the three-phase synchronous AC generator, which generates electrical power.
In the biomass energy system, gas is produced by rotting vegetation along with
organic matter. This gas is then used to burn the water and converted it into steam.
Finally, steam is used to generate electrical power.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3212-2_3
112 3 Power Generation
3.2 Power Station
A power station or power plant is a plant that generates electricity with a voltage of
11 kV or lower value. This voltage is then stepped up to a higher voltage based on
the national transmission voltage. Depending on the available natural energy, power
stations can be classified as thermal or steam, hydroelectric, diesel or nuclear power
stations.
3.3 Steam Power Station
Steam or thermal power station is an electricity generating station that converts

steam into electrical energy. A modern steam power station is rated between 1 and
500 MW, and its efficiency varies from 40 to 50%. This type of power station is
usually built in a suitable place where the coal, natural gas, and water are readily
available. A simple schematic of a steam power station is shown in Fig. 3.1. In the
boiler, natural gas is used to burn the water, which in turn produces steam. The
steam is then carried out by a steel pipe to the turbine house. The steam is fallen on
the turbine bucket and moves the turbine into the clockwise direction. The turbine
shaft is coupled to the rotor shaft of the generator with a mechanical nut-bolt. When
the turbine rotates in the clockwise direction, the generator rotor rotates in the same
direction as the turbine and produces electricity. Condenser and cooling towers are
used to collect exhaust steam from the turbine. The exhaust is then converted to
water and is then fed back to the boiler by the feedwater pump.
The block diagram of a steam power station is shown in Fig. 3.2. The heat of the
boiler is produced by burning natural gases. The heat input of the boiler is repre-
sented by QB . The work is accomplished by the feedwater pump when the water is
pumped into the boiler, and it is represented as WP . The work produced by the
turbine is WT .
Flue gas Y
3−φ
Boiler Turbine house Voltage
G Field
+ −
Cooling tower
Natural gas
Fig. 3.1 Schematic of a simple steam power station

3.3 Steam Power Station 113
Fig. 3.2 Block diagram of a QB

steam power station Boiler
Turbine
Extraction WT
Feedwater steam Exhaust
Heater steam
FW
WP Pump Condenser QC
The thermal efficiency is expressed as,
WT WP
g¼ ð3:1Þ
QB
3.4 Hydro Power Station
The increasing demand for electricity can be met by using hydropower station.
China increases electric power capacity by 8–9% per year to meet growing demand
from both industry and other consumers. They constructed a dam for hydropower
station on the bank of the Yangtze River which is known as Three Gorges Dam.
The total power generation capacity of this hydropower station is 22,500 MW.
Currently, the Three Gorges dam is the largest hydropower plant in the world.
Hydro Bakun is the largest hydropower station in Malaysia, which is built on the
bank of a Balui River. The total power generation capacity of this Hydro Bakun
power station is 2400 MW. In the Middle East, near the Red Sea, world’s largest
hydropower station will be constructed soon, and the total electric generating
capacity would be around 50,000 MW. There are 13 generators and 2675 MW
generation in a Niagara hydropower station in Canada. A hydropower station is the
one which utilizes the energy of falling water to generate electricity. Hydropower
station is suitable to build where a large amount of water is available all the time.
A dam is constructed across a lake or river to store water as well as to create enough
water head. Water is then taken to the turbine house through steel pipes. A water
turbine converts the kinetic energy of falling water into mechanical energy. This
mechanical energy is used to run the generator, which generates electricity. Two
factors mainly determine the amount of electricity generated by a hydroelectric
power station. The first factor is the height from the turbine to the water surface,
which is known as water head. The second key factor is the volume of water
moving through the turbine.
Three forms of energy are involved when water is moving from one place to
another place. These are kinetic, pressure, and potential energies. Per kg kinetic
energy, pressure energy, and potential energy can be expressed as,
1
Ekw ¼ v2 Nm=kg ð3:2Þ
2
p
Epw ¼ Nm=kg ð3:3Þ
q
Epw ¼ gH Nm=kg ð3:4Þ
where
v is the velocity of water flow in m/s,
p is the pressure of water N/m2,
q is the density of water kg/m3,
H is the height of water in m.
A simple schematic of a hydropower station is shown in Fig. 3.3. The discharge
water from the turbine house is released to the river. The main components of a
hydropower station are dam, turbine, generator, transformer, and transmission lines.
The brief descriptions of those components are given below.
Dam: It is built on the lake or river to store water in a reservoir. It is also known as
the headrace. The dam raises the water level to create the necessary head of the
falling water. Therefore, the dam always controls the flow of water through proper
equipment.
Penstock: Pipes of large diameter that carry water under pressure from the storage
reservoir to the turbines called penstocks. These pipes are usually made of steel or
reinforced concrete.
Turbine: In a turbine, different types of buckets or blades are mounted on a wheel
called a runner. Water is released from the dam and falls on the turbine blade. The
force of falling water pushes the turbine blades, which causes the turbine to rotate.
Y
Dam 3 −φ
Reservoir Voltage
hr Turbine house
Hg G Field
H
Penstock
+ −
Mechanical
energy
Kinetic
Potential
energy
energy River
Tailrace
Fig. 3.3 Schematic of a hydropower station

3.4 Hydro Power Station 115
Then, the turbine converts the kinetic energy of falling water into mechanical
energy.
Tailrace: A channel that carries water away from the turbine after the water has
worked on the turbines is known as a tailrace or river. The water surface in the
tailrace is also referred to as tailrace.
Generator: The generator is usually attached to the turbine shaft with the related
equipment. The generator field is energized by the DC supply and creates the
magnetic field. The turbine rotates the generator, which converts mechanical energy
from the turbine into electrical energy.
Transformer: In the power station, a power transformer with a rating from 20 to
50 MVA is used to step up the generating voltage to the national transmission
voltage.
Transmission lines: The transmission lines are used to carry out the electrical
power from the power station to the nearest grid substation.
3.5 Gross and Net Heads
There are two types of water heads normally used in the hydropower station. They
are gross head and net head. The vertical difference between the headrace and
tailrace is known as the gross head, and it is represented by Hg. The net or effective
head is the actual head available at the inlet of the bucket to work on the turbine.
The net head (H) is expressed as,
H ¼ Hg hL ð3:5Þ
where
hL is the total head loss during the transit of water from the headrace to tailrace
which is mainly head loss due to friction.
According to Darcy’s equation, the energy loss due to friction can be written as,
2
L v
hL ¼ f ð3:6Þ
D 2g
where
hL is the energy loss due to friction,
L is the length of the flow stream,
D is the diameter of the flow path,
v is the average velocity of flow,
f is the friction factor (dimensionless).
3.6 Efficiency
The efficiency of a hydropower station depends on the input and output. The
efficiency is classified as hydraulic, mechanical, and overall.
Hydraulic efficiency: The ratio of the power developed by the runner of a turbine
to the power supplied at the inlet of a turbine is known as hydraulic efficiency, and
it is represented as ηh. There is a power loss between the striking jet and vane.
According to the definition, the hydraulic can be expressed as,
PR
gh ¼ 100 ð3:7Þ
PW
where
PR is the runner or turbine power,
PW is water power.
Mechanical efficiency: The ratio of the power (Psh) available at the shaft to the
power (PR) developed by the runner of a turbine is known as mechanical efficiency,
and it is represented as ηm. This efficiency depends on the related mechanical
devices that will create a loss of energy between the runner in the annular area,
between the nozzle and spear. The mechanical efficiency is expressed as,
Psh
gm ¼ 100 ð3:8Þ
PR
Overall efficiency: The ratio of the power (Psh) available at the shaft to the power
(PW) supplied at the inlet of a turbine is known as overall efficiency. The overall
efficiency is represented as ηO. This depends on both the hydraulic losses and the
slips. It also depends on other mechanical problems that will create a loss of energy
between the jet power supplied and the power generated at the shaft available for
the coupling of the generator.
Psh
gO ¼ ð3:9Þ
PW
Psh PR
gO ¼ ð3:10Þ
PW PR
PR Psh
gO ¼ ð3:11Þ
PW PR
3.6 Efficiency 117
Substituting Eqs. (3.7) and (3.8) into Eq. (3.10) yields,
gO ¼ gh gm ð3:12Þ
3.7 Pelton Wheel
Pelton wheel or turbine, named after an eminent engineer, is an impulse turbine,

wherein the flow is tangential to the runner, and the available energy at the entrance
is completely kinetic energy. Further, it is preferred at a very high head and low
discharges with low specific speeds. The pressure available at the inlet and the
outlet is atmospheric. The main components of a Pelton wheel are shown in
Fig. 3.4.
The main components are penstocks, nozzle, spear, runner, casing, and breaking
jet. Water is brought to the hydroelectric plant through large penstocks. At the end
of penstocks, there is a nozzle, which converts the pressure energy completely into
kinetic energy. The kinetic energy will convert the liquid flow into a high-speed jet,
which strikes the buckets mounted on the runner, which in turn rotates the runner of
Runner
Breaking jet
Needle valve
High pressure
water
Penstock
Wheel
Spear Nozzle jet
Fig. 3.4 Schematic of a Pelton wheel

the turbine. The amount of water striking is usually controlled by the forward and
backward motion of the spear.
The runner is a circular disk mounted on a shaft on the periphery of which some
buckets are fixed equally spaced. The buckets are made of cast iron, cast steel,
bronze, or stainless steel depending upon the head at the inlet of the turbine. The
water jet strikes the bucket on the splitter of the bucket and gets deflected in a
proper direction.
The casing is made of cast iron or fabricated steel plates. The main function of
the casing is to prevent the splashing of water and to discharge the water into the
tailrace.
The amount of water after striking the buckets is completely stopped; the runner
goes on rotating for a very long time due to inertia. A small nozzle is provided to
stop the runner in a short time, which directs the jet of water on the back of the
bucket with which the rotation of the runner is reversed. This jet is called a breaking
jet.
3.8 Velocity Triangle
The machine that converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy is known as a
pump, and the machine that converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy is
known as a turbine. Wave is considered as a bent shape as shown in Fig. 3.5. Here,
the jet is used to deliver fluid at the inlet with a velocity V1 with an angle a1 at the
direction plate, and its relative velocity Vr1 makes a blade angle b1 with the
horizontal.
Fig. 3.5 Pelton wheel inlet u2 Vw2

Vr 2 β2 V2 α2 V
and outlet triangles
f2
V1
Vf1
Vr1
α1 β1
u1 Vw1
3.8 Velocity Triangle 119
At the inlet, the wall velocity of the jet in the axial direction is Vw1, and it can be
expressed as,
Vw1 ¼ V1 cos a1 ð3:13Þ
Flow component of the jet or water at the inlet is Vf1, and it can be expressed as,
Vf 1 ¼ V1 sin a1 ð3:14Þ
3.9 Hydraulic Efficiency
Jet strikes the splitter of a bucket and gets split into two halves, and they deviate
with an angle as shown in Fig. 3.6.
Velocity triangles for the jet striking the bucket at the inlet and outlet are shown
in Fig. 3.7. The inlet and outlet parameters are represented with the suffix 1 and 2,
respectively.
In Fig. 3.7, consider the linear velocities of the bucket at the inlet, and the outlet
is u1 and u2, respectively. Again, consider the velocity of water at the inlet of the
turbine is V1. The tangential component of V1 is Vw1. According to Fig. 3.6, the
following equation can be written as,
V1 ¼ Vw1 ð3:15Þ
The expression of the relative velocity is,
Vr1 ¼ V1 u1 ð3:16Þ
From the outlet velocity triangle as shown in Fig. 3.7, the velocity of water or jet
at the outlet of the bucket is V3. The tangential and radial or flow components of V2
are Vw2 and Vf2, respectively. The deflection angle of the bucket is a, and the exit
angle of the bucket is /.
Fig. 3.6 Schematic of a

bucket and deviating parts Splitter Vane
Jet
Deflection
angle of jet
α
Side of bucket
u2 G Vw2
F H
φ V2
Vr 2 β Vf 2
Deflection
angle of jet
u1 Vr1 α
A B C
u
V1 = Vw1
Vf1 = 0
Fig. 3.7 Inlet and outlet triangles of the bucket
According to the impulse-momentum theorem, the force with which the jet
strikes the bucket along the direction of vane (blade) is given by,
Fx ¼ water flow rate change of velocity in x direction ð3:17Þ
Fx ¼ m ðkg/sÞ ½Vw1 ðVw2 Þ ð3:18Þ
The mass flow rate is defined as,
m ¼ qðAV1 Þ ð3:19Þ
Fx ¼ qðAV1 Þ ðVw1 þ Vw2 Þ ð3:20Þ
The work done per second by the jet of water on the vane is given by the product
of force exerted on the vane and the distance moved by the vane in one second.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as,
WD=s ¼ Fx u ð3:21Þ
The work done per second is equal to the runner power, and it can be expressed
as,
PR ¼ Fx u ð3:22Þ
3.9 Hydraulic Efficiency 121
PR ¼ qðAV1 Þ ðVw1 þ Vw2 Þ u ð3:23Þ
The input power from the jet or water power is equal to the energy due to the
velocity, and it can be expressed as,
1
PW ¼ KE ¼ mV12 ð3:24Þ
2
1
PW ¼ KE ¼ qðAV1 ÞV12 ð3:25Þ
2
1
PW ¼ KE ¼ qAV13 ð3:26Þ
2
Then, the hydraulic efficiency is defined as,
PR
gh ¼ ð3:27Þ
PW
Substituting Eqs. (3.23) and (3.26) into an Eq. (3.27) yields,
qðAV1 Þ ðVw1 þ Vw2 Þ u

gh ¼ ð3:28Þ
2 qAV1
1 3
2uðVw1 þ Vw2 Þ
gh ¼ ð3:29Þ
V12
From the inlet velocity triangle, the following equation can be written as,
Vw1 ¼ V1 ð3:30Þ
Assuming no shock and ignoring frictional losses through the blade, then the
following equation is expressed as,
Vr1 ¼ Vr2 ¼ V1 u1 ð3:31Þ
In case of Pelton wheel, the inlet and outlet are located at the same radial
distance from the center of the runner. Therefore, the linear speed of runner is
generalized as,
u1 ¼ u2 ¼ u ð3:32Þ
Vr1 ¼ Vr2 ¼ V1 u ð3:33Þ
From the outlet velocity triangle, D EFH, the following equation can be written
as,
u2 þ Vw2
cos / ¼ ð3:34Þ
Vr2
u2 þ Vw2 ¼ Vr2 cos / ð3:35Þ
Vw2 ¼ ðV1 uÞ cos / u ð3:36Þ
2u½V1 þ ðV1 uÞ cos / u

gh ¼ ð3:37Þ
V12
2uðV1 uÞð1 þ cos /Þ

gh ¼ ð3:38Þ
V12
Differentiate Eq. (3.38) with respect to u and set equal to zero to obtain the
maximum efficiency for a given jet velocity and vane angle.

d 2uðV1 uÞð1 þ cos /Þ
¼0 ð3:39Þ
du V12
2ð1 þ cos /Þ d
uðV1 uÞ ¼ 0 ð3:40Þ
V12 du
uð0 1Þ þ ðV1 uÞ ¼ 0 ð3:41Þ
V1
u¼ ð3:42Þ
2
From Eq. (3.42), it is seen that the bucket speed is maintained at half the velocity
of the jet, and the efficiency will be maximum at this speed. Substituting Eq. (3.42)
into Eq. (3.38) yields,
3.9 Hydraulic Efficiency 123
2uð2u uÞð1 þ cos /Þ

ghmax ¼ ð3:43Þ
ð2uÞ2
1
ghmax ¼ ð1 þ cos /Þ ð3:44Þ
2
From Eq. (3.44), it is concluded that the hydraulic efficiency will be maximum
when the value of cos / is equal to 1 and the value of the outlet blade angle of the
bucket should be 0 .
3.10 Diesel Power Station
A diesel power station uses the diesel engine as a prime mover to generate elec-
tricity. A diesel engine is connected with the rotor of the generator. Diesel is burnt
inside the engine, which produces mechanical energy. When the diesel engine
starts, it runs the generator, which converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy. A simple block diagram of a diesel power station is shown in Fig. 3.8. The
power rating of a diesel power station is very small, and it is normally installed in
the remote area for supplying electricity. The efficiency of the diesel power station
is less than 25%. This power station is rarely used due to the high price of the oil
and its lower efficiency. It is used as a standby plant, peak load plant, emergency
plant, and mobile plant.
3.11 Nuclear Power Station
Nowadays, the nuclear power station is popular for large capacity electricity gen-
eration. It provides approximately 17% of the world’s electricity. Currently, there
are roughly 400 nuclear power stations in the world. More than 100 nuclear power
stations are in the USA. France generates approximately 75% of its total electrical
energy from nuclear power stations.
The nuclear fuel (uranium) generates a huge amount of nuclear energy through
fission of radioactive material and heat by a controlled chain reaction. This heat is
used to boil the water, which produces steam. This steam is then used to drive the
Fig. 3.8 Block diagram of a

diesel power station Wye 3 −φ
Delta Voltage
Diesel G Field
engine
+ −
Control rods Steam flows 3−φ

Voltage
Y
Vessel
Water flows
uranium
Three-phase
Moderator voltage
Fig. 3.9 Schematic of a nuclear power station
turbine. Finally, the turbine rotates the generator, which generates electrical energy.
The simple schematic of a nuclear power station is shown in Fig. 3.9. The control
rod is used to control the chain reaction inside the vessel. The chain reaction starts
when the control rods are pushed up from the vessel, and the chain reaction stops
when the control rods are pushed down to the vessel. Six types of reactors such as
Magnox, AGR, BWR, CANDU, and RBMK in the nuclear power station.
3.12 Variable Load and Different Factors
The power demands of the consumers are varied according to their uses of electrical
appliances. Therefore, the load on a power station varies from time to time.
Load Curve: The variation of load on the power station concerning time is known
as the load curve. The load curve is obtained by plotting power in Y-axis and time
in X-axis. It is the graphical representation between the load in kW and times in
hours. When the load curve is plotted for 24 h, then it is known as a daily load
curve, and the load curve for one year is known as the annual load curve.
Figure 3.10 represents the load curve for 24 h.
There are many advantages of the load curve which are mentioned below.
• It shows the variation of the loads throughout the day.
• The load curve helps to estimate the generation cost.
• The highest point on the load curve represents the maximum demand on that
day.
• It helps to select the capacity and number of generating units.
• The area under the load curve represents the exact units generated in the day.
3.13 Different Terms and Factors of Power Station 125
MW
t
12 12 12
Mid night noon Mid night
Fig. 3.10 Load curve for 24 h
3.13 Different Terms and Factors of Power Station
There are a few important terms and factors usually used in the power stations.
These are connected load, average load, maximum demand, load factor, demand
factor, diversity factor, capacity factor, and load duration curve [1].
Connected Load: The sum of ratings of all the connected electrical appliances in
the consumer terminals is known as a connected load. If a consumer connected a
smart TV of 60 W, a Sony DVD player of 5000 W and two energy savings bulbs of
each 7 W across a single-phase system. The sum of the connected load (CL) is
calculated as,
CL ¼ 60 þ 5000 þ 2 7 ¼ 5074 W
Maximum Demand: The maximum demand is the highest amount of load on the
power station during a specific time. Maximum demand can be determined from the
load curve, and it helps us to install generating units. Normally, all the electrical
appliances installed in the consumer terminal are not operated to their fullest
capacity at the same time. Therefore, the maximum demand is not equal to the
connected load. The maximum demand is always less than the connected load.
Average Load: The average load of the power station occurs at a specific time. It
may be daily, monthly, or yearly. Mathematically, these daily, monthly, and yearly
average loads can be expressed as,
No: of kWh generated in a day

Daily average load ¼ ð3:45Þ
24 h
No: of kWh generated in a month
Monthly average load ¼ ð3:46Þ
30 24 h
No: of kWh generated in a year

Monthly average load ¼ ð3:47Þ
8760 h
Load Factor: The ratio of the average load to the peak or maximum load is known
as the load factor. The load factor is always less than or equal to unity, and it plays
an important role in the cost of power generation. For the same maximum demand,
the higher load factor reduces the per unit generation cost. Mathematically, the load
factor (FLF) can be expressed as,
average load
FLF ¼ ð3:48Þ
peak load
Considering that the power station is operated for T hours, then Eq. (3.48) is
modified as,
average load T
FLF ¼ ð3:49Þ
peak load T
units generated
FLF ¼ ð3:50Þ
peak load T
where T is the time. It may be in days, weeks, months, or years. The annual load
factor is defined as,
Annual energy generated

FaLF ¼ ð3:51Þ
annual peak load 8760
The load factors for different types of load are different. For residential load, it
varies from 10% to 15%, and for commercial load, it is around 30%. For small,
medium and large industries, it varies as 30% to 50%, 55% to 60%, and 70% to
90%, respectively.
Demand Factor: It is defined as the ratio of the maximum demand to the total
connected load of the system. Mathematically, the demand factor (FDeF) can be
expressed as,
maximum demand
FDeF ¼ ð3:52Þ
total connected load
The demand factor always changes with hours to hours, and it is less than or
equal to one. Lower demand factor indicates less system capacity required to
deliver the connected loads. It is considered an indicator of the simultaneous
operation of the connected load. The demand factor should be considered for each
type of load, especially induction motor load. For residential load, it varies between
50 and 80%. For industrial (induction motor) load, this factor is 75%, and for
different types of lighting load, it is equal to one. The relationship between the load
factor and the demand factor can be derived as,
maximum demand average load

average load
FDeF ¼ ð3:53Þ
average load
FDeF ¼ ð3:54Þ
average load
total connected load maximum demand
average load
FDeF ¼ ð3:55Þ
total connected load FLF
average load
FDeF FLF ¼ ð3:56Þ
Diversity Factor: The ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands of the
various subsystems of a system to the maximum demand of the whole system is
known as a diversity factor. Mathematically, it can be expressed as,
sum of individual maximum demands

FDiF ¼ ð3:57Þ
maximum demand of the whole system
The diversity factor is always greater than or equal to one. This factor is always
greater than one because the sum of individual maximum demands is greater than the
maximum demand of the system. Diversity occurs in an operating system because all
connected loads are not operating simultaneously. The cost of power generation will
be lower for higher diversity factors. In the designing or planning stage, the diversity
factor is considered one. The diversity factor is used for coordination study and
calculation of a load of a particular node of a system. It is also used for determining
the size of the transformer based on the total load. For substation, transmission lines,
and a whole utility system, diversity factors need to be calculated. According to IEC
60439, the diversity factor for different users is shown in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Different Circuits function Diversity factor (%)

appliances with diversity
factors Lighting 90
Heating and air conditioning 80
Socket-outlets 70
Lifts and catering hoist
Most powerful motor 100
Second most powerful motor 75
All motors 80
Capacity Factor: The ratio of the actual amount of energy the plant produced
during a period to the maximum amount of energy that would have been produced
at full capacity. It is often called as the plant factor or the use factor. Capacity
factors vary greatly depending on the type of fuel that is used and the design of the
plant. The capacity factor is always less than one. There are several reasons for the
capacity factor to be less than one. The first reason is that the equipment out of
service or operating at the reduced output due to equipment failures and/or routine
maintenance. The second reason is that the output generation is reduced because the
consumer does not require the electricity or the electricity price is low to make
production cost economical. Mathematically, the capacity factor (FCF) is expressed
as,
actual energy generation

FCF ¼ ð3:58Þ
maximum plant rating
The annual plant factor (FaCF) is defined as,
actual annual energy generation

FaCF ¼ ð3:59Þ
maximum plant rating 8760
The reserve capacity of the power station is very important for future demand
and forecasting, and it can be determined as,
Reserve capacity ¼ plant capacity maximum demand ð3:60Þ
Example 3.1
A power station is having the maximum demand and connected load of 30 MW and
60 MW, respectively. The energy generated per annum is found to be
70 106 kWh. Calculate the demand factor, average demand, and load factor.
Solution
The value of the demand factor is calculated as,
maximum demand 30
FDF ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:5 ð3:61Þ
connected load 60
The average load can be determined as,
units generated per annum 70 106

average demand ¼ ¼ ¼ 7990:86 kW
total hours in a year 8760
ð3:62Þ
Load factor is calculated as,
average load 7990:86

FLF ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:27 ð3:63Þ
peak load 30 1000
Example 3.2
A power station supplies power to three different consumers. The power used by the
residential, commercial, and industrial users is 200 kW, 800 kW, and 1200 kW,
respectively. The maximum demand and units generated per annum of this power
station are 2000 kW and 60 105 kWh, respectively. Calculate the diversity factor,
average demand, and load factor.
Solution
The value of the diversity factor is,
sum of individual maximum demands 200 þ 800 þ 1200

FDiF ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:1
maximum demand of the whole system 2000
ð3:64Þ
The average load is calculated as,
units generated per annum 60 105

average demand ¼ ¼ ¼ 684:93 kW ð3:65Þ
total hours in a year 8760
Load factor can be determined as,
average load 684:93

FLF ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:34 ð3:66Þ
peak load 2000
A power station is having the maximum demand and connected load of 20 MW and
45 MW, respectively. The energy generated per annum is found to be
30 106 kWh. Find the demand factor, average demand, and load factor.
A power station supplies power to three consumers. The 300 kW used by the
residential user, 1000 kW used by the commercial user, and 1800 kW used by the
industrial user. The maximum demand and units generated of the power station are
2500 kW and 70 105 kWh, respectively. Calculate the diversity factor, average
demand, and load factor.
Load duration curve: In electricity generation, the load duration curve is used to
describe the relationship between power generation and utilization. It is very
important for typical days that indicate the power demands at a specific duration of
time. It is obtained from the load curve by descending the load magnitudes with
respect to time.
The load duration curve indicates how many hours a certain load has been
allocated for a day. The load duration curve helps to design a baseload power plant
and the peak load power plant. Hydro and diesel power stations are usually used
during the peak demand. These power stations are usually used to reduce the
generation cost of electricity. Figures 3.11 and 3.12 show a typical load curve and
load duration curve for 24 h.
60
50
40
30
Load
(MW)
20
10
12 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time (H)
Fig. 3.11 A typical load curve
60
50
40
30
Load
( MW)
20
10
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time (H)
Fig. 3.12 A typical load duration curve

60
50
40
30
Load
(MW )
20
10
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time (H)
Fig. 3.13 A typical load curve for Example 3.3
Example 3.3
A daily load cycle of a power station is described below.
Time (H): 0–8 8–12 12–16 16–20 20–24

Load (MW): 30 40 30 60 40
Draw the load curve and calculate the maximum demand, units generated per
day, average load, and load factor.
Solution
From the given data, the load curve is drawn as shown in Fig. 3.13. From the load
duration curve, the following parameters can be determined as,
The maximum demand (MD) of the power station is,
MD ¼ 60 MW ð3:67Þ
Units generated per day (UGday) is,
UGday ¼ 30 8 þ 40 4 þ 30 4 þ 60 4 þ 40 4 ¼ 920 MWh ð3:68Þ
Per day average load (AVLday) is,
920
AVLday ¼ ¼ 38:33 MW ð3:69Þ
24
Load factor can be determined as,

AVLday 38:33
FLF ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:64 ð3:70Þ
MD 60
The daily power consumption versus time of a power station is mentioned below.
Time (H): 0–4 4–8 8–16 16–20 20–24

Load (MW): 20 30 60 30 10
Plot the load curve and find the maximum demand, units generated per day,
average load, and load factor.
3.14 AC Power Supply System
Electricity is generated at the power station. It is then transferred to the consumers’

terminals (load) by the transmission and distribution networks. A very large net-
work that connects power stations to loads is known as an electric power system or
electric grid. The electrical lines are used to transfer electrical power from the power
station to the loads. The transmission and distribution networks between generating
stations and the consumer terminals are classified into transmission and distribution
systems. The single-line diagram of a typical AC power system along with step-up
and step-down transformers is shown in Fig. 3.14. The vertical black lines represent
the busbars. The voltage at the busbar is always constant.
Generating station: A generating station is often known as the power station,
power plant, or powerhouse. Most of the power station contains one or more
three-phase synchronous generators. Three-phase AC voltage with a magnitude of
11 kV or 13.8 kV is usually generated in the power station by a three-phase syn-
chronous generator, a rotating machine that converts mechanical power into
National grid Local substation

substation
Primary Secondary
transmission transmission
G
11 kV /220 kV 220 kV /120 kV 120 kV /11 kV Primary

distribution line
Consumers
Consumer
transformer
Fig. 3.14 Schematic of a typical AC power system

3.14 AC Power Supply System 133
Table 3.2 Different appliances diversity factors

Voltage classification Voltage range (kV) Types
Ultra-high voltage >765 High voltage transmission >765 kV
Extra-high voltage 345, 500, 765 High voltage transmission
High voltage 115, 138, 161, 230
Medium voltage 34, 46, 69 Subtransmission
Low voltage <34 Distribution
electrical power. In Fig. 3.14, the AC generator generates an 11 kV voltage. This

generated voltage is then stepped up to a suitable national transmission voltage by a
three-phase step-up power transformer [2, 3]. The rating of the power transformer
usually varies between 20 and 40 MVA.
Transmission Lines: Transmission lines transmit electricity from one terminal to
another terminal. Transmission lines are used for long distances with a higher
voltage ranging from 66 to 765 kV, and they connect to the grid substation.
Transmission lines are classified as primary and secondary transmission lines.
Transmission voltage mainly depends on the total length between the power station
and the end terminal of the customers. The national transmission voltage of some
Asian countries such as Brunei and Bangladesh are 66 kV and 120 kV, respec-
tively. Based on the voltage levels, the classifications of transmissions and distri-
butions of power system networks are shown in Table 3.2.
Primary Transmission: The voltage of 220 kV or more transmits by the
three-phase three wires to the national grid substation through an appropriate steel
tower known as primary transmission. The grid substation is usually situated at the
outer parts of a city.
Secondary Transmission: At the grid substation, the higher voltage is stepped
down to 120 kV or other values by a three-phase transformer. The voltage of
120 kV or less transmits by the three-phase three wires to the various local sub-
stations located at different places. At these substations, the voltage is further
reduced to either 33 or 11 kV.
Distribution System: The distribution system is classified as a primary distribution
and secondary distribution.
Primary Distribution: The overhead lines or underground cables are used as
feeders to connect the distribution transformer. The high voltage side of a distri-
bution transformer is known as primary distribution or primaries. Common primary
distribution voltages are 3.3, 3.3, 4.16, 6.6, 11, 13.5, 13.8, 25, and 34.5 kV. In Asia,
some of the utility companies are used 11 kV as their primary distribution voltage.
Secondary Distribution: The primary distribution lines connect to the distribution
transformer, which is usually installed near the consumer’s area. This distribution
transformer steps down [4] the delivered 11 kV voltage to 440 V line-to-line, and it
up to 7 kV-
230 kV 138 kV 69 kV 13kV
1000 kV
Transmission Subtransmission Distribution
Fig. 3.15 Schematic of transmission towers and distribution poles
distributes by the three-phase four wires system. Therefore, the secondary of a

distribution transformer is known as secondary distribution or secondaries. The
most common secondary line and phase voltages are 120, 208, 240, 277 and 480 V.
Residential and commercial customers usually use the secondary distribution
voltage. The secondary distribution consists of feeders, distributors, and service
mains. Different types of transmission towers and distribution poles are shown in
Fig. 3.15.
3.15 Secondary Distributions and Connections
Secondary distribution voltages are used by the residential, commercial, and light
industry. Some of the Asian countries’ utility companies use three-phase four wires
for power supply to the residential consumers. Their phase voltage and line voltages
are 220 V and 440 V, respectively. In North America, both single-phase and
three-phase systems are also used based on the connected load. A single-phase three
wires are used in the most residential distribution. In this case, the phase and the
line voltages are 120 V and 240 V, respectively. 120 V is used for lower-rated
electrical appliances, and 240 V can be used for higher-rated electrical usages such
as electric vehicle charging. For high-density residential and commercial areas,
single-phase four wires are used. In this case, high rating appliances like motors use
208 V. A single-phase three wires and three-phase four wires secondary distribu-
tion lines connection are shown in Figs. 3.16 and 3.17, respectively.
3.16 Tariff 135
Fig. 3.16 Connection of a N

single-phase three wires R
distribution
x1 x2 x1
r
240V
g
120V
n
Fig. 3.17 Connection of a N

three-phase four wires R
distribution G
B
X 2 X1 X 2 X1 X 2 X1
r
208V 208V
g
208V 120V 120V
b
120V
n
3.16 Tariff
Electrical energy is delivered to different types of consumers such as residential,

commercial, and industrial. The electrical energy consumption at the consumer
terminals is recorded by the three-phase or single-phase energy meters. The elec-
trical energy is normally sold to the consumers at a price. This price is known as a
tariff. The tariff widely varies from country to country and city to city. Therefore,
the tariff is defined as the rate at which electrical energy is supplied to the con-
sumers. The main objectives of the tariff are,
• To recover electricity generation cost.
• To recover cost due to electricity lost during transmission and distribution.
• To recover operation and maintenance cost.
• To earn a reasonable profit on the total investment.
Each system has its own characteristics. The tariff has some important charac-
teristics to identify its performance which is mentioned below.
Return: The tariff should be imposed in such a way that it ensures the proper return
from the consumers.
Fairness: The tariff should be fair so that each consumer is able to afford their bills.
Simplicity and Attractive: The tariff should be simple so that an ordinary con-
sumer can easily understand, and it will be attractive if it is simple and
user-friendly.
Reasonable Profit: The profit should be marginal and reasonable so that more
consumers will use the energy while the investors receive a return.
3.16.1 Classification of Tariff
Tariffs can be classified as the simple tariff, flat rate tariff, block rate tariff, two-part
tariff, three-part tariff, and power factor tariff. The brief descriptions of the tariff are
mentioned below [5].
Simple Tariff: In this tariff, the fixed rate is imposed based on per unit energy
consumption. The price does not vary with a decrease or increase in the number of
units used. There is no discrimination between the consumers in a simple tariff.
Flat Rate Tariff: In a flat rate tariff, consumers are grouped into different classes
according to diversity and load factors. Each class of consumers is charged at a
different uniform rate. The flat rate tariff does not change with the time of use. Here,
the cost per unit energy is fixed, and the total charge is dependent on the number of
units consumed. The main advantage of this tariff is to prevent the wastage of
energy because the consumer has to pay the excess bill. Suppose the charge per
kWh is 0.11 cents, and the consumer uses the energy of 200 kWh. The total charge
of this tariff is calculated as,
TCfr ¼ 200 0:11 ¼ $ 22 ð3:71Þ
Example 3.4
The maximum demand of a consumer is 5 kW, and the total energy consumption is
6000 kWh. The per annum energy is charged at the rate of 10 cents per kWh for
400 h of the maximum demand plus 5 cents per kWh for additional units. Calculate
the annual charges and equivalent flat rate.
Solution
Units consumed for 400 h are,
U400h ¼ 5 400 ¼ 2000 kWh ð3:72Þ
The charge for 2000 kWh is calculated as,

3.16 Tariff 137
Charge-1 ¼ 2000 0:10 ¼ B$ 200 ð3:73Þ
The remaining units are determined as,
RU ¼ 6000 2000 ¼ 4000 kWh ð3:74Þ
The charge for 4000 kWh is calculated as,
Charge-2 ¼ 4000 0:05 ¼ B$ 200 ð3:75Þ
The total annual charge is determined as,
TAC ¼ B$ 200 þ B$ 200 ¼ B$ 400 ð3:76Þ
The equivalent flat rate is calculated as,
B$ 400
Eqfr ¼ ¼ B$ 0:045 ð3:77Þ
8760
The maximum demand of the consumer is 4 kW, and the total energy consumption
is 7000 kWh. The per annum energy is charged at the rate of 20 cents per kWh for
600 h of the maximum demand plus 10 cents per kWh for additional units.
Determine the annual charges and equivalent flat rate.
Block Rate Tariff: The energy consumption is divided into a fixed price per unit
block. The price per unit in the first block is usually considered higher rates. Then,
the succeeding blocks of energy are charged at progressively reduced rates. In
general, the block rate tariff provides lower prices for greater usages to the cus-
tomer. In this tariff, the main advantage of this tariff is that the cost of energy
decreases with the increase in energy consumptions. This tariff does not encourage
the customer to use the energy at the off-peak time. Let us consider the x blocks of
energy are charged at 0.12 cents and y blocks of energy are charged at 0.25 cents.
Therefore, the total charge of this tariff is,
TCbr ¼ x 0:12 þ y 0:25 ð3:78Þ
Two-part Tariff: This tariff is also known as the Hopkinson demand rate. In this
tariff, the energy is charged based upon the consumer’s maximum demand and the
running charges that depend upon the number of consumed units. Fixed charges are
paid irrespective of consumption of electrical energy. Total charges of this tariff can
be determined as,
TCtwopart ¼ b kW þ c kWh ð3:79Þ

where
TCtwopart is the total charge for the two-part tariff,
b is the charge per kW of maximum demand,
c is the charge per kWh of total energy consumed.
Example 3.5
The maximum demand of the consumer is 75 kW at 0.55 load factor. The tariff is B
$ 80 per kW of maximum demand and 15 cents per kWh. Determine the total units
consumed per year, annual charges, and overall cost per kWh.
Solution
The total unit consumed per year is calculated as,
TUyear ¼ Maximum demand FLF hours in a year ð3:80Þ
TUyear ¼ 75 0:55 8760 ¼ 361350 kWh ð3:81Þ
The annual charge is calculated as,
Annual charge ¼ 80 75 þ 361350 0:15 ¼ $ 60202:5 ð3:82Þ
The overall cost per kWh is determined as,
60202:5
OCpkWh ¼ ¼ $ 0:17 ð3:83Þ
361350
The maximum demand of a consumer is 55 kW at 40% load factor. The tariff is
$ 100 per kW of maximum demand and 10 cents per kWh. Determine the total unit
consumed per year, annual charge, and overall cost per kWh.
Maximum Demand Tariff: Maximum demand is the highest amount of electrical
energy consumption monitored in a particular period usually for a month. The
charge of this tariff is calculated as a charge for the total amount of electricity used
plus a demand charge (kW) for the relevant billing period. The demand is a measure
of the maximum amount of electricity used at any one time. The chargeable demand
in any month is the maximum demand recorded in that month. This type of tariff is
used for large consumers.
Three-part Tariff: This tariff is also known as the Doherty rate. In this tariff, the
total charge is divided into three parts. These are fixed, semi-fixed, and running
charges. This type of tariff is usually applied to large consumers. The total charges
of this tariff can be determined as,
3.16 Tariff 139
TCthreepart ¼ a þ b kW þ c kWh ð3:84Þ
where
TCthreepart is the total charge for the two-part tariff,
a is the fixed charge,
b is the charge per kW of maximum demand,
c is the charge per kWh of the total energy consumed.
Power Factor Tariff: This kind of tariff is mainly dependent on the power factor of
the consumer. The power factor plays an important role in an AC system. Low
power factor increases the line loss which in turn increases the rating of the power
system equipment.
References
1. Conejo AJ, Baringo L (2017) Power system operations, 1st edn. Springer
2. Murty PSR (2017) Electrical power systems, 1st edn. Elsevier and Butter-worth Heinemann
3. Salam MA (2012) Fundamentals of electrical machines, 2nd edn. Alpha Science International
Ltd., Oxford, UK
4. Fitzgerald AE, Kingsley C Jr, Umans SD (2002) Electric machinery, 6th edn. McGraw-Hill
Higher Education, New York, USA
5. Chapman SJ (2002) Electric machinery and power system fundamentals. McGraw-Hill Higher
Education, New York, USA
Exercise Problems
3:1 The maximum demand for a power station is 80 MW, and the annual load
factor is 0.45. Calculate the total energy generated per annum.
3:2 The total energy generated per annum of a power station is 300 106 kWh.
Find the load factor if the maximum demand of the power station is 70 MW.
3:3 The maximum demand for a power station is 40 MW and the connected load
of 65 MW. The energy generated per annum is 90 106 kWh. Calculate the
demand factor, average demand, and load factor.
3:4 The maximum demand and the connected load of a power station are
20 MW and 45 MW, respectively. The energy generated per annum is
60 106 kWh. Calculate the demand factor, average demand, and load
factor.
3:5 A power station supplies power to three different consumers. The power used
by the residential user 500 kW, commercial user 1200 kW, and industrial
user 1500 kW. The maximum demand and units generated per annum of a
power station are 3000 kW and 55 105 kWh respectively. Find the
diversity factor, average demand, and load factor.
3:6 The three consumers are connected to a power station. The power used by
the residential user 300 kW, commercial user and industrial user 1800 kW.
The maximum demand and units generated by the power station are
2200 kW and 50 105 kWh respectively. Calculate the power used by the
commercial user if the diversity factor is 1.2.
3:7 A power station supplies power to the five areas whose maximum demands
are 9000 MW, 6000 MW, 5000 MW and 4000 MW respectively. Determine
the maximum demand of the power station if the diversity factor is 1.3.
3:8 A power station has the maximum demand of 20 MW. The load factor and a
capacity factor of the power station are 0.45 and 0.30, respectively. Calculate
the energy generated per annum, plant capacity, and reserve capacity.
3:9 A power station generates per annum energy 65 106 kWh, and the maxi-
mum demand is 20 MW. Find the capacity factor if the reserve capacity of
the power station is 8 MW.
3:10 The daily load cycle of a power station is mentioned below.
Time (H): 0–4 4–8 8–16 16–20 20–24

Load (MW): 25 40 80 40 10
Draw the load curve. Determine the maximum demand, units generated per
day, average load, and load factor.
3:11 A daily load cycle of a power station is mentioned below.
Time (H): 0–8 8–16 16–20 20–24

Load (MW): 20 30 60 25
Determine the maximum demand, units generated per day, average load, and
load factor.
3:12 A power station supplies power to the consumer A, consumer B and con-
sumer C in the following ways.
Time Consumer A Consumer B Consumer C

12 midnight to 6 a.m. 100 W No-load 100 W
6 a.m. to 12 noon 500 W 250 W 50 W
12 noon to 4 p.m. 100 W 800 W 300 W
4 p.m. to 10 p.m. 200 W 200 W 100 W
10 p.m. to midnight 50 W 200 W 150 W
Plot the load curve. Determine the maximum demand and diversity factor.
3:13 The maximum demand for a consumer is 10 kW, and the total energy
consumption is 8000 kWh. Per annum energy is charged at the rate of 5 cents
per kWh for 500 h of the maximum demand plus 3 cents per kWh for
additional units. Determine the annual charges and equivalent flat rate.
3:14 The maximum demand of a consumer is 80 kW at a 35% load factor. The
tariff is B$ 80 per kW of maximum demand and 5 cents per kWh. Calculate
the total units consumed per year, annual charges, and overall cost per kWh.
Chapter 4
Transmission Line Parameters
and Analysis
4.1 Introduction
Transmission lines in a power system network are used for transferring power from
generating station to the neighboring utility grid substation under all environmental
conditions. Transmission lines encompass the electrical properties of resistance,
inductance, capacitance and conductance. The parameters inductance and capaci-
tance appear due to the effect of electric and magnetic fields around the conductor.
The capacitance is formed between the line and earth of the medium as well as long
transmission lines. The effects of resistance, inductance and capacitance, are very
important for transmission lines modeling. The transmission circuit consists of
conductors, insulators, cross-arms, shield wires, etc. Transmission lines are usually
suspended with the help of insulators and towers. The tower is made of wood, steel
and reinforced concrete. The transmission and distribution voltages are different in
different countries. It can be standardized as 6.6, 11, 33, 66, 69, 120, 220, 500 and
750 kV line to line. Transmission voltage above 220 kV is referred to as extra-high
voltage (EHV), and those at 750 kV and above is referred to as ultra-high voltage
(UHV). Transmission line conductors are classified as aluminum conductor steel
reinforce (ACSR), all-aluminum conductor (AAC), all-aluminum alloy conductor
(AAAC), and aluminum conductor alloy reinforce (ACAR). A sample of
three-phase transmission lines are shown in Fig. 4.1.
In this chapter, Ampere’s circuital law, detail analysis of resistance, inductance,
capacitance, bundle conductors will be discussed.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3212-2_4
144 4 Transmission Line Parameters and Analysis
Fig. 4.1 Three-phase

transmission lines
4.2 Ampere’s Circuital Law
Ampere’s circuital Law represents the integrated magnetic field around a closed path
to the current passing through the path. It states that the line integral of the magnetic
field intensity around a closed circuit or path is equal to the product of permeability
in free space times the total current flowing through the circuit as shown in Fig. 4.2.
Mathematically, the Ampere circuital law is expressed as,
I
! !
=¼ B dl ¼ l0 I ð4:1Þ
I !
B !
=¼ dl ¼ I ð4:2Þ
l0
The magnetic field is directly proportional to magnetic field intensity. It is

expressed as B ¼ l0 H and substituting this expression in Eq. (4.2) yields,
I
! !
=¼ H dl ¼ I ð4:3Þ
Fig. 4.2 Closed path with

the magnetic field
r
i B
dl
4.2 Ampere’s Circuital Law 145
where,
= is the magnetomotive force in At,
H is the magnetic field intensity in At per m,
dl is the differential path length in m,
I is the current enclosed in A.
Ampere’s law is the most useful method to calculate the magnetic fields of
current configurations which have higher symmetry such as long infinity line,
circular loop, and cylindrical conductor.
4.3 Line Resistance and Conductance
The transmission line has four parameters which are resistance, inductance,
capacitance, and conductance. Resistance is the property of a material that opposes
the flow of electricity through the conductor. The resistance generates power loss
ðI 2 RÞ in the transmission line. It also generates a resistive drop ðIRÞ that affects the
voltage regulation of a transmission line. The dc resistance of the conductor is
expressed as,
l
Rdc ¼ q ð4:4Þ
A
where
q is the resistivity at 20 C,
l is the length of the conductor,
A is the area of the conductor.
DC resistance increases linearly with temperature. When direct current flows
through a conductor, the current distribution over the cross section of the conductor
is uniform, whereas the flow of an alternating current (ac) through a conductor is
non-uniform. The outer part of the conductor carries more current than the center of
the conductor. Therefore, the current density is higher at the surface of the con-
ductor and it decreases toward the center of the conductor. This results in higher
resistance for alternating current than direct current. This behavior is known as skin
effect. AC resistance is the ratio of power loss to the square of the current and it is
expressed as,
Ploss
Rac ¼ ð4:5Þ
I2
where
Ploss is the real power loss of the conductor in watts,
I is the rms value of the current in A.
The effective resistance of the conductor increases due to skin effect at higher
frequencies where the skin depth is smaller which reduces the cross-sectional area
of the conductor. Conductor loss increases with a higher frequency, which in turn
increases the AC resistance. At the frequency of 50 Hz, the ac resistance of the
transmission line conductor maybe 5–10% higher than its dc resistance. The
resistance of a good conductor such as copper aluminum increases with an increase
in temperature, whereas the resistance of electrolyte (an electrolyte is a substance
that produces an electrically conducting solution when dissolved in a polar solvent,
such as water), alloy (An alloy is a metal, made of the combination of two or more
metallic elements), and insulating material decreases with an increase in tempera-
ture. Let us assume that the resistance of a conductor at temperature T and T0
degrees centigrade is R and R0, respectively, as shown in Fig. 4.3. In this case, the
change in resistance is,
DR ¼ R R0 ð4:6Þ
While the change in temperature is,
DT ¼ T T0 ð4:7Þ
The ratio of change in resistance to the resistance at T0 degree centigrade is

directly proportional to the change in temperature and it can be expressed as,
R R0
1 ðT T0 Þ ð4:8Þ
R0
R R0
¼ aðT T0 Þ ð4:9Þ
R0
R R0 ¼ aR0 ðT T0 Þ ð4:10Þ
R ¼ ½R0 þ aR0 ðT T0 Þ ð4:11Þ
R ¼ R0 ½1 þ að T T0 Þ ð4:12Þ
Fig. 4.3 Effect of R

temperature on resistance R
R0
t
T0 T
4.3 Line Resistance and Conductance 147
The parameter conductance plays an important role in real power loss between
the conductors and between the conductors and earth. In the transmission line, this
loss depends on the leakage current in the insulator and corona. The magnitude of
the leakage current depends on the amount of salt, dirt, and the presence of the mist
or light rain. Leakage current creates a joule heat on the insulator surface and dries
the surface, which produces the uneven surface. A higher value of leakage current
produces small arcs that create the electric field. When this electric field exceeds its
critical value, then the surrounding air of the insulator becomes electrically ionized
and provides an electrical path. This phenomenon is known as corona or partial
discharge. All the small arcs merge, which form a large arc that creates the flashover
on the insulator surface.
Example 4.1
The starting winding resistance of a single-phase induction motor is 10Ω at 10 C.
The temperature coefficient of copper is 0:004= C at 0 C. Calculate the resistance
of the starting winding at 20 C.
Solution
The value of the resistance at 0 C is calculated as,
10 ¼ R0 ð1 þ 0:004 10Þ ð4:13Þ
R0 ¼ 9:6 X ð4:14Þ
The value of the resistance at 20 C is calculated as,
R20 ¼ 9:6ð1 þ 0:004 20Þ ¼ 10:4 X ð4:15Þ

The value of the resistance of a heater coil is found to be 25Ω at 0 C. The
temperature coefficient of the copper is 0:0043= C at 0 C. Find the resistance of
the heater coil at 30 C.
4.4 Internal Inductance
The inductance is defined as the flux linkage per unit current. Mathematically, it can
be expressed as,
w
L¼ ð4:16Þ
I
The inductance of the line can be divided into two parts. One is internal
inductance, and the other is external inductance. Internal inductance is due to
internal flux linkage when a conductor carries a current. Consider a straight solid
cylindrical conductor whose radius is r and carries a current of I ampere as shown in
Fig. 4.4 A cylindrical

straight conductor with a
cross section
Ix
dφ
Hx
r
x
l
dx
Fig. 4.4. An annular ring of thickness dx is drawn at a radius of x. Let the magnetic
field intensity at a distance x from the center of the conductor is Hx. This magnetic
field intensity is constant throughout the circular ring at a distance x and it is tangent
to it. The current enclosed at a radius x is Ix.
Applying Ampere’s law to derive the magnetic field intensity around a circle of
radius x is,
Z2px
Hx dl ¼ Ix ð4:17Þ
0
Hx 2px ¼ Ix ð4:18Þ
Ix
Hx ¼ ð4:19Þ
2px
The current density at a radius x can be expressed as,
Ix
Jx ¼ ð4:20Þ
px2
The current density at a radius r is expressed as,
I
Jr ¼ ð4:21Þ
pr 2
Neglecting the skin effect and assuming a uniform current density throughout the
cross section of the conductor. In this case, the current densities at the two radii can
be written as,
Jr ¼ Jx ð4:22Þ

4.4 Internal Inductance 149
Ix I
¼ ð4:23Þ
px2 pr 2
Ix I
¼
px2 pr 2
x2 I
Ix ¼ ð4:24Þ
r2
x2 I
Hx ¼ r2
ð4:25Þ
2px
xI
Hx ¼ ð4:26Þ
2pr 2
The expression of the magnetic flux density at a radius x is,
Bx ¼ lHx ð4:27Þ
lr l0 xI
Bx ¼ lHx ¼ ð4:28Þ
2pr 2
lr l0 x I
Bx ¼ ð4:29Þ
2pr 2
Let us consider an elementary area that has a differential thickness dx along the
radial direction and a unit length (1 m) along the axial direction is,
A ¼ dx 12 ¼ dx ð4:30Þ
The differential flux along the circular strip due to differential thickness be
denoted by d/x and this is expressed as,
d/x ¼ Bx A ð4:31Þ
d/x ¼ Bx dx ð4:32Þ

lr l0 x I
d/x ¼ dx ð4:33Þ
2pr 2
The entire cross section of the conductor does not link the flux in Eq. (4.33). For
a uniform current density, the ratio of the cross-sectional area of the inner circle of
radius x to the cross-sectional area of the outer circle of radius r that links the flux
d/x .
Mathematically, the fraction px
2
pr 2 of the total current is linked by this flux.
Therefore, the differential flux linkage is expressed as,
px2
dwx ¼ d/ ð4:34Þ
pr 2 x
px2 lr l0 x I
dwx ¼ dx ð4:35Þ
pr 2 2pr 2
lr l0 x3 I
dwx ¼ dx ð4:36Þ
2pr 4
The internal flux linkage inside of the conductor can be obtained by integrating
Eq. (4.36) from 0 to r and it becomes,
Zr
wx ¼ dwx ð4:37Þ
0
Zr
llI
wint ¼ r 04 x3 dx ð4:38Þ
2pr
0
lr l0 I r 4
wint ¼ ð4:39Þ
2pr 4 4
lr l0 I
wint ¼ Wbt=m ð4:40Þ
8p
Internal inductance of the conductor due to this flux linkage is defined as,
wint
Lint ¼ ð4:41Þ
I

4.4 Internal Inductance 151
lr l0
Lint ¼ ð4:42Þ
8p
Substituting the value of l0 ¼ 4p 107 H=m into Eq. (4.21) yields,

lr
Lint ¼ 107 H=m ð4:43Þ
2
From Eq. (4.43), it is concluded that the internal inductance does not depend on
conductor radius.
4.5 External Inductance
An external inductance is due to external flux linkage when a conductor carries a

current. Let us consider two conductors with one go which represents the cross and
the other one return represents the dot. Again, consider the radius of the conductor
is r and the total current is concentrated at the surface of the conductor. It is
assumed that the return conductor is placed in a region after the distance D as
shown in Fig. 4.5. This distance is longer than the conductor radius. Therefore, no
flux lines will be cut by the two conductors. The differential flux for a small region
of thickness dx and one meter axial length of the conductor is [1, 2],
lr l0 I
d/ext ¼ Bx A ¼ ðdx 12 Þ ð4:44Þ
2px
Since the flux linkage is close to one conductor, therefore, the differential flux
linkage is equal to the differential flux times one and it can be expressed as,
dwext ¼ d/x 1 ð4:45Þ
lr l0 I
dwext ¼ dx ð4:46Þ
2px
Fig. 4.5 Conductors for

external inductance
The total flux linkage due to one conductor can be determined by integrating
Eq. (4.46) from r to D–r as,
ZDr
wext ¼ dwx ð4:47Þ
r
ZDr
lr l0 I dx
wext ¼ ð4:48Þ
2p x
r
lr l0 I Dr
wext ¼ lnxjr ð4:49Þ
2p
lr l0 I D r
wext ¼ ln ð4:50Þ
2p r
Outside distance of the conductor is longer that the conductor radius, i.e., D r.
In this case, D r can be reduced to only D and Eq. (4.50) can be modified as,
lr l0 I D
wext ¼ ln ð4:51Þ
2p r
Substituting Eq. (4.51) into Eq. (4.41) for external inductance, it can be written
as,
wext lr l0 D
Lext ¼ ¼ ln ð4:52Þ
I 2p r
The total inductance per meter length is the sum of internal and external
inductances and it can be determined as,
L ¼ Lext þ Lint ð4:53Þ
lr l0 lr l0 D
L¼ þ ln ð4:54Þ
8p 2p r

ll 1 D
L¼ r 0 þ ln ð4:55Þ
2p 4 r
4.5 External Inductance 153

lr l0 1 D
L¼ ln e þ ln
4 ð4:56Þ
2p r
lr l0 D
L¼ ln 1 ð4:57Þ
2p re 4
lr 4p 107 D
L¼ ln ð4:58Þ
2p 0:7788r
D
L ¼ 2 107 lr ln ð4:59Þ
r0
where
r 0 ¼ 0:7788r is the geometric mean radius (GMR).
The GMR can be considered as the radius of a fictitious conductor assumed to
have no internal flux linkages but with the same inductance as the actual conductor
with the same radius r. The expression of the inductance in the air ðlr ¼ 1Þ is
expressed as,
D
L ¼ 2 107 ln H=m ð4:60Þ
r0
In general, the expression of the inductance is,
GMD
L ¼ 2 107 ln H=m ð4:61Þ
GMR
The geometric mean distance is abbreviated as GMD. Again, consider

GMD = D = Dm and GMR = Ds. Equation (4.61) is modified as,
Dm
L ¼ 2 107 ln H=m ð4:62Þ
Ds
4.6 Concept of GMD and GMR
GMD comes into the picture when there are two or conductors per phase used as in
the bundled conductors. The GMD is also used for inductance calculation between
the two groups of conductors. In the two groups, the geometric mean distance of a
point concerning some points is the geometric mean of the distances between that
point and each of the other points. GMD replaces the actual arrangement of the
conductors by a hypothetical distance. Therefore, the mutual inductance of the
arrangement remains the same. The two groups of conductors which are placed
horizontally are shown in Fig. 4.6. The mathematical expression of GMD is,
Fig. 4.6 Two groups of

conductors b a'
b'
Second group
First group
a
m n
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
GMD ¼ mn
ðDaa0 Dab0 Dan ÞðDba0 Dbb0 Dbn ÞðDma0 Dmb0 Dmn Þ ð4:63Þ
where
Daa0 is the distance between the conductors a and a0 ,
Dab0 is the distance between the conductors a and b0 ,
Dan is the distance between the conductors a and n,
Dmn is the distance between the conductors m and n.
In GMR, the effect of magnetic flux lines is considered outside of the conductor
as well as inside. GMR is a hypothetical radius that replaces the actual conductor
with a thin-walled hollow conductor of radius equivalent to GMR that the
self-inductance of the inductor remains the same. GMR is calculated separately for
each phase, and the value of GMR might be different for each phase depending on
the conductor size and arrangement. Four conductors are placed in a group as
shown in Fig. 4.7 and the expression of GMR can be written as,
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
m2
GMR ¼ ðDaa Dab Dac Dam ÞðDbb Dba Dbc Dbm ÞðDcc Dca Dcb Dcm ÞðDmm Dma Dmb Dmc Þ
ð4:64Þ
where
Daa is the self GMR,
Dab is the distance between the conductors a and b,
Dac is the distance between the conductors a and c,
Dam is the distance between the conductors a and m.
Fig. 4.7 Four conductors in a b

a group
m
c
4.7 Inductance of a Single-Phase Line 155
4.7 Inductance of a Single-Phase Line
Consider a single-phase line that consists of two conductors a and b. Let us assume
current entering through the conductor a and coming out through the conductor
b. These conductors are separated by a distance D as shown in Fig. 4.8.
A conductor a with radius, ra carries a current Ia ¼ I reference out of the page.
A conductor b with radius rb carries a return current Ib ¼ I. Therefore, the sum of
these two currents is zero. The internal and external inductance of the conductor
a is,
1
LaðintÞ ¼ 107 H=m ð4:65Þ
2
D
LaðextÞ ¼ 2 107 ln H=m ð4:66Þ
ra
The total inductance of the conductor a is,
1 D
La ¼ 107 þ 2 107 ln ð4:67Þ
2 ra

1 D
La ¼ 2 107 þ ln ð4:68Þ
4 ra

D
La ¼ 2 107 ln e4 þ ln
1
ð4:69Þ
ra
D
La ¼ 2 107 ln ð4:70Þ
r a e 4
1
D
La ¼ 2 107 ln ð4:71Þ
0:7788ra
D
La ¼ 2 107 ln ð4:72Þ
ra0
In general, Eq. (4.72) can be expressed as,
Fig. 4.8 Two conductors

with separation distance ra rb
a
b
D
GMD
La ¼ 2 107 ln ð4:73Þ
GMRa
Substituting ra0 by GMRa and D by GMD in Eq. (4.72) yields,

1 D
La ¼ 2 107 ln 0 þ ln ð4:74Þ
ra 1
According to Eq. (4.72), the similar expression for the inductance of the con-
ductor b can be written as,
D
Lb ¼ 2 107 ln ð4:75Þ
rb0
In general, Eq. (4.75) can be written as,
GMD
Lb ¼ 2 107 ln ð4:76Þ
GMRb
Equation (4.75) can also be modified as,

7 1 D
Lb ¼ 2 10 ln 0 þ ln ð4:77Þ
rb 1
where
ra0 ¼ 0:7788ra is the GMR of the conductor a,
rb0 ¼ 0:7788rb is the GMR of the conductor b,
D is the geometric mean distance (GMD) between the conductors.
Therefore, total inductance of the single-phase line can be determined as,
LT ¼ La þ Lb ð4:78Þ
D D
LT ¼ 2 107 ln þ 2 107 ln 0 ð4:79Þ
ra0 rb
D2
LT ¼ 2 107 ln ð4:80Þ
ra0 rb0
1 D2
LT ¼ 2 107 2 ln 0 0 ð4:81Þ
2 ra rb
12
7 D2
LT ¼ 4 10 ln 0 0 ð4:82Þ
ra rb
D
LT ¼ 4 107 ln pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi0 ð4:83Þ
ra0 rb
If two conductors are identical, then the following condition can be written as,
ra0 ¼ rb0 ¼ r 0 ð4:84Þ
D
LT ¼ 4 107 ln H=m ð4:85Þ
r0
In general, Eq. (4.85) can be expressed as,
Dm
LT ¼ 4 107 ln H=m ð4:86Þ
Ds
where
Dm is the geometric mean distance,
Ds is the geometric mean radius.
Example 4.2
Two circuits of a single-phase 50 Hz line are shown in Fig. 4.9. The radius of each
conductor of the circuit A and circuit B is 0.2 cm and 0.4 cm, respectively.
Calculate the GMD, GMR for each circuit, the inductance for each circuit, and the
total inductance per meter.
Fig. 4.9 Circuit for Example

4.2
8m a'
a
4m
4m
b b'
4m
c Circuit B
Circuit A
Solution
In the circuit as shown in Fig. 4.9, the corresponding distances are calculated as,
Daa0 ¼ 8 m ð4:87Þ
Dbb0 ¼ 8 m ð4:88Þ
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Dab0 ¼ Dba0 ¼ Dcb0 ¼ 82 þ 42 ¼ 8:94 m ð4:89Þ
Dca0 ¼ 82 þ 82 ¼ 11:31 m ð4:90Þ
The number of conductors for each circuit is,
m ¼ 3; n0 ¼ 2
The value of the GMD can be calculated as,

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
mn0
GMD ¼ ðDaa0 Dab0 ÞðDba0 Dbb0 ÞðDca0 Dcb0 Þ ð4:91Þ
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
GMD ¼ 6 ð8 8:94Þð8:94 8Þð11:31 8:94Þ ¼ 8:96 m ð4:92Þ
Geometric mean radius for circuit A is calculated as,

p
32
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
GMRA ¼ ðDaa Dab Dac ÞðDbb Dba Dbc ÞðDcc Dca Dcb Þ ð4:93Þ
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
32
GMRA ¼ ð0:2 102 0:7788Þ3 44 82 ¼ 0:734 m ð4:94Þ
The geometric mean radius for circuit B is calculated as,

p
22
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
GMRB ¼ ðDa0 a0 Da0 b0 ÞðDb0 b0 Db0 a0 Þ ð4:95Þ
pffiffiffi
GMRB ¼ 4ð0:4 102 0:7788Þ2 42 ¼ 0:353 m ð4:96Þ
Inductance for circuit A is determined as,
GMD 8:96
LA ¼ 2 107 ln ¼ 2 107 ln ¼ 5 107 H=m ð4:97Þ
GMRA 0:734
Inductance for circuit B is calculated as,
GMD 8:96
LB ¼ 2 107 ln ¼ 2 107 ln ¼ 6:47 107 H=m ð4:98Þ
GMRB 0:353
8m 4m
4m 4m
Circuit B
Circuit A
Fig. 4.10 Circuit for Practice Problem 4.2
The total inductance per meter is determined as,
LT ¼ LA þ LB ¼ 11:47 107 H=m ð4:99Þ

A go circuit of a single-phase transmission line is composed of the three solid wires
of 0.4 cm radius. The return circuit is composed of the two solid wires of 0.2 cm
radius. The arrangement of the conductors is shown in Fig. 4.10. Calculate the
GMD, GMR for each circuit, the inductance for each circuit, and the total induc-
tance per meter.
4.8 Self- and Mutual Inductance
The rate of change of current in the coil induces the voltage is known as
self-inductance. The rate of change of current in the nearby coil is known as mutual
inductance. Inductance inductors of the two conductors are shown in Fig. 4.11.
Here, Laa and Lbb are the self-inductances of two conductors. Also, Lab and Lba are
their mutual inductances. The flux linkage due to self-inductance of the conductor
a is expressed as,
was ¼ Laa Ia ð4:100Þ
The flux linkage due to mutual inductance of the same conductor is expressed as,
wam ¼ Lab Ib ð4:101Þ
Fig. 4.11 Separate inductors Ia Ib
Laa Lbb
The total flux linkage of the conductor a is the sum of the flux linkage due to self
and mutual it can be expressed as,
wa ¼ was þ wam ð4:102Þ
wa ¼ Laa Ia þ Lab Ib ð4:103Þ
Similarly, the total flux linkage of the conductor b can be written as,
wb ¼ wbs þ wbm ¼ Lbb Ib þ Lba Ia ð4:104Þ
Since the two currents are in opposite direction, it can be written as,
Ia ¼ Ib ð4:105Þ
wa ¼ ðLaa Lab ÞIa ð4:106Þ
Again, substituting Eq. (4.105) into Eq. (4.104) yields,
wb ¼ ðLbb Lba ÞIb ð4:107Þ
Comparing Eqs. (4.74) and (4.77), following expressions for self-inductance and
mutual inductance can be written as,
1
Laa ¼ 2 107 ln ð4:108Þ
ra0
1
Lbb ¼ 2 107 ln ð4:109Þ
rb0
1
Lab ¼ Lba ¼ 2 107 ln ð4:110Þ
D
where
Laa is the self-inductance of the conductor a,
Lbb is the self-inductance of the conductor b,
Lab and Lba are the mutual inductances.
In general, the flux linkage of the ith conductor is expressed as,
4.8 Self- and Mutual Inductance 161
X
n
wi ¼ Lii Ii þ Lij Ij i 6¼ j ð4:111Þ
j¼1
Substituting the expressions of self-inductance and mutual inductance in

Eq. (4.111) yields,
!
1 Xn
1
7
wi ¼ 2 10 Ii ln þ Ij ln i 6¼ j ð4:112Þ
ri 0 j¼1
D ij
4.9 Inductance of Three-Phase Lines
Conductors in the three-phase transmission lines are usually placed as either a

symmetrical spacing or an unsymmetrical spacing. The analysis of symmetrical
spacing and the unsymmetrical spacing of conductors of the three-phase trans-
mission lines are discussed.
4.9.1 Symmetrical Spacing Conductors
Three conductors a, b, and c carry current Ia, Ib, and Ic, respectively. These con-
ductors are placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle as shown in Fig. 4.12 and
it can be written as,
D12 ¼ D23 ¼ D31 ¼ D ð4:113Þ
For balanced condition, the sum of the currents in the three conductors is equal
to zero and it can be expressed as,
Ia þ Ib þ Ic ¼ 0 ð4:114Þ
Ib þ Ic ¼ Ia ð4:115Þ
Fig. 4.12 Conductors placed a

at an equilateral triangle 1
D31 D12
c b
3 D 23 2
According to Eq. (4.112), the total flux linkage of the conductor a is,

1 1 1
wa ¼ 2 107 Ia ln 0 þ Ib ln þ Ic ln ð4:116Þ
ra D12 D31
1 1
wa ¼ 2 107 Ia ln 0
þ 2 107 ðIb þ Ic Þ ln ð4:117Þ
ra D
1 1
wa ¼ 2 107 Ia ln 2 107 Ia ln ð4:118Þ
ra0 D
1
r0
wa ¼ 2 107 Ia ln 1a ð4:119Þ
D
D
wa ¼ 2 107 Ia ln ð4:120Þ
ra0
Line inductance of the conductor a is expressed as,
wa
La ¼ ð4:121Þ
Ia
D
La ¼ 2 107 ln ð4:122Þ
ra0
Similarly, the line inductances of the conductors b and c are,
D
Lb ¼ 2 107 ln ð4:123Þ
rb0
D
Lc ¼ 2 107 ln ð4:124Þ
rc0
4.9 Inductance of Three-Phase Lines 163
4.9.2 Unsymmetrical Spacing Conductors
Three conductors a, b, and c carry current Ia, Ib, and Ic, respectively. These con-
ductors having the same radius r are placed unsymmetrically as shown in Fig. 4.13,
and it can be written as,
D12 6¼ D23 6¼ D31 ð4:125Þ
According to Eq. (4.112), the expression of the flux linkage of conductor a due
to Ia , Ib and Ic can be written as,

1 1 1
wa ¼ 2 107 Ia ln 0 þ Ib ln þ Ic ln ð4:126Þ
r D12 D31
Similarly, the expressions for the flux linkages of the conductors b and c are,

7 1 1 1
wb ¼ 2 10 Ia ln þ Ib ln 0 þ Ic ln ð4:127Þ
D12 r D23

7 1 1 1
wc ¼ 2 10 Ia ln þ Ib ln þ Ic ln 0 ð4:128Þ
D31 D23 r
Again, consider the current Ia is the reference phasor acts in OA direction. The
reference phasor rotates counterclockwise as shown in Fig. 4.14. Multiplying the
phasor Ia by a and the new phasor aIa acts in the OB line. Again, multiplying the
phasor aIa by a and the new phasor a2 Ia rotates with an angle of 240° counter-
clockwise which represents by the line OC. It can be expressed as,
a2 I ¼ I j240 ð4:129Þ
a2 ¼ 1 j240 ¼ 0:5 j0:866 ð4:130Þ
1 1
¼ ¼ 1 j120 ¼ a ð4:131Þ
a2 1 j240
Fig. 4.13 Unsymmetrical a

spacing conductors 1
D31 D12
b
c 2
D23
3
Fig. 4.14 Representation of B

current phasors aI a
120
Ia
120
O A
120
a2 Ia
C
According to the positive phase sequence, the following equations can be written
as,
I a ¼ I a j 0 ð4:132Þ
Ib ¼ Ia j240 ¼ a2 Ia ð4:133Þ
Ic ¼ Ia j120 ¼ aIa ð4:134Þ

1 1 1
wa ¼ 2 107 Ia ln 0 þ a2 Ia ln þ aIa ln ð4:135Þ
r D12 D31
From Eq. (4.135), the expression of inductance of the conductor a can be

derived as,

wa 7 1 1 1
La ¼ ¼ 2 10 ln 0 þ a ln
2
þ a ln ð4:136Þ
Ia r D12 D31
Ib Ib
Ic ¼ Ia j120 ¼ a ¼ ð4:137Þ
a2 a
Substituting Eqs. (4.133) and (4.137) into Eq. (4.127) yields the expression for
the inductance of the conductor b as,

wb 7 1 1 1 1 1
Lb ¼ ¼ 2 10 ln 0 þ 2 ln þ a 2 ln ð4:138Þ
Ib r a D12 a D23

7 1 1 1 1
Lb ¼ 2 10 ln 0 þ a ln þ ln ð4:139Þ
r D12 a D23

71 1 1
Lb ¼ 2 10 ln 0 þ a ln þ a ln
2
ð4:140Þ
r D12 D23
Ic
Ib ¼ a2 ¼ aIc ð4:141Þ
a
The expression for the inductance of the conductor c can be expressed as,
wc
Lc ¼ ð4:142Þ
Ic

2 107 1 1 1
Lc ¼ Ia ln þ Ib ln þ Ic ln 0 ð4:143Þ
Ic D31 D23 r

2 107 1 Ic 1 1
Lc ¼ Ic ln 0 þ ln þ aIc ln ð4:144Þ
Ic r a D31 D23

7 1 1 1 1
Lc ¼ 2 10 ln 0 þ ln þ a ln ð4:145Þ
r a D31 D23
The average value of the inductance can be determined as,
L a þ L b þ Lc
L¼ ð4:146Þ
3
Substituting Eqs. (4.136), (4.140), and (4.145) into Eq. (4.146) yields,

2 107 1 1 1 1
L¼ 3 ln 0 þ ln ða2 þ aÞ þ ln ða2 þ aÞ þ ln ða2 þ aÞ
3 r D12 D23 D31
ð4:147Þ

2 107 1 1 1 1
L¼ 3 ln 0 þ ða2 þ aÞ ln þ ln þ ln ð4:148Þ
3 r D12 D23 D31

2 107 1 1
L¼ 3 ln 0 þ ð1Þ ln ð4:149Þ
3 r D12 D23 D31

7 1 1 1
L ¼ 2 10 ln 0 þ ln ð4:150Þ
r 3 D12 D23 D31

7 1 1
L ¼ 2 10 ln 0 ln p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð4:151Þ
r 3
D12 D23 D31
p
3
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
7 D12 D23 D31
L ¼ 2 10 ln H=m ð4:152Þ
r0
Dm
L ¼ 2 107 ln H=m ð4:153Þ
Ds
where the geometric mean distance Dm for this arrangement is,

p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Dm ¼ 3
D12 D23 D31 ð4:154Þ
Example 4.3
The conductors of a three-phase, 50 Hz, 120 km long transmission line are shown
in Fig. 4.15. The diameter of each conductor is 0.6 cm. Calculate the inductance in
H/m and inductive reactance per phase.
Solution
The value of the GMR of the conductor is,
Ds ¼ 0:7788r ¼ 0:7788 0:3 ¼ 0:233 cm ð4:155Þ
The value of the GMD is,

p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Dm ¼ 3
Dab Dbc Dca ¼ 3 2 2 3 ¼ 2:29 m ð4:156Þ
Fig. 4.15 Conductors a

arrangement for Example 4.3
2m 2m
c
3m b
Fig. 4.16 Conductors

a
arrangement for Practice
Problem 4.3
2.5m
1.5m
b
c 2.2m
The value of the inductance per phase is,
Dm 229
L ¼ 2 107 ln ¼ 2 107 ln ð4:157Þ
Ds 0:233
L ¼ 1:38 106 H=m ð4:158Þ
The value of the inductance per km is,
L ¼ 1:38 103 H=km ð4:159Þ
The value of the inductance per phase is calculated as,
L ¼ 1:38 103 120 ¼ 0:17 H ð4:160Þ
The value of the inductive reactance per phase is determined as,
XL ¼ 2p 50 0:17 ¼ 53:41 X ð4:161Þ

The conductors’ arrangement of a three-phase, 50 Hz, 80 km long transmission line
is shown in Fig. 4.16. The diameter of each conductor is 1 cm. Determine the
inductance in H/m and inductive reactance per phase.
4.10 Transposition of Conductors
The phase conductors of transmission lines cannot maintain symmetrical spacing

along the entire length because of the construction of transmission towers on
uneven lands. Therefore, the inductance will be different in an unsymmetrical
spacing conductor with a corresponding unbalanced voltage for each conductor. It
is very difficult to find the inductance when the conductors are placed in an
unsymmetrical spacing. Due to unsymmetrical spacing, flux linkages and
1 Position 1 Position 2
a Position 3 Position 4
a c b a
D12 Ia
b Ib
D31 b
a c b
2
D23 Ic
3
c b a c
c
Fig. 4.17 Position of conductors in different steps
inductances of each phase are not the same, and the magnetic field to the conductors
is not zero. Due to this magnetic field, the voltage induced in adjacent conductors,
especially in telephone lines, may result in interference. The conductors of trans-
mission lines need to be transposed to reduce this interference effect to a minimum.
In transposition, the balanced condition of the three-phase lines can be obtained by
changing the position of the conductors at regular intervals along the line so that
each conductor will come to the original position along with another conductor over
an equal distance. This kind of exchange of the position of the conductors is known
as transposition. The conductor’s position at different steps is shown in Fig. 4.17.
At position 1, the conductor a is in position 1, the conductor b is in position 2 and
the conductor c is in position 4. The total flux linkage of the conductor a when it is
at position 1 is,

7 1 1 1
wa1 ¼ 2 10 Ia ln 0 þ Ib ln þ Ic ln ð4:162Þ
r D12 D31
At position 2, the conductor a is in position 2, the conductor b is in position 3,

and the conductor c is in position 1. The total flux linkage of the conductor a when
it is at position 2 is,

7 1 1 1
r D23 D12
At position 3, the conductor a is in position 3, the conductor b is in position 1,

and the conductor c is in position 2. The total flux linkage of the conductor a when
it is at position 3 is,

1 1 1
r D31 D23
4.10 Transposition of Conductors 169
The average value of the flux linkage of the conductor a is calculated as,
wa1 þ wa2 þ wa3

wa ¼ ð4:165Þ
3

2 107 1 1 1
wa ¼ 3Ia ln 0 þ Ib ln þ Ic ln ð4:166Þ
3 r D12 D23 D31 D12 D23 D31
For a balanced load, the sum of the currents is equal to zero and it can be
expressed as,
Ia þ Ib þ Ic ¼ 0 ð4:167Þ
Ib þ Ic ¼ Ia ð4:168Þ

1 Ia 1
wa ¼ 2 107 Ia ln 0 ln ð4:169Þ
r 3 D12 D23 D31

1 1 1
wa ¼ 2 107 Ia ln 0 ln ð4:170Þ
r 3 D12 D23 D31
From Eq. (4.170), the expression of inductance for the conductor a can be
expressed as,

wa 7 1 1 1
La ¼ ¼ 2 10 ln 0 ln ð4:171Þ
Ia r 3 D12 D23 D31

7 1 1
La ¼ 2 10 ln 0 ln p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð4:172Þ
r 3
D12 D23 D31

7 1 p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
La ¼ 2 10 ln 0 þ ln D12 D23 D31
3
ð4:173Þ
r
p
3
7 D12 D23 D31
La ¼ 2 10 ln ð4:174Þ
r0
Dm
La ¼ 2 107 ln ð4:175Þ
Ds
The inductance per phase can be expressed as,
Dm
XLphase ¼ 2pf 2 107 ln ð4:176Þ
Ds
where the geometric mean distance is,

Dm ¼ 3
D12 D23 D31
4.11 Bundled Conductors
In long transmission lines, corona discharge is common. Corona occurs when the
surface potential gradient or electric field of a conductor exceeds the dielectric
strength of the surrounding air. This causes ionization of the area near the conductor
and creates hissing sounds and arcs. Corona produces power loss and causes
interference with communication lines or channels. In order to reduce the corona
effect, hollow round conductors are used. For economical constraints, it is feasible
to use more than one conductor per phase when the voltages greater than 220 kV.
The electric field or high voltage surface gradient is usually reduced considerably
by considering two or more conductors per phase in close proximity. This
arrangement is known as the bundling of conductors. The conductors are bundled in
groups of two, three, or four. The advantages of bundle conductors are as follows:
• Self-GMD of conductors increased as radius increased
• The inductance of conductors decreases which lead to reducing the line voltage
drop and improves line performance
• Reduce the voltage gradient in the vicinity of the line
• Reduce the corona loss in the line
• Reduce radio interference in the communication lines or channels
• Provide higher capacitance and lower inductance
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
• Provide higher surge impedance loading ðSIL ¼ ðL=CÞÞ which leads to
maximum power transferability.
Depending on the voltage magnitude of the transmission lines, the bundled
conductor consists of two, three, and four as shown in Fig. 4.18.
The expression of GMR for the two conductors per bundle is,
p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
s ¼
Db2 Ds d Ds d ð4:177Þ
4
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
s ¼
Db2 D2s d 2 ð4:178Þ
4
4.11 Bundled Conductors 171
d d d d
d d d
Fig. 4.18 Arrangements of bundled conductors
s ¼
Db2 Ds d ð4:179Þ
The expression of GMR for the three conductors per bundle is,
p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
s ¼
Db3 ðDs d dÞðDs d dÞðDs d d Þ ð4:180Þ
9
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
s ¼ ðDs d dÞ3 ð4:181Þ
9
Db3
p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
s ¼
Db3 Ds d 2 ð4:182Þ
3
The expression of GMR for four conductors per bundle is,

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffi pffiffiffi pffiffiffi pffiffiffi ffi
s ¼
16
Db4 ðDs d d 2 dÞðDs d d 2 dÞðDs d d 2 dÞðDs d d 2 dÞ
ð4:183Þ
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffi ffi
s ¼ ðDs d d 2 dÞ4
16
Db4 ð4:184Þ
p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
s ¼ 1:09
Db4 Ds d 3 ð4:185Þ
4
Example 4.4
The length of a three-phase single circuit 260 kV transmission line is 100 km. This
line is composed of the three bundle conductors as shown in Fig. 4.19. The radius
of each conductor is 0.8 cm and the distance d ¼ 0:3 m. Determine the inductance
in H/km and inductance per phase.
Solution
The value of the GMR can be determined as,
p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi q ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
¼ Ds d ¼ 0:7788 0:8 102 ð0:3Þ2 ¼ 0:082 m ð4:186Þ
3
Db3
s
3 2
d d d d d d
d d d
8m 8m
Fig. 4.19 Three conductors bundle
The value of the GMD is calculated as,

Dm ¼ 8 8 16 ¼ 10:08 m ð4:187Þ
3
The value of the inductance is calculated as,
Dm 10:08
L ¼ 2 107 ln ¼ 2 107 ln H=m ð4:188Þ
Db3
s 0:082
L ¼ 9:62 107 H=m ð4:189Þ
L ¼ 9:62 104 H=km ð4:190Þ
The value of the inductance per phase for 100 km is calculated as,
L ¼ 9:62 104 100 ¼ 0:096 H ð4:191Þ

The two bundle conductors per phase are used for a 120 km long three-phase single
circuit 230 kV, 50 Hz transmission line as shown in Fig. 4.20. The radius of each
conductor is 0.4 cm and the distance d ¼ 0:4 m. Calculate the inductance in H/km
and inductance per phase.
a b c
d d d
12m 12m
Fig. 4.20 Two conductors bundle

4.12 Line Capacitance 173
4.12 Line Capacitance
The capacitance between the conductors is defined as the charge per unit potential.
q
C¼ ð4:192Þ
V
The capacitance between parallel conductors is normally constant. The capaci-

tance, which is formed in between two lines, is considered as a shunt. The effect of
capacitance is very small for a transmission line that is less than 80 km and
therefore is often neglected but is considered for over 80 km.
Generally, Gauss’s law is considered for analyzing capacitance. This law states
that within a closed surface, the total electric charge equals the total electric flux
emerging from the surface. Mathematically, Gauss’s law can be expressed as,
I
D : dA ¼ Q ð4:193Þ
A
where,
D is the electric flux density in C=m2 ,
Q is the total electric charge on the conductor in coulombs (C).
dA is the unit vector normal to the surface in m2 .
Consider a round conductor whose radius is r and carries charge q C/m as shown
in Fig. 4.20. Applying Gauss’s law to Fig. 4.21 to find the electric flux density at a
radius x and l m length of the cylindrical conductor is,
DA ¼ Q ð4:194Þ
D 2pxl ¼ ql ð4:195Þ
q
D¼ ð4:196Þ
2px
Fig. 4.21 A conductor with a

charge
q
+ +
x +
+
r
+ +
Fig. 4.22 Two points with

different distances
P1
D1
q
+ +
+ D2 P2
+
r
+ +
x
where
l is the length of the cylindrical conductor,
q is the charge on the conductor C/m.
The electric field is related to the electric flux density and it can be expressed as,
D
E¼ ð4:197Þ
e ¼ e0 er
where
e0 is the permittivity of free space and its value is equal to 8:854 1012 F=m,
er is the relative permittivity of the space and its value is equal to 1 for the air.
q
E¼ ð4:198Þ
2pex
Again, consider a long straight conductor that carries a positive charge q C/m as
shown in Fig. 4.22. Assuming that the uniformly distributed charge concentrated at
the center of the conductor due to its equipotential surface, the points P1 and P2 are
located at distances D1 and D2, respectively, from the center of the conductor.
The potential difference (V12) between the two points is the work done by
moving a unit charge between the two points. Therefore, the voltage drop between
the two points can be determined by integrating the field intensity from D1 to D2
over a radial path between the equipotential surfaces as,
ZD2
V12 ¼ Edx ð4:199Þ
D1

4.12 Line Capacitance 175
ZD2
q
V12 ¼ dx ð4:200Þ
2pex
D1
q D2
V12 ¼ ln ð4:201Þ
2pe D1
The line capacitance can be expressed as,
q 2pe
C¼ ¼ D2 ð4:202Þ
V12 ln D
1
4.13 Capacitance of Single-Phase Line
Consider a single-phase line consists of two parallel round conductors of the radius r1
and r2 as shown in Fig. 4.23. The distance D separates the two conductors. Let us
assume conductor 1 carries a charge q1 C/m, and conductor 2 carries a charge q2 C/m.
The conductor’s separation distance is much larger than the radius of the conductors,
and the height of the conductors is much larger than the separation distance to avoid
the ground effect.
The potential difference between conductor 1 and conductor 2 due to charge q1
is,
q1 D12
V12 ðq1 Þ ¼ ln ð4:203Þ
2pe r1
The potential difference between conductor 2 and conductor 1 due to charge q2

is,
q2 D21
V21 ðq2 Þ ¼ ln ð4:204Þ
2pe r2
q2 r2
V12 ðq2 Þ ¼ ln ð4:205Þ
2pe D21
Applying principle of superposition to write the following equation,
V12 ¼ V12 ðq1 Þ þ V12 ðq2 Þ ð4:206Þ
Fig. 4.23 Two parallel 1 2

D
conductors r1 r2
q1 D12 q2 r2
V12 ¼ ln þ ln ð4:207Þ
2pe r1 2pe D21
q1 D12 q2 D22
V12 ¼ ln þ ln ð4:208Þ
2pe D11 2pe D21
In general, the voltage difference between conductors k and i based on

Eq. (4.207) can be written as,
1 X N
Dim
Vk i ¼ qm ln ð4:209Þ
2pe m¼1 Dkm
Let us consider the following assumptions for simplification,
r1 ðD11 Þ ¼ r2 ðD22 Þ ¼ r ð4:210Þ
D12 ¼ D21 ¼ D ð4:211Þ
q1 ¼ q2 ¼ q ð4:212Þ
q D q r
V12 ¼ ln ln ð4:213Þ
2pe r 2pe D
q D q D
V12 ¼ ln þ ln ð4:214Þ
2pe r 2pe r
2
q D
V12 ¼ ln ð4:215Þ
2pe r
q D
V12 ¼ ln ð4:216Þ
pe r
The expression between the conductors is expressed as,

q
C12 ¼ ð4:217Þ
V12

q
C12 ¼ q D ð4:218Þ
pe ln r
4.13 Capacitance of Single-Phase Line 177
1 C12 2 1 C1n C 2n 2
neutral
Fig. 4.24 Capacitance between two conductors and capacitance between neutral to the conductor
pe pe0 er
C12 ¼ ¼ ð4:219Þ
ln Dr ln Dr
For an air medium, Eq. (4.219) can be modified as,

pe0
C12 ¼ ð4:220Þ
ln Dr
For transmission line modeling, the capacitance is defined between the con-
ductor and the neutral point as shown in Fig. 4.24. The potential difference between
one conductor to neutral is equal to one-half of the potential difference between two
conductors. Therefore, the capacitance to neutral is expressed as,
Cn ¼ C1n ¼ C2n ¼ 2C12 ð4:221Þ
2pe0 2p 8:854 1012

Cn ¼ ¼ ð4:222Þ
ln Dr ln Dr
5:56 1011
Cn ¼ F=m ð4:223Þ
ln Dr
0:0556
Cn ¼ lF=km ð4:224Þ
ln Dr
Example 4.5
The radius of the two parallel conductors of a 25 km long single-phase transmission
line is 0.2 cm. The separation distance between the conductors is found to be 2.2 m.
Calculate the capacitance in F=m and lF.
Solution
Here, the values of the radius and separation distance are,
r ¼ 0:2 cm ð4:225Þ
D ¼ 2:2 m ¼ 220 cm ð4:226Þ

The value of the line capacitance can be determined as,
pe0 p 8:854 1012

C¼ ¼ ¼ 3:97 1012 F=m ð4:227Þ
ln Dr ln 220
0:2
C ¼ 3:97 1012 25 103 ¼ 0:099 lF ð4:228Þ

A 135 km long single-phase transmission line consists of two parallel conductors.
The radius of each conductor is 1.5 mm. The separation between the conductors is
found to be 2 m. Consider the line voltage is 33 kV, 50 Hz. Find the capacitance in
lF and charging current.
4.14 Capacitance of Three-Phase Lines
In three-phase transmission lines, the three conductors are arranged either in equal
or unequal spacing. Detailed analysis of equal spacing and unequal spacing of
conductors has been discussed separately.
4.14.1 Capacitance of Three-Phase Lines with Equal

Spacing Conductors
Consider the three conductors with an equal radius r and separated with an equal
distance D as shown in Fig. 4.25. For a balanced three-phase system, the sum of
charges is zero, and it can be expressed as,
qa þ qb þ qc ¼ 0 ð4:229Þ
qb þ qc ¼ qa ð4:230Þ
Fig. 4.25 Conductors with a qa

equal spacing
D D
qc b
D qb
c
4.14 Capacitance of Three-Phase Lines 179
The voltage at the conductor a due to self- and other conductors b and c can be
written as,

1 1 1 1
Va ¼ qa ln þ qb ln þ qc ln ð4:231Þ
2pe r D D

1 1 1
Va ¼ qa ln þ ðqb þ qc Þ ln ð4:232Þ
2pe r D

1 1 1
Va ¼ qa ln qa ln ð4:233Þ
2pe r D
qa D
Va ¼ Van ¼ ln ð4:234Þ
2pe r
The capacitance from line to neutral can be expressed as,
qa 2pe
Can ¼ ¼ ð4:235Þ
Van ln Dr
2p 1 8:854 1012
Can ¼ F=m ð4:236Þ
ln Dr
0:0556
Can ¼ lF=km ð4:237Þ
ln Dr
From Eq. (4.237), it is concluded that the value of the capacitance can be
calculated by substituting the separation distance and radius.
Example 4.6
A three-phase 33 kV, 50 Hz transmission line is having a length of 115 km. The
transmission line consists of the three conductors with an equal radius of 1.5 cm,
and the conductors are arranged as an equilateral triangle with a separation distance
of 2 m. Calculate the capacitance per phase and charging current.
Solution
The separation distance between the two conductors is,
D ¼ 2 m = 200 cm ð4:238Þ
The radius of the conductor is,
r ¼ 1:5 cm ð4:239Þ
The value of the capacitance per phase is calculated as,
0:0556 0:0556
C¼ 115 ¼ 115 ¼ 1:31 lF ð4:240Þ
ln Dr ln 200
1:5
The value of the charging current can be determined as,

VLffiffi
p
33000
Ic ¼ 3
¼ pffiffiffi 2p 50 1:31 106 ¼ 7:84 A ð4:241Þ
Xc 3
A 120 km long three-phase transmission line consists of the three conductors with
an equal radius of 12 mm. The conductors are arranged as an equilateral triangle
with a separation distance of 150 cm. Calculate the capacitance per phase and
charging current if the line voltage and frequency are 33 kV and 50 Hz,
respectively.
4.14.2 Capacitance of Three-Phase Lines with Unequal

Spacing Conductors
It is very difficult to find the capacitance inductance when the conductors are placed
in an unequal spacing. The conductors’ positions at different steps are shown in
Fig. 4.26. According to Eq. (4.209), at step 1, the voltage difference between the
conductors a and b is written as,

1 D12 r ¼ D22 D23
Vab1 ¼ qa ln þ qb ln þ qc ln ð4:242Þ
2pe D11 ¼ r D12 D13
a step1
qa step 2 step 3 step 4
1 a c a
b
D12
b b
qb a c b
D31
2
D23
qc c b a c
3
c
Fig. 4.26 Position of conductors at different steps

Similarly, at step 2, the voltage difference between the conductors a and b is

written as,

1 D23 r D13
2pe r D23 D12
Also, at step 3, the voltage difference between the conductors a and b is

expressed as,

1 D13 r D12
2pe r D13 D23
The average voltage between the conductors a and b is written as,
Vab1 þ Vab2 þ Vab3

Vab ¼ ð4:245Þ
3

1 D12 D23 D31 r D12 D23 D31
Vab ¼ qa ln þ qb ln þ qc ln ð4:246Þ
3 2pe r D12 D23 D31 D12 D23 D31

1 D12 D23 D31 r
Vab ¼ qa ln þ qb ln ð4:247Þ
3 2pe r D12 D23 D31
p
3
1 D12 D23 D31 r
Vab ¼ qa ln þ qb ln p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð4:248Þ
2pe r 3
D12 D23 D31
Similarly, the average voltage between the conductors a and c is written as,
p
3
1 D12 D23 D31 r
Vac ¼ qa ln þ qc ln p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð4:249Þ
2pe r 3
D12 D23 D31
Adding Eqs. (4.248) and (4.249) yields,

p
3
1 D12 D23 D31 r
Vab þ Vac ¼ 2qa ln þ ðqb þ qc Þ ln p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð4:250Þ
2pe r 3
D12 D23 D31

p
3
1 D12 D23 D31 r
Vab þ Vac ¼ 2qa ln qa ln p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi ð4:251Þ
2pe r 3
D12 D23 D31
p
3
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi p
3
1 D12 D23 D31 D12 D23 D31
Vab þ Vac ¼ 2qa ln þ qa ln ð4:252Þ
2pe r r
p
3
1 D12 D23 D31
Vab þ Vac ¼ 3qa ln ð4:253Þ
2pe r
In a balanced three-phase system, the following relations can be written as,
Vab ¼ Van j0 Van j120 ð4:254Þ
Vac ¼ Van j0 Van j120 ð4:255Þ
Adding Eqs. (4.254) and (4.255) yields,

Vab þ Vac ¼ Van j0 Van j120 þ Van j0 Van j120 ð4:256Þ
Vab þ Vac ¼ 3Van ð4:257Þ

p3
1 D12 D23 D31
3Van ¼ 3qa ln ð4:258Þ
2pe r
p
3
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
1 D12 D23 D31
Van ¼ qa ln ð4:259Þ
2pe r
The capacitance from line to neutral is expressed as,

qa 2pe
Can ¼ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð4:260Þ
Van ln 3 D12 D23 D31
r
2p 1 8:854 1012
Can ¼ p3 ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi F=m ð4:261Þ
ln D12 Dr 23 D31
0:0556
Can ¼ lF=km ð4:262Þ
ln GMD
r
where,
GMD ¼ 3
D12 D23 D31 ð4:263Þ
Example 4.7
Figure 4.27 shows an arrangement of the three conductors of a 40 km long
three-phase transmission line. The diameter of each conductor is 2.5 cm. Find the
capacitance per phase.
a b c
2.5m 2.5m
Fig. 4.27 Conductors arrangement for Example 4.7
a b c
0.2m 0.2m 0.2m
6m 6m
Fig. 4.28 Conductors arrangement for Practice Problem 4.7
Solution
The value of the GMD is calculated as,
p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
GMD ¼ D12 D23 D31 ¼ 2:5 2:5 5 ¼ 3:15 m ¼ 315 cm ð4:264Þ
3 3
The radius of the conductor is calculated as,
2:5
r¼ ¼ 1:25 cm ð4:265Þ
2
The per phase capacitance can be determined as,
0:0556 0:0556
Can ¼ lF=km ¼ 40 ¼ 0:402 lF ð4:266Þ
ln GMD
r
315
ln 1:25

A 20 km long three-phase transposed line consists of two bundle conductors as
shown in Fig. 4.28. The radius of each conductor in the bundle is 0.9 cm. Calculate
the capacitance per phase and capacitive reactance.
4.15 Effect of Earth on Capacitance
The method in the image is used to calculate the effect of the earth on the capac-
itance of a conductor. The conductor with a positive charge placed at a certain
height from earth induces the negative charge on the earth’s surface.
The electric flux lines originate from the positive charge conductor and finish at
the negative charge conductor in the earth. The earth is considered to be conducting
and an equipotential plane to an infinite extent. The electric flux lines and an
equipotential surface are perpendicular to each other. Since the earth is an
equipotential plane, which is possible only if it is assumed the presence of an
imaginary conductor below the surface of the earth at a depth equal to the height of
Fig. 4.29 Real and image

conductors (a) I (b) q I
q + +
+ +
+ + + +
+ +
h
2h
earth earth
q
−
− −
− −
the actual conductor above the surface on the earth. This imaginary conductor is
called the image of the actual conductor. Figure 4.29a shows a conductor with a
positive charge q C/m above a height h from the earth’s surface. The positive
charges pass to the earth’s surface as indicated by the arrows. Figure 4.29b shows
that the earth is replaced by a negative charge conductor, place below the original
conductor.
4.16 Capacitance of Single Conductor to Earth
A conductor with a positive charge is placed at a height h m from the earth’s

surface. The image conductor is placed at the same height below the original
conductor as shown in Fig. 4.30. According to Eq. (4.130), the capacitance for a
single-phase conductor can be written as,
pe0
C1earth ¼ ð4:267Þ
ln 2hr
Fig. 4.30 Single conductor q I

to earth + +
+ +
+
earth
2h q
−
− −
− −
4.16 Capacitance of Single Conductor to Earth 185
According to Eq. (4.260), the capacitance with reference to earth is expressed as,
2pe0
Cearth ¼ ð4:268Þ
ln 2hr
4.17 Single-Phase Line Capacitance with Effect of Earth
The two conductors 1 and 2 of a single-phase run parallel by maintaining the same
height from the earth. The conductors 3 and 4 are the image conductors of the
conductors 1 and 2, respectively, as shown in Fig. 4.31. The radius of the con-
ductors 1 and 2 is r. The conductor 1 contains the positive charge, and the con-
ductor 2 contains the negative charge.
According to Eq. (4.209), the voltage difference between the two conductors
(k = 1, i = 2) can be written as,
1 X 4
D2m
V12 ¼ qm ln ð4:269Þ
2pe m¼1 D1m
Equation (4.269) can be expanded for four conductors as,

1 D21 D22 D23 D24
V12 ¼ q1 ln þ q2 ln þ q3 ln þ q4 ln ð4:270Þ
2pe D11 D12 D13 D14
From Fig. 4.31, the following equations can be written as,
D11 ¼ D22 ¼ r ð4:271Þ
D12 ¼ D21 ¼ D ð4:272Þ
Fig. 4.31 Original and image 1 2 −q

conductors of a single-phase q r D12 = D r
line
earth
h
4
3 −q
D34 = D
q
D13 ¼ D24 ¼ 2h ð4:273Þ

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
D14 ¼ D23 ¼ 4h2 þ D2 ð4:274Þ
q1 ¼ q; q2 ¼ q
ð4:275Þ
q3 ¼ q; q4 ¼ q
Substituting equations Eqs. (4.271) and (4.275) into Eq. (4.270) yields,
" pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi #
1 D r 4h2 þ D2 2h
V12 ¼ q ln q ln q ln þ q ln pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð4:276Þ
2pe r D 2h 4h2 þ D2

1 D D 2h 2h
V12 ¼ q ln þ q ln þ q ln pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi þ q ln pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð4:277Þ
2pe r r 4h2 þ D2 4h2 þ D2

q 2hD
V12 ¼ ln pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð4:278Þ
pe r 4h2 þ D2
q pe
C12 ¼ ¼ ð4:279Þ
V12 ln pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2hD ffi
r 4h2 þ D2
p 8:854 1012
C12 ¼ F=m ð4:280Þ
ln qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
D
r 1 þ ð2h Þ
D 2
0:0278
C12 ¼ lF=km ð4:281Þ
ln qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
D
r 1 þ ð2h Þ
D 2
Consider Fig. 4.32 to derive generalized relationship between the capacitance

and the earth. Comparing Figs. 4.30 and 4.31, the following relations can be written
as,
D13 ¼ Hxy ð4:282Þ
D14 ¼ Hxy ð4:283Þ
D23 ¼ Hyx ð4:284Þ
Substituting Eqs. (4.271), (4.272), (4.275), (4.276), (4.277), and (4.278) into
Eq. (4.279) yields,
4.17 Single-Phase Line Capacitance with Effect of Earth 187
Fig. 4.32 Original and image x y −q

conductors of a single-phase q r D12 = D r
line for generalized cases
h
H xy H yy
H xx
earth
h H yx
−q y'
D34 = D
x' q

1 D21 ¼ D D22 ¼ r Hyx Hyy
V12 ¼ q ln q ln q ln þ q ln ð4:285Þ
2pe D11 ¼ r D12 ¼ D Hxx Hxy

1 D Hyx Hxy
V12 ¼ 2q ln q ln ð4:286Þ
2pe r Hxx Hyy
The distances Hyx = Hxy and Hyy = Hxx, and then Eq. (4.280) can be modified as,

1 D Hyx Hxy
V12 ¼ 2q ln q ln ð4:287Þ
2pe r Hxx Hyy

q D Hxy
V12 ¼ ln ln ð4:288Þ
pe r Hxx
The general expression of line-to-line capacitance with the effect of the earth is
expressed as,
pe
C12 ¼ h i F=m ð4:289Þ
H
ln Dr ln Hxyxx
Then, the expression of neutral capacitance is,
2pe
Cn ¼ 2C12 ¼ h i F=m ð4:290Þ
H
ln Dr ln Hxyxx
Fig. 4.33 Original and image 2 b

conductors of three-phase D12
lines r D23
1 H12
3
D31
a c
H 23
H 31
H 31
earth
H11 H 33
H 22
H12
H 23 c
4.18 Three-Phase Line Capacitance with Effect of Earth
Consider the three conductors a, b, and c are placed above the ground at points 1, 2,
and 3, respectively, as shown in Fig. 4.33. These conductors carry charges qa, qb,
and qc C/m, respectively. The image conductors are placed below the main con-
ductors and carry negative charges. Conductors are transposed as shown in
Fig. 4.34.
According to Eq. (4.279), the voltage difference between the conductors a and
b when conductors a, b, and c are at positions 1, 2, and 3, respectively, as shown in
Fig. 4.34 can be written as [3],

1 D21 H21 D22 H22 D23 H23
Vab1 ¼ qa ln ln þ qb ln ln þ qc ln ln
2pe D11 H11 D12 H12 D13 H13
ð4:291Þ

1 D12 H12 r H22 D23 H23
2pe r H11 D12 H12 D31 H31
ð4:292Þ
Fig. 4.34 Transposed step 1 step 2 step 3

conductors 1 1 1
a c b
2 2 2
b a c
3 3 3
c b a
4.18 Three-Phase Line Capacitance with Effect of Earth 189
Similarly, the voltage difference between the conductors a and b when con-
ductors a, b, and c are at positions 2, 3, and 1, respectively, as shown in Fig. 4.34
can be written as,

1 D23 H23 r H33 D31 H31
2pe r H22 D23 H23 D12 H12
ð4:293Þ
Again, the voltage difference between the conductors a and b when conductors
a, b, and c are at positions 3, 1, and 2, respectively, as shown in Fig. 4.34 can be
written as,

1 D31 H31 r H11 D12 H12
2pe r H33 D31 H31 D23 H23
ð4:294Þ
The average value of the voltage can be written as,
Vab1 þ Vab2 þ Vab3

Vab ¼ ð4:295Þ
3

2
3
qa ln Dr12 þ ln Dr23 þ ln Dr31 þ qb ln Dr12 þ ln Dr23 þ ln Dr31
1 6

7
Vab ¼ 6 q ln H12 þ ln H23 þ ln H31 q ln H22 þ ln H33 þ ln H11 7
6pe 4 a H11 H22 H33 b H12 H23 H31 5
þ qc ln D 12 D23 D31
D12 D23 D31
ð4:296Þ

1 D12 D23 D31 r3 H12 H23 H31 H11 H22 H33
Vab ¼ qa ln þ qb ln qa ln qb ln
6pe r3 D12 D23 D31 H11 H22 H33 H12 H23 H31
ð4:297Þ

1 D12 D23 D31 r3 H12 H23 H31 H11 H22 H33
Vab ¼ qa ln þ q b ln q a ln qb ln
6pe r3 D12 D23 D31 H11 H22 H33 H12 H23 H31
ð4:298Þ
2
13
13 3
D12 D23 D31 13 r3
1 6 qa ln r3 þ qb ln D12 D23 D31 qa ln H12 H23 H31
H11 H22 H33 7
Vab ¼ 4
13 5 ð4:299Þ
2pe
qb ln H 11 H22 H33
H12 H23 H31
Substituting 3
D12 D23 D31 ¼ Deq in Eq. (4.290) yields,
p
3
3
1 Deq r H12 H23 H31 H11 H22 H33
Vab ¼ qa ln þ qb ln qa ln p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qb ln p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2pe r Deq 3
H11 H22 H33 3
H12 H23 H31
ð4:300Þ
Similarly, the voltage between a and c can be written as,

p
3
3
1 Deq r H12 H23 H31 H11 H22 H33
Vac ¼ qa ln þ qc ln qa ln p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qc ln p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2pe r Deq 3
H11 H22 H33 3
H12 H23 H31
ð4:301Þ

2 p3 ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi p3 ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 3
1 4 qa ln r þ qb ln Deq qa ln p3 ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Deq H12 H23 H31ffi ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
11 H22 H33ffi
r
q b ln p3 H
H12 H23 H31ffi 5
3Van ¼ p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
H11 H22 H33ffi p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð4:302Þ
2pe qa ln Deq þ qc ln r qa ln p3 ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
H12 H23 H31ffi
qc ln p3 ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
H11 H22 H33ffi
3 3
r Deq H H H 11 22 H H H
33 12 23 31
p
3
3
1 Deq r H12 H23 H31 H11 H22 H33
3Van ¼ 2qa ln þ ðqb þ qc Þ ln 2qa ln p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ðq b þ qc Þ ln p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2pe r Deq 3
H11 H22 H33 3
H12 H23 H31
ð4:303Þ

p
3
3
1 Deq r H12 H23 H31 H11 H22 H33
3Van ¼ 2qa ln qa ln 2qa ln p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi þ q a ln p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2pe r Deq 3
H11 H22 H33 3
H12 H23 H31
ð4:304Þ
p
3
1 Deq H12 H23 H31
3Van ¼ 3qa ln 3qa ln p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð4:305Þ
2pe r 3
H11 H22 H33
p
3
1 Deq H12 H23 H31
Van ¼ qa ln qa ln p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð4:306Þ
2pe r 3
H11 H22 H33
The expression of the capacitance can be written as,
2pe
Cn ¼ p3 ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi F=m ð4:307Þ
D
qa ln req ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
qa ln p3 H 12 H23 H31ffi
H H H11 22 33
Example 4.8
The two conductors of single-phase transmission lines are spaced 3 m apart and
7 m above the ground. The radius of the conductor is 0.02 m. Find the capacitance
to neutral per km with and without the effect of the earth.
4.18 Three-Phase Line Capacitance with Effect of Earth 191
Solution
The value of the capacitance with the effect of the earth is calculated as,
0:0278
C12 ¼ ¼ 5:58 103 lF=km ð4:308Þ
ln q3ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ð0:02Þ 1 þ ð14 Þ
3 2
The value of the capacitance to neutral with the effect of the earth is determined
as,
C1n ¼ C2n ¼ 2C12 ¼ 2 5:58 103 ¼ 0:011 lF=km ð4:309Þ
According to Eq. (4.220), the value of the capacitance to neutral without the
effect of earth can be calculated as,
2pe0 0:0556
C1n ¼ C2n ¼ 2C12 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:011 lF=km ð4:310Þ
ln Dr 3
ln 0:02

The two conductors of single-phase transmission lines are spaced 4 m apart and
8 m above the ground. Determine the radius of the conductor if the value of the
capacitance with the earth is found to be 0.02 lF/km.
4.19 Effect of Bundling in Capacitance
The effect of bundling is also remarkable in the calculation of capacitance in the

transmission lines. Let d be the separation distance between two bundle conductors
and the expressions of geometric mean radius ðRb Þ for different types of bundle
conductors are also summarized here based on bundling in inductance.
For two-conductor bundle, the geometric mean radius is,
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Rb2 ¼ rd ð4:311Þ
For three-conductor bundle, the geometric mean radius is expressed as,

p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Rb3 ¼ r d2 ð4:312Þ
3
For four-conductor bundle, the geometric mean radius is written as,

p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Rb4 ¼ 1:09 r d 3 ð4:313Þ
4
References
1. Wildi T (2005) Electrical machines, drives and power systems, 6th edn. Pearson Education,
USA, pp 1–934
2. Burgen AR, Vittal V (1999) Power systems analysis, 2nd edn. Pearson Education, USA, pp 1–
632
3. Stevenson WD (1982) Elements of power system analysis, 4th edn. McGraw Hill Higher
Education, USA, pp 1–436
Exercise Problems
4:1 The temperature coefficient of the copper of the transmission line is

0:0043= C at 0 C and The resistance of a transmission line at 10 C is 15 X.
Calculate the line impedance at 25 C.
4:2 The temperature coefficient of a copper of a distribution transmission line is
0:004= C at 0 C. Calculate the distribution line impedance at 20 C if the
resistance of a distribution line at 0 C is 15 X.
4:3 A system draws 80 A current through a 20 km long transmission line and the
loss of the line is found to be 40 kW. Calculate the radius of the conductor if
the resistivity of the conductor is given by 1:55 108 Xm .
4:4 A single-phase transmission line is 20 km long and consists of the two-round
conductors. The diameter of each conductor is found to be 0.6 cm and is
separated from each other by 50 cm. Calculate the value of the inductance.
4:5 Figure P4.1 shows a stranded conductor consists of the three identical con-
ductors whose radius is given as r. Calculate the GMR.
4:6 A stranded conductor which consists of two identical conductors as shown in
Fig. P4.2. Calculate the GMR if the radius of each conductor is r.
4:7 The four identical conductors are used to build a stranded conductor as
shown in Fig. P4.3 and the radius of each conductor is r. Determine the
GMR.
Fig. P4.1 Conductors for

Exercise Problem 4.5
1
3

1

1 4
2 3
4:8 Figure P4.4 shows a single-phase line which consists of go and return
conductors. The radius of each go conductor is 0.2 cm, and each return
conductor is 0.3 cm. Calculate the GMD, GMR for each circuit and the total
inductance per km.
4:9 Figure P4.5 shows the conductors’ arrangement of a single-phase double
circuit transmission line. The radius of each conductor is 1.5 cm.
Calculate GMD and the total inductance per km.
4:10 Figure P4.6 shows the conductors’ arrangement of a single-phase transmis-
sion line. The parallel conductors 1 and 2 forms go the path, and the con-
ductors 1′ and 2′ forms return path. The radius of each conductor is 1.8 cm.
Calculate the GMD, GMR and the total inductance per km.
4:11 Figure P4.7 shows the arrangement of a three-phase transmission line where
the conductors are placed horizontally. The radius of each conductor is
0.8 cm. Determine the inductance per km.
4:12 Figure P4.8 represents three flat conductors of a three-phase 50 Hz trans-
posed transmission. The line inductance is 12 107 H/m and the radius of
each conductor is 2 cm. Calculate the separation distance d.
4:13 A double circuit three-phase transmission line is shown in Fig. P4.9. The
diameter of each conductor is 2 cm. Find the inductance per km.
Fig. P4.4 Conductors for 4m

Exercise Problem 4.8 1 1'
Go circuit 1.5m Return circuit

1.5m
2 2'
1.5m
3
Fig. P4.5 Conductors for Go circuit Return circuit

4m
1 1'
2m 2m
2 2'
Fig. P4.6 Conductors for Go circuit Return circuit

Exercise Problem 4.10 1 2 1' 2'
0.5 m 4m 0.5 m
Fig. P4.7 Conductors for 1 2 3

Exercise Problem 4.11 3m 3m

Exercise Problem 4.12 d d

3m
1' 2' 3'
4:14 The conductors of a double circuit three-phase transmission line are shown in
Fig. P4.10. Calculate the inductance per km if the radius of each conductor is
2 cm.
4:15 Figure P4.11 shows a three-phase line with two conductors per bundle. The
radius of each conductor is 1.5 cm. Calculate the inductance in H/km and the
inductance in H if the line is 240 km long.
4:16 Figure P4.12 a three-phase transmission line that consists of three conductors
per bundle per phase. The radius of the conductor is 1.5 cm, and the phase
spacing between the conductors of a bundle is 0.5 m. Find the line induc-
tance in H/km.
4:17 A three-phase transmission line with a double circuit is shown in Fig. P4.13.
The radius of each conductor is 2.5 cm. Calculate the inductance per km.
4:18 Figure P4.14 shows a 120 km long three-phase transmission line with four
conductors per bundle. The radius of each conductor is 1.26 cm. Calculate
the inductance in H and the inductive reactance per phase (Fig. P4.13).
Fig. P4.10 Conductors for 1 2 3 1' 2' 3'

Exercise Problem 4.14 2m 2m 2m 2m 2m
Fig. P4.11 Conductors for 0.5 m 0.5 m 0.5 m

Exercise Problem 4.15 a b c
7m 7m

0.5m
0.5m
a b c
7m 7m
Fig. P4.13 Conductors for 7.5 m

Exercise Problem 4.17 1
1'
2m
2 8m 2'
3 3'

Exercise Problem 4.18 a b
c
0.5m
7m 7m
4:19 A 150 km long single-phase transmission line is having a capacitance of

0.86 lF and the separation distance between the conductor is given as 1.5 m.
Calculate the radius of the conductor.
4:20 The radius of a 120 km long single-phase transmission line conductor is
given as 2 cm, and the capacitance of the line is found to be 0.84 lF. Find
the separation distance between the conductors.
4:21 Figure P4.15 shows the conductors’ arrangement of a 120 kV and 130 km
three-phase transmission lines. The conductors are transposed, and the radius
of the conductor is 1.3 cm. Calculate the capacitance in lF and per phase
charging current.
4:22 A 220 km three-phase line with two conductors per bundle is shown in
Fig. P4.16. The diameter of each conductor is 4 cm, and the phase spacing
between the bundles is 0.5 m. Find the capacitance in lF per km and per
phase current if the line voltage is 132 kV.
4:23 The three conductors per bundle of a 120 km long balanced three-phase line
is shown in Fig. P4.17. The horizontal phase spacing between the bundles is
Fig. P4.15 Conductors for a b c

Fig. P4.16 Conductors for 0.5 m 0.5 m

0.5 m
Exercise problem 4.22
a b c
7m 7m

exercise Problem 4.23 a
b c
0.5 m
7m 7m

exercise Problem 4.24 a b c
0.5 m 0.5 m
8m 8m
7 m, and the spacing between the conductors of a bundle is 0.5 m. Assume

the line is uniformly transposed, and the radius of the conductor is 1.4 cm.
Calculate the per phase capacitance, capacitive reactance and per phase line
current if the line voltage is 132 kV with a frequency of 50 Hz.
4:24 A 150 km long three-phase transmission line with four conductors per
bundle is shown in Fig. P4.18. The horizontal phase spacing between the
bundles is 8 m, and the spacing between the conductors of a bundle is 0.5 m.
Assume the line is uniformly transposed, and the radius of the conductor is
0.6 cm. Find the per phase capacitance and the capacitive reactance if the
frequency is 60 Hz.
Chapter 5
Modeling and Performance
of Transmission Lines
5.1 Introduction
Electric power is generated at the power station and stepped up to a higher voltage
known as national transmission voltage at the substation. This higher voltage is
transferred from the substation to the grid substation by transmission lines. This
voltage is again stepped down to a lower voltage (11 kV) and brought to the
consumer terminals by a distribution line. The end of the distribution line where the
load is connected is called the receiving end, whereas the beginning of the distri-
bution line, where the source voltage is connected, is called the sending end. The
line voltage drops, and losses, efficiency, and voltage regulation identify the per-
formance of the transmission and distribution lines. These parameters are greatly
influenced by the resistance, inductance, and capacitance. In this chapter, different
types of transmission lines, voltage regulation, transmission efficiency, surge
impedance loading, ABCD parameters, Ferranti effect, ground wires, corona dis-
charge, and traveling waves will be discussed.
5.2 Classification of Transmission Lines
In the transmission lines, resistance, inductance, and capacitance are uniformly

distributed over its whole length. The resistance and the inductance form the series
impedance of the line, whereas the capacitance forms the shunt path through the
length of the line. Therefore, the effect of capacitance in the transmission line is
more complex for calculation and simplification. Depending on the effect of
capacitance, the transmission lines are classified as short, medium, and long.
Short transmission line: The length of the line is up to 80 km is known as a short
transmission line. In this line, the voltage is less than 20 kV. Therefore, the effect of
capacitance is smaller due to its short length, and it is neglected.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3212-2_5
198 5 Modelling and Performance of Transmission Lines
Medium transmission line: The length of the line is more than 80 km but is less
than 160 km is known as a medium transmission line. The voltage of this line is
more than 20 kV but less than 100 kV. In the medium transmission line, the effect
of capacitance is considered.
Long transmission line: The length of the transmission line is more than 160 km,
and the voltage rating is more than 100 kV is known as a long transmission line. All
the line parameters are considered uniformly distributed throughout the length of
the line.
5.3 Efficiency and Voltage Regulation
The efficiency and voltage regulation is used to study the performance of a trans-
mission line. The power received at the receiving end is always less than the
sending end power. It is due to the losses of the transmission line. The ratio of
receiving end power to the sending end power is known as the efficiency of the
transmission line. Mathematically, it can be expressed as,
Power delivered at the receiving end

g¼ 100 ð5:1Þ
Power sent from the sending end
Pr Vr Ir cos /r
g¼ 100 ¼ 100 ð5:2Þ
Ps Vs Is cos /s
where
Pr ¼ Vr Ir cos /r is the receiving end power,
Ps ¼ Vs Is cos /s is the sending end power,
Vr ; Ir ; cos /r are the receiving end parameters,
Vs ; Is ; cos /s are the sending end parameters.
The receiving end voltage is normally less than the sending end voltage. It is due
to the resistive and inductive voltage drops of the line. The change in receiving end
voltage from no-load to full load is known as the voltage regulation of the line. It is
expressed as the percent of the full load voltage. Mathematically, the voltage
regulation in percent can be expressed as,
Vrn Vrf
VR ¼ 100 ð5:3Þ
Vrf
where
Vrn is the receiving end voltage under no-load condition,
Vrf is the receiving end voltage under full load condition.
5.4 Analysis of Short Transmission Line 199
5.4 Analysis of Short Transmission Line
In short transmission lines, the effect of capacitance is neglected, whereas the effects
of resistance and inductance are considered for analysis. The equivalent circuit of a
single-phase short transmission line is shown in Fig. 5.1. The impedance of the line
can be determined as,
Z ¼ R þ jXL ð5:4Þ
The expression of voltage per phase at the sending end is,
V s ¼ V r þ Ir Z ð5:5Þ
The sending end current is the same as the receiving end current, and it is written
as,
Is ¼ Ir ð5:6Þ
The equivalent circuit of a short transmission line is compared with the four
terminals’ two-port network as shown in Fig. 5.2. Equations (5.5) and (5.6) can be
represented by the generalized circuit constants that are commonly known as ABCD
constants. The followings equations relate the voltage and current in the sending
end and receiving end as,
Vs ¼ AVr þ BIr ð5:7Þ
Is ¼ CVr þ DIr ð5:8Þ
Equations (5.7) and (5.8) can be expressed in the matrix form as,

Vs A B Vr
¼ ð5:9Þ
Is C D Ir
The ABCD parameters can be determined by considering open circuit and short
circuit at the receiving end. For an open circuit (Ir = 0), Eqs. (5.7) and (5.8) can be
written as,
Fig. 5.1 Equivalent circuit of Is = Ir = I

single-phase short
transmission line
R XL
+
+
Vs Load
Vr
−
−
Fig. 5.2 Two-port network Is Ir

+ +
Vs ABCD Vr
− −
Vs ¼ AVr ð5:10Þ

Vs
A ¼ ð5:11Þ
Vr Ir ¼0
Is ¼ CVr ð5:12Þ

Is
C ¼ ð5:13Þ
Vr Ir ¼0
From Eqs. (5.12) and (5.13), it is concluded that the A is a dimension less and
C has a dimension mho (f).
Again, for a short circuit (Vr = 0), Eqs. (5.7) and (5.8) can be modified as,
Vs ¼ BIr ð5:14Þ

Vs
B¼ ð5:15Þ
Ir Vr ¼0
Is ¼ DIr ð5:16Þ

Is
D¼ ð5:17Þ
Ir Vr ¼0
From Eqs. (5.15) and (5.17), it is concluded that the B has a dimension Ohm (X)
and D is a dimension less.
Now, comparing Eq. (5.7) with Eq. (5.5) yields,
A¼1 ð5:18Þ
B¼Z ð5:19Þ
Again, comparing Eq. (5.6) with (5.8) yields,
C¼0 ð5:20Þ
D¼1 ð5:21Þ
Now, applying the following,
AD BC ¼ 1 1 Z 0 ¼ 1 ð5:22Þ
The phasor diagram of the short transmission line with a lagging power factor is
shown in Fig. 5.3, where the line current is considered as a reference vector.
Here, d is considered as the load angle, i.e., the angle between the sending end
and the receiving end voltages. From Fig. 5.3, the following relations can be written
as,
dc ¼ bf ¼ Vr sin /r ð5:23Þ
ab ¼ Vr cos /r ð5:24Þ
bc ¼ fd ¼ IR ð5:25Þ
de ¼ IXL ð5:26Þ
ae ¼ Vs ð5:27Þ
From the right-angle triangle Dace in Fig. 5.3, the following relation can be
written as,
ae2 ¼ ac2 þ ec2 ð5:28Þ
ae2 ¼ ðab þ bcÞ2 þ ðcd þ deÞ2 ð5:29Þ
Vs2 ¼ ðVr cos /r þ IRÞ2 þ ðVr sin /r þ IXL Þ2 ð5:30Þ

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Vs ¼ ðVr cos /r þ IRÞ2 þ ðVr sin /r þ IXL Þ2 ð5:31Þ
Fig. 5.3 Phasor diagram for Vs e

lagging power factor
IX L
IZ
Vr IR
δ d
φs f
φr I
a b c
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Vs ¼ Vr2 ðcos2 /r þ sin2 /r Þ þ 2Vr IR cos /r þ 2Vr IXL sin /r þ I 2 ðR2 þ XL2 Þ
ð5:32Þ
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2IR 2IXL I2
Vs ¼ Vr 1 þ cos /r þ sin /r þ 2 ðR2 þ XL2 Þ ð5:33Þ
Vr Vr Vr
The ratio of current to voltage is low in the last term, and its square is also very
low. Therefore, the last term in Eq. (5.33) can be neglected. Equation (5.33) is
modified as,
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2IR 2IXL
Vs ¼ Vr 1 þ cos /r þ sin /r ð5:34Þ
Vr Vr
Expanding Eq. (5.34) using binomial expansion and neglecting the higher terms
and it can be expressed as,

1 2IR 2IXL
Vs ¼ Vr 1 þ cos /r þ sin /r ð5:35Þ
2 Vr Vr
Vs ¼ Vr þ IR cos /r þ IXL sin /r ð5:36Þ
According to Eq. (5.3), the percentage of voltage regulation in terms of

receiving end voltage is,
Vs Vr
%VR ¼ 100 ð5:37Þ
Vr
IR cos /r þ IXL sin /r

%VR ¼ 100 ð5:38Þ
Vr
Again, considering leading power factor for analyzing voltage regulation.

Figure 5.4 shows a phasor diagram where the line current leads the receiving end
voltage. From Fig. 5.4, the following relations can be written as,
Fig. 5.4 Phasor diagram for a I b c

leading power factor
φs
φr
δ Vs d
IX L
Vr IR
f e
ec ¼ bf ¼ Vr sin /r ð5:39Þ
ab ¼ Vr cos /r ð5:40Þ
bc ¼ fe ¼ IR ð5:41Þ
de ¼ IXL ð5:42Þ
ad ¼ Vs ð5:43Þ
From Fig. 5.4, the following relation can be written as,
ad 2 ¼ ac2 þ dc2 ð5:44Þ
ad 2 ¼ ðab þ bcÞ2 þ ðec deÞ2 ð5:45Þ
Vs2 ¼ ðVr cos /r þ IRÞ2 þ ðVr sin /r IXL Þ2 ð5:46Þ

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Vs ¼ ðVr cos /r þ IRÞ2 þ ðVr sin /r IXL Þ2 ð5:47Þ
Again, from Fig. 5.3, the load angle can be written as,

ec Vr sin /r þ IXL
tanð/r þ dÞ ¼ ¼ ð5:48Þ
ac Vr cos /r þ IR

1 Vr sin /r þ IXL
/r þ d ¼ tan ð5:49Þ
Vr cos /r þ IR
However, the sending end angle from Fig. 5.3 can be written as,
/s ¼ /r þ d ð5:50Þ
d ¼ /s /r ð5:51Þ
Again, considering receiving end voltage as a reference vector where the current
lags the voltage as shown in Fig. 5.5. The sending end voltage from Fig. 5.5 can be
written as,
Vs ¼ Vr þ I j/r Z ð5:52Þ
Vs ¼ Vr þ Iðcos /r j sin /r ÞðR þ jXL Þ ð5:53Þ

Fig. 5.5 Phasor diagram Vs

with Vr reference
Vr IZ
δ IX L
φr IR
Vs ¼ Vr þ IR cos /r þ IXL sin /r þ jðIXL cos /r IR sin /r Þ ð5:54Þ
Vs þ j0 ¼ Vr þ IR cos /r þ IXL sin /r þ jðIXL cos /r IR sin /r Þ ð5:55Þ
Equating the real part of Eq. (5.55) yields,
Vs ¼ Vr þ IR cos /r þ IXL sin /r ð5:56Þ
From Fig. 5.5, the sending end angle can be written as,
Vr cos /r þ IR
cos /s ¼ cosð/r þ dÞ ¼ ð5:57Þ
Vs

Vr cos /r þ IR
/s ¼ ð/r þ dÞ ¼ cos1 ð5:58Þ
Vs
Again, substituting Eq. (5.56) into Eq. (5.53) to express the voltage regulation
for a lagging power factor as,
IR cos /r þ IXL sin /r

%VR ¼ 100 ð5:59Þ
Vr
Similarly, the voltage regulation for a leading power factor can be expressed as,
IR cos /r IXL sin /r

VR ¼ 100 ð5:60Þ
Vr
Example 5.1
A single-phase short transmission line delivers power to a load of 12 kW and 0.8
lagging power factor. The terminal voltage across the load is 440 V, and the total
transmission line resistance and reactance are 5Ω and 10Ω, respectively. Calculate
the sending end voltage, sending end power factor, and transmission efficiency.
Solution
The value of the impedance is,
Z ¼ 5 þ j10 ¼ 11:2 j63:4 X ð5:61Þ
The value of the line current is calculated as,
12000
I¼ j36:86 ¼ 34:1 j36:86 A ð5:62Þ
440 0:8
The value of the sending end voltage is determined as,
Vs ¼ Vr þ IZ ¼ 440 þ 34:1 j36:86 11:2 j63:4 ¼ 800 j12:31 V ð5:63Þ
The power factor angle at the sending end is calculated as,
/s ¼ 12:31 þ 36:86 ¼ 49:17 ð5:64Þ
Sending end power factor is calculated as,
cos /s ¼ cos 49:17 ¼ 0:65 ð5:65Þ
The transmission line loss is determined as,
Pl ¼ I 2 R ¼ 34:12 5 ¼ 5814:05 W ð5:66Þ
The power at the sending end is calculated as,
Ps ¼ 12000 þ 5814:05 ¼ 17814:05 W ð5:67Þ
The transmission efficiency is calculated as,
12000
g¼ 100 ¼ 67:36% ð5:68Þ
17814:05
A load of 4000 kW with a 0.86 lagging power factor receives power by a
three-phase, wye-connected transmission lines. Consider the line voltage at the load
terminal is 30 kV. The total transmission line resistance and reactance are 3 X and
12 X per phase, respectively. Calculate the sending end voltage, voltage regulation,
and transmission efficiency.
5.5 Medium Transmission Line
In the medium transmission line, the effects of shunt capacitance are considered
throughout the whole length, and it plays an important role to determine other
parameters [1–3]. The shunt capacitance is assumed to be lumped in the middle of
the line, and the impedance is divided equally on either side of the shunt capaci-
tance. This configuration is known as the nominal T-model as shown in Fig. 5.6.
Applying KVL to the circuit in Fig. 5.6 to find out the voltage across the capaci-
tance and it becomes,
Z
Vc ¼ Vr þ Ir ð5:69Þ
2
The current through the capacitance is written as,
Ic ¼ jxCVc ¼ YVc ð5:70Þ
Where the shunt admittance is,
Y ¼ jxC ð5:71Þ
Applying KCL to Fig. 5.6 to determine the sending end current as,
Is ¼ Ir þ Ic ð5:72Þ

Z
Ic ¼ Y Vr þ Ir ð5:73Þ
2
Z R + jX L Z R + jX L
= =
2 2 Vc 2 2
Is Ir
+ Ic
Vs +
Y = jω C Vr Load
−
−
Fig. 5.6 Circuit for nominal T-model

5.5 Medium Transmission Line 207

Z
Is ¼ Ir þ Y V r þ Ir ð5:74Þ
2

ZY
Is ¼ YVr þ 1 þ Ir ð5:75Þ
2
Applying KVL to Fig. 5.6 to determine the expression of sending end

voltage as,
Z
Vs ¼ Vc þ Is ð5:76Þ
2

Z ZY Z
Vs ¼ Vr þ Ir þ YVr þ 1 þ Ir ð5:77Þ
2 2 2
Z YZ Z Z2Y
Vs ¼ Vr þ Ir þ V r þ Ir þ Ir ð5:78Þ
2 2 2 4

YZ ZY
Vs ¼ 1 þ Vr þ 1 þ ZIr ð5:79Þ
2 4
Comparing Eq. (5.79) with Eq. (5.6) and Eq. (5.75) with Eq. (5.7) and the
expression of ABCD parameters can be written as,
YZ
A ¼ 1þ ð5:80Þ
2

YZ
B ¼ Z 1þ ð5:81Þ
4
C¼Y ð5:82Þ
YZ
D ¼ 1þ ð5:83Þ
2
2 2
YZ 2 YZ YZ YZ
AD BC ¼ 1þ YZ 1 þ ¼ 1 þ YZ þ YZ
2 4 2 2
ð5:84Þ
AD BC ¼ 1 ð5:85Þ
When the total shunt admittance is divided into two halves, and each half is
placed at the sending end and the receiving end, while the total circuit impedance is
R I1 XL Ir
Is
+
I c1 Ic2 +
Vs
Y Y Vr Load
−
2 2 −
Fig. 5.7 Circuit for nominal p-model
placed in between the two, is known as the nominal p-model. The p-model is
shown in Fig. 5.7.
Applying KCL to Fig. 5.7 yields,
Y
I1 ¼ Ic2 þ Ir ¼ Vr þ Ir ð5:86Þ
2
Also, applying KVL to Fig. 5.7 yields,
Vs ¼ Vr þ ZI1 ð5:87Þ

Y
Vs ¼ Vr þ Z Vr þ Ir ð5:88Þ
2

YZ
Vs ¼ 1 þ Vr þ ZIr ð5:89Þ
2
Applying KCL to Fig. 5.7 yields,
Y
Is ¼ I1 þ Vs ð5:90Þ
2

Y Y YZ
Is ¼ Ir þ Vr þ 1þ Vr þ ZIr ð5:91Þ
2 2 2

Y Y Y 2Z YZ
Is ¼ þ þ Vr þ 1 þ Ir ð5:92Þ
2 2 4 2

YZ YZ
Is ¼ Y 1 þ Vr þ 1 þ Ir ð5:93Þ
4 2
Comparing Eq. (5.89) with Eq. (5.6) and Eq. (5.93) with Eq. (5.7) yields,
YZ
A ¼ 1þ ð5:94Þ
2
B¼Z ð5:95Þ

YZ
C ¼ Y 1þ ð5:96Þ
4
YZ
D ¼ 1þ ð5:97Þ
2
The following relations can be written as,

YZ 2 YZ
AD BC ¼ 1þ YZ 1 þ ¼1 ð5:98Þ
2 4
Example 5.2
A 30 MW and 0.95 lagging power factor balanced load receives power through
100 km long three-phase 50 Hz transmission lines. The load terminal line voltage is
66 kV. The transmission line parameters per phase are R ¼ 0:2X=km,
XL ¼ 0:5X=km, Y ¼ 0:06 104 f=km. Calculate the sending end voltage, voltage
regulation, and transmission efficiency. Consider the nominal T-model.
Solution
Per phase receiving end voltage is calculated as,
66000
Vr ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 38105:12 V ð5:99Þ
3
The magnitude of the load current is calculated as,
30 1000000
Ir ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 276:2 A ð5:100Þ
3 66 1000 0:95
The impedance per phase is calculated as,
Z ¼ ð0:2 þ j0:5Þ 100 ¼ 20 þ j50 ¼ 53:85 j68:2 X ð5:101Þ
The admittance per phase is determined as,

Y ¼ j0:06 104 100 ¼ j6 104 S ð5:102Þ
The voltage across the capacitance is calculated as,
53:85 j68:2
Vc ¼ 38105:12 þ 276:2 j18:2 ¼ 43262:05 j7:6 V ð5:103Þ
2
The current through the capacitor is calculated as,
Ic ¼ jYVc ¼ j6 104 43262:05 j7:6 ¼ 25:96 j97:6 A ð5:104Þ
The sending end current is calculated as,
Is ¼ Ic þ Ir ¼ 25:96 j97:6 þ 276:2 j18:2 ¼ 265:93 j13:16 A ð5:105Þ
The sending end voltage is calculated as,
Z 53:85 j68:2
Vs ¼ Is þ Vc ¼ 265:93 j13:16 þ 43262:05 j7:6 ð5:106Þ
2 2
Vs ¼ 48393:15 j13:86 V ð5:107Þ
Alternative approach:
The values of the constants are calculated as,
YZ ð20 þ j50Þð6 104 j90 Þ

A ¼ D ¼ 1þ ¼ 1þ ¼ 0:99 j0:35 ð5:108Þ
2 2

YZ ð20 þ j50Þð6 104 j90 Þ
B ¼ Z 1þ ¼ ð20 þ j50Þ 1 þ ð5:109Þ
4 4
B ¼ 53:45 j68:37 X ð5:110Þ
C ¼ Y ¼ 6 104 j90 S ð5:111Þ
The value of the sending end voltage is determined as,
Vs ¼ AVr þ BIr ¼ 0:99 j0:35 38105:12 þ 53:45 j68:37 276:2 j18:2

¼ 48576:57 j13:78 V
ð5:112Þ
The value of the sending end current can be calculated as,

Is ¼ CVr þ DIr ¼ 6 104 j90 38105:12 þ 0:99 j0:35 276:2 j18:2

¼ 267:32 j13:18 A
ð5:113Þ
The receiving end voltage under no-load condition is calculated as,
48576:57
Vrn ¼ ¼ 49067:24 V ð5:114Þ
0:99
The voltage regulation is calculated as,
Vrn Vrf 49067:24 38105:12

VR ¼ 100 ¼ 100 ¼ 28:77% ð5:115Þ
Vrf 38105:12
The transmission line loss is calculated as,

R R

PLine ¼ 3 Is2 þ Ir2 ¼ 3 267:322 10 þ 276:22 10 ¼ 4:43 MW ð5:116Þ
2 2
The transmission efficiency is determined as,
30
g¼ 100 ¼ 87:13% ð5:117Þ
30 þ 4:43
Example 5.3
A 120 km long three-phase 50 Hz transmission line is having per phase per km
resistance, reactance, and susceptance 0:2 X, 0:7 X, and 0:08 104 f, respectively.
The line delivers a power of 25 MW at 0.85 power factor lagging to the receiving
end side, and its terminal voltage is 66 kV. Find the sending end voltage, sending
end power factor, and voltage regulation by considering a nominal p-model.
Solution
The total values of the line parameters per phase are calculated as,
R ¼ 0:2 120 ¼ 24 X ð5:118Þ
XL ¼ 0:7 120 ¼ 84 X ð5:119Þ
Y ¼ 0:08 104 120 ¼ 0:00096 S ð5:120Þ
The receiving end voltage per phase is calculated as,
66 1000
Vr ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 38105:12 V ð5:121Þ
3
The value of the load current is calculated as,
25 106
Ir ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 201:63 A ð5:122Þ
3 66 103 0:85
The current through the line is calculated as,
0:00096
I1 ¼ Ic2 þ Ir ¼ j 38105:12 þ 201:63 j31:78 ¼ 192:63 j27:15 A
2
ð5:123Þ
The sending end voltage is calculated as,
Vs ¼ Vr þ ZI1 ¼ 38105:12 þ ð24 þ j84Þ 192:63 j27:15 ¼ 51102:03 j13:91 V

ð5:124Þ
The sending end current can be calculated as,
Y 0:00096
Is ¼ I1 þ Vs ¼ 192:63 j27:15 þ j 51102:03 j13:91
2 2 ð5:125Þ
¼ 177:48 j21:17 A
The values of the constants are,
YZ ð24 þ j84Þð0:00096 j90 Þ

A ¼ D ¼ 1þ ¼ 1þ ¼ 0:96 j0:69 ð5:126Þ
2 2
B ¼ Z ¼ 24 þ j84 ¼ 87:36 j74:05 X ð5:127Þ

YZ ð0:00096 j90 Þð24 þ j84Þ
C ¼ Y 1þ ¼ 0:00096 j90 1 þ
4 4 ð5:128Þ
¼ 0:00094 j90:34 S
The value of the sending end voltage is calculated as,
Vs ¼ AVr þ BIr ¼ 0:96 j0:69 38105:12 þ 87:36 j74:05 201:63 j31:78

¼ 51111:81 j13:91 V
ð5:129Þ
The value of the sending end current can be calculated as,
Is ¼ CVr þ DIr ¼ 0:00094 j90:34 38105:12 þ 0:96 j0:69 201:63 j31:78

¼ 177:54 j21:18 A
ð5:130Þ
The sending end power factor is calculated as,
cos /s ¼ cosð13:91 þ 21:18 Þ ¼ 0:82 ð5:131Þ
The receiving end voltage under no-load condition is calculated as,
51102:03
Vrn ¼ ¼ 53231:28 V ð5:132Þ
0:96
The voltage regulation can be calculated as,
Vrn Vrf 53231:28 38105:12

VR ¼ 100 ¼ 100 ¼ 39:7 % ð5:133Þ
Vrf 38105:12

A 220 km long three-phase 50 Hz transmission line delivers 25 MW power at a
0.85 power factor lagging to a balanced load, and its line voltage is 33 kV.
The transmission line parameters are given as, R ¼ 0:12X=km=phase, XL ¼ 0:4X=
km=phase; Y ¼ 0:09 105 f=km=phase.
Calculate the sending end voltage and voltage regulation. Consider a nominal
T-model.
A 100 km long three-phase 50 Hz transmission line per phase per km resistance,
reactance, and susceptance is 0:1 X, 0:5 X, and 10 106 f, respectively. The line
delivers 20 MW power at a 0.95 power factor lagging to the receiving end whose
terminal voltage is 33 kV. Find the sending end voltage and power factor by
considering a nominal p-model.
5.6 Long Transmission Line
In a long transmission line, the line parameters are distributed uniformly throughout
the length of the line. As a result, the voltages and the current vary from point to
point on the line. The one phase of a long transmission line with a p-model is
shown in Fig. 5.8. The following parameters are defined as,
z is the series impedance per unit length,
y is the shunt admittance per unit length,
l is the total length of the line,
Z ¼ zl is the total line impedance,
Y ¼ yl is the total admittance of the line,
VðxÞ is the voltage at a location of x on the line,
IðxÞ is the current in the location of x on the line,
Vðx þ DxÞ is the voltage at a location of x þ Dx on the line,
Iðx þ DxÞ is the current in the location of x þ Dx on the line
R X L I ( x) Ir
I ( x + Δx)
Is Z Δx
+ I c1 Ic2
+
Vs + +
V ( x + Δx) Load
− y Δx y Δx V ( x) Vr
−
− −
Δx x
Fig. 5.8 Long transmission line with parameters
Applying KVL to the circuit in Fig. 5.8 yields,
Vðx þ DxÞ ¼ VðxÞ þ zDxIðxÞ ð5:134Þ
Vðx þ DxÞ VðxÞ

¼ zIðxÞ ð5:135Þ
Dx
Taking limit as Dx ! 0 to Eq. (5.135) yields,
Vðx þ DxÞ VðxÞ

lim ¼ zIðxÞ ð5:136Þ
Dx!0 Dx
dVðxÞ
¼ zIðxÞ ð5:137Þ
dx
Applying KCL to the circuit in Fig. 5.8 yields,
Iðx þ DxÞ ¼ IðxÞ þ yDxVðx þ DxÞ ð5:138Þ
Iðx þ DxÞ IðxÞ

¼ yVðx þ DxÞ ð5:139Þ
Dx
Taking limit as Dx ! 0 to Eq. (5.139) yields,
Iðx þ DxÞ IðxÞ

lim ¼ y lim Vðx þ DxÞ ð5:140Þ
Dx!0 Dx Dx!0
dIðxÞ
¼ yVðxÞ ð5:141Þ
dx
5.6 Long Transmission Line 215
Differentiating Eq. (5.137) with respect to x yields,
d 2 VðxÞ dIðxÞ
¼z ð5:142Þ
dx2 dx
d 2 VðxÞ
¼ yzVðxÞ ð5:143Þ
dx2
d 2 VðxÞ
c2 VðxÞ ¼ 0 ð5:144Þ
dx2
Considering the following relation,
c2 ¼ yz ð5:145Þ
pffiffiffiffi
c ¼ a þ jb ¼ yz ð5:146Þ
Where c is known as propagation constant. The real part a is known as atten-

uation constant, and the imaginary part b is known as phase constant.
Let D ¼ dx
d
, and then, Eq. (5.144) becomes,
D 2 c2 ¼ 0 ð5:147Þ
D ¼ c ð5:148Þ
The solution of Eq. (5.144) can be written as,
VðxÞ ¼ Aecx þ Becx ð5:149Þ
1d
IðxÞ ¼ ðAecx þ Becx Þ ð5:150Þ
z dx
pffiffiffiffi
c cx cx yz
IðxÞ ¼ ðAe Be Þ ¼ ðAecx Becx Þ ð5:151Þ
z z
rffiffiffi
y cx
IðxÞ ¼ ðAe Becx Þ ð5:152Þ
z
1
IðxÞ ¼ ðAecx Becx Þ ð5:153Þ
Zc
The characteristics impedance of the line is expressed as,

rffiffiffi
z
Zc ¼ ð5:154Þ
y
The coefficients A and B can be determined by the initial conditions at the

receiving end of the line. These conditions are,
At
x ¼ 0; Vð0Þ ¼ Vr ð5:155Þ
At
x ¼ 0; Ið0Þ ¼ Ir ð5:156Þ
A þ B ¼ Vr ð5:157Þ
A B ¼ Ir Zc ð5:158Þ
The expressions of the constants are determined as,
Vr þ Ir Zc
A¼ ð5:159Þ
2
Vr Ir Zc
B¼ ð5:160Þ
2
Substituting Eqs. (5.159) and (5.160) into Eqs. (5.149) yields,
Vr þ Ir Zc cx Vr Ir Zc cx
VðxÞ ¼ e þ e ð5:161Þ
2 2
cx cx
e þ ecx e ecx
VðxÞ ¼ Vr þ Zc Ir ð5:162Þ
2 2
Substituting Eqs. (5.159) and (5.160) into Eqs. (5.153) yields,

cx cx
e ecx e þ ecx
IðxÞ ¼ Vr þ Ir ð5:163Þ
2Zc 2
The hyperbolic functions are defined as,
e/ e/
sinh / ¼ ð5:164Þ
2
e/ þ e/
cosh / ¼ ð5:165Þ
2
Substituting Eqs. (5.164) and (5.165) into Eqs. (5.162) and (5.163) yields,
VðxÞ ¼ Vr cosh cx þ Zc Ir sinh cx ð5:166Þ
Vr
IðxÞ ¼ sinh cx þ Ir cosh cx ð5:167Þ
Zc
The voltage and current at the sending end can be determined by setting the
following conditions,
x ¼ l; VðlÞ ¼ Vs ð5:168Þ
x ¼ l; IðlÞ ¼ Is ð5:169Þ
Vs ¼ Vr cosh cl þ Zc Ir sinh cl ð5:170Þ
Vr
Is ¼ sinh cl þ Ir cosh cl ð5:171Þ
Zc
Comparing Eq. (5.170) with Eq. (5.6) and Eq. (5.171) with Eq. (5.7),
A ¼ D ¼ cosh cl ð5:172Þ
B ¼ Zc sinh cl ð5:173Þ
sin cl
C¼ ð5:174Þ
Zc
The following expression can be written as,
ecl ¼ eða þ jbÞl ¼ eal ejbl ¼ eal jbl ð5:175Þ

The following expressions can be modified as,
ecl þ ecl 1 al
cosh cl ¼ ¼ ðe jbl þ eal jbl Þ ð5:176Þ
2 2
ecl ecl 1 al al

sinh cl ¼ ¼ ðe jbl e jbl Þ ð5:177Þ
2 2
sinh cl
AD BC ¼ cosh2 cl Zc sinh cl ð5:178Þ
Zc
AD BC ¼ cosh2 cl sinh2 cl ¼ 1 ð5:179Þ
For a lossless transmission line, the real part of the propagation constant is zero,
i.e., a ¼ 0. The propagation constant becomes,
c ¼ 0 þ jb ¼ jb ð5:180Þ
Again, the hyperbolic functions can be modified as,
ejbx þ ejbx
cosh cx ¼ cosh jbx ¼ ¼ cos bx ð5:181Þ
2
ejbx ejbx
sinh cx ¼ sinh jbx ¼ ¼ j sin bx ð5:182Þ
2
VðxÞ ¼ Vr cos bx þ jZc Ir sin bx ð5:183Þ
Vr
IðxÞ ¼ j sin bx þ Ir cos bx ð5:184Þ
Zc
Figure 5.9 shows an equivalent p-model for a long transmission line. According
to Eqs. (5.89) and (5.93), the following relations can be written as,

Y 0Z0
Vs ¼1þ V r þ Z 0 Ir ð5:185Þ
2

Y 0Z0 Y 0Z0
Is ¼ Y 0 1 þ Vr þ 1 þ Ir ð5:186Þ
4 2
R' I1 XL ' Ir
Is
Z'
+
I c1 Ic2 +
Vs
Y' Y' Vr Load
−
2 2 −
Fig. 5.9 Nominal p-model circuit for a long transmission line
Comparing Eq. (5.185) with Eq. (5.170) and Eq. (5.186) with the Eq. (5.171)
yields,
Y 0Z0
1þ ¼ cosh cl ð5:187Þ
2
Z 0 ¼ Zc sinh cl ð5:188Þ

0 Y 0Z0 sinh cl
Y 1þ ¼ ð5:189Þ
4 Zc
Y 0Z0
2

rffiffiffi
0 z sinh cl pffiffiffiffi
Z ¼ Zc sinh cl ¼ pffiffiffiffi yz ð5:191Þ
y yz
rffiffiffi
0 z sinh cl pffiffiffiffi
Z ¼ l pffiffiffiffi yz ð5:192Þ
y l yz
rffiffiffi
z sinh cl pffiffiffiffi
Z0 ¼ l yz ð5:193Þ
y cl
sinh cl
Z0 ¼ z l ð5:194Þ
cl
sinh cl
Z0 ¼ Z ð5:195Þ
cl
Y 0Z0
2
Y 0Z0
¼ cosh cl 1 ð5:197Þ
2
Y 0 sinh cl
Z ¼ cosh cl 1 ð5:198Þ
2 cl
Y 0 cl cosh cl 1
¼ ð5:199Þ
2 Z sinh cl
Y 0 cl cosh cl 1
¼ ð5:200Þ
2 Z sinh cl
pffiffiffiffi
Y0 yzl cl
¼ tanh ð5:201Þ
2 zl 2
r ffiffi
ffi
Y0 y cl
¼ tanh ð5:202Þ
2 z 2
Y0 1 cl
¼ tanh ð5:203Þ
2 Zc 2
Equation (5.203) can be expressed as,

rffiffiffi cl
Y0 y tanh 2 cl
¼ ð5:204Þ
2 z cl2 2
rffiffiffi pffiffiffiffi cl
Y0 y yz tanh 2
¼ l cl ð5:205Þ
2 z 2 2
cl
Y 0 y tanh 2
¼ l cl ð5:206Þ
2 2 2
cl
Y 0 Y tanh 2
¼ ð5:207Þ
2 2 cl2
tanh cl2
Y0 ¼ Y cl
ð5:208Þ
2
Z' Z'
2 Vc 2
Is Ir
+ Ic
Vs +
Y' Vr Load
−
−
Fig. 5.10 Nominal T-model circuit for a long transmission line
Figure 5.10 shows an equivalent circuit for T-model of a long transmission line.
According to Eqs. (5.79) and (5.75), the following relations can be written as,

Y 0Z0 0 Z0Y 0
Vs ¼ 1 þ Vr þ Z 1 þ Ir ð5:209Þ
2 4

0 0 Z0Y 0
Is ¼ Y V r þ Y 1 þ Ir ð5:210Þ
2
Comparing Eqs. (5.170) and (5.209) yields,
Y 0Z0
2

0 Z0Y 0
Z 1þ ¼ Zc sinh cl ð5:212Þ
4
Again, comparing Eq. (5.171) with Eq. (5.210) yields,
1
Y0 ¼ sinh cl ð5:213Þ
Zc
Y 0Z0
2
Z0 1
1þ sinh cl ¼ cosh cl ð5:215Þ
2 Zc
Z0 1 cosh cl 1
¼ ð5:216Þ
2 Zc sinh cl
Z0 2 sinh2 cl2 cl
¼ cl cl
¼ Zc tanh ð5:217Þ
2 2 sinh 2 cosh 2 2
rffiffiffi cl
Z0 z 1 pffiffiffiffi tanh 2
¼ pffiffiffiffi yz l l ð5:218Þ
2 y 2 yz 2
cl
Z 0 zl tanh 2
¼ ð5:219Þ
2 2 cl2
cl
Z 0 Z tanh 2
¼ ð5:220Þ
2 2 cl2
Example 5.4
A load 25 MW at a 0.95 power factor lagging receives power by a 220 km long
three-phase 50 Hz transmission line. The transmission line parameters are given by
r/phase/km = 0.11X, x/phase/km = 0.23X, y/phase/km = 1:4 106 f. Calculate
the sending end voltage and current if the receiving end voltage is 120 kV.
Solution
The total resistance per phase is calculated as,
R ¼ 0:11 220 ¼ 24:2X ð5:221Þ
The total reactance per phase is calculated as,
XL ¼ 0:23 220 ¼ 50:6X ð5:222Þ
Per phase impedance of the line is calculated as,
Z ¼ 24:2 þ j50:6 ¼ 56:08 j64:44 X ð5:223Þ
The total shunt admittance is calculated as,
Y ¼ j1:4 106 220 ¼ 0:00028 j90 f ð5:224Þ
The receiving end voltage per phase is calculated as,
120 1000
Vr ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 69282:03 V ð5:225Þ
3
The value of the load current is determined as,
25 106
Ir ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 126:6 A ð5:226Þ
3 120 103 0:95
The following parameters can be calculated as,

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffiffi
cl ¼ yz l ¼ ð0:11 þ j0:23Þ 1:4 106 j90 220

0:5 ð5:227Þ
¼ 3:57 107 j154:44 220 ¼ 0:13 j77:22 ¼ 0:03 þ j0:13
ecl ¼ e0:03 j0:13 ¼ 1:03 j0:13 ð5:228Þ
ecl ¼ e0:03 j0:13 ¼ 0:97 j0:13 ð5:229Þ
The values of the hyperbolic functions are determined as,
1
cosh cl ¼ ð1:03 j0:13 þ 0:97 j0:13 Þ ¼ 1 j3:9 ð5:230Þ
2
1
sinh cl ¼ ð1:03 j0:13 0:97 j0:13 Þ ¼ 0:03 j4:33 ð5:231Þ
2
The value of the characteristics impedance is calculated as,
rffiffiffi sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
z 0:25 j64:44
Zc ¼ ¼ ¼ 422:58 j12:78 X ð5:232Þ
y 1:4 106 j90
The sending end voltage per phase can be determined as,
Vs ¼ Vr cosh cl þ Ir Zc sinh cl
ð5:233Þ
¼ 69282:03 1 j3:9 þ 126:6 422:58 j12:78 0:03 j4:33
Vs ¼ 70850:68 j3:62 V ð5:234Þ
The sending end current can be calculated as,
Vr 69282:03
Is ¼ sinh cl þ Ir cosh cl ¼ 0:03 j4:33 þ 126:6 1 j3:9
Zc 422:58 j12:78
¼ 131:39 j4:39 A
ð5:235Þ

The line parameters of a 240 km long transmission r/phase/km = 0.03X, x/phase/
km = 0.15X, y/phase/km = 0:99 106 f. Transmission line delivers a power to a
25 MW at a 0.85 lagging power factor. Calculate the sending end line voltage and
current if the receiving end voltage is 80 kV.
5.7 Surge Impedance Loading
Surge impedance loading is an important parameter to study the power system

when an issue arises related to prediction of maximum loading capability of
transmission line. The maximum three-phase active power transfer capability of a
transmission line is called the surge impedance loading (SIL). A long transmission
lines have the distributed lumped inductance and capacitance. When a transmission
lines are energized, capacitance feeds the reactive power to the line, and the
inductance absorbs the reactive power. The amount of reactive power in MVAR
range depends on the capacitive reactance and the energized line voltage.
Mathematically, the expression of MVAR produced is written as,
kV2
MVARC ¼ ð5:236Þ
XC
Transmission line also uses reactive power to support their magnetic field. The
strength of the magnetic field depends on the magnitude of the current and its
natural reactance. The expression of the reactive power uses or absorbs by the
transmission line is,
MVARL ¼ I 2 XL ð5:237Þ
In surge impedance loading, reactive power production is equal to reactive power

uses by the transmission line. This reactive power balance relation is written as,
V2
I 2 XL ¼ ð5:238Þ
XC
V2
XL XC ¼ ð5:239Þ
I2
xL V 2
¼ 2 ð5:240Þ
xC I
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
xL V
¼ ð5:241Þ
xC I
5.7 Surge Impedance Loading 225
Fig. 5.11 Circuit for SIL

Vs L Vr I ph
+
C
G1 Vr R
−
rffiffiffiffi
V L
¼ ð5:242Þ
I C
rffiffiffiffi
L
Zc ¼ ð5:243Þ
C
Where Zc is the surge impedance or characteristic impedance.

The voltage is supplied to the load at a unity power factor using a transmission
line as shown in Fig. 5.11. The expression of SIL is written as,
SIL ¼ 3Vph Iph cos / ð5:244Þ
For a resistive load, the power factor is unity. The phase current is expressed as,
Vph VL
Iph ¼ ¼ pffiffiffi ð5:245Þ
R 3Z L
VL VL
SIL ¼ 3 pffiffiffi pffiffiffi 1 ð5:246Þ
3 3ZL
VL2 VL2
SIL ¼ ¼ ð5:247Þ
ZL Zc

rffiffiffiffi
C
SIL ¼ VL2 ð5:248Þ
L
From Eq. (5.248), the following relations are summarized as,
SIL 1 VL2 ð5:249Þ

pffiffiffiffi
SIL 1 C ð5:250Þ
1
SIL 1 pffiffiffi ð5:251Þ
L
Alternative approach: The expression of receiving end current is,
Vr
Ir ¼ ð5:252Þ
Zc
Vr
VðxÞ ¼ Vr cos bx þ jZc sin bx ð5:253Þ
Zc
VðxÞ ¼ Vr ðcos bx þ j sin bxÞ ð5:254Þ
VðxÞ ¼ Vr jbx ð5:255Þ
Vr Vr
IðxÞ ¼ j sin bx þ cos bx ð5:256Þ
Zc Zc
Vr
IðxÞ ¼ ðcos bx þ j sin bxÞ ð5:257Þ
Zc
Vr
IðxÞ ¼ jbx ð5:258Þ
Zc
The complex power flow at any point x of the transmission line is written as,
S ¼ VðxÞIðxÞ ð5:259Þ
Vr jV j2
S ¼ Vr jbx jbx ¼ r ð5:260Þ
Zc Zc
At rated line voltage, the SIL is defined as the square of the voltage divided by
the surge impedance. Mathematically, it can be expressed as,
VL2
SIL ¼ ð5:261Þ
Zc
5.8 ABCD Parameters and Measurements 227
Fig. 5.12 Two-port circuit Is Ir

with receiving end short
circuit + +
V ABCD Vr I sc
− −
5.8 ABCD Parameters and Measurements
The sending end voltage and current of the transmission lines in terms of ABCD
parameters are represented as,
Vs ¼ AVr þ BIr ð5:262Þ
Is ¼ CVr þ DIr ð5:263Þ
Initially, a voltage source with a magnitude of V is connected at the sending end

terminals and short circuit the receiving end terminals as shown in Fig. 5.12. Here,
the receiving end voltage is zero, and Eq. (5.262) is modified as,
V ¼ A 0 þ BIsc ð5:264Þ
V
Isc ¼ ð5:265Þ
B
Again, short circuit the sending end terminals and insert a voltage source at the
receiving end terminals as shown in Fig. 5.13. Substituting Vs = 0 in Eq. (5.262)
yields,
0 ¼ AV þ BIr ð5:266Þ
AV
Ir ¼ ð5:267Þ
B
According to Fig. 5.12, the sending end current can be written as,
Is ¼ Isc ¼ CV þ DIr ð5:268Þ
Fig. 5.13 Two-port circuit Is Ir

with sending end short circuit
+
I sc ABCD V
−
V AV
¼ CV D ð5:269Þ
B B
1 A
¼CD ð5:270Þ
B B
AD BC ¼ 1 ð5:271Þ
Multiplying Eq. (5.262) by D and Eq. (5.263) by B yields,
DVs ¼ ADVr þ BDIr ð5:272Þ
BIs ¼ BCVr þ BDIr ð5:273Þ
Subtracting Eq. (5.273) from Eq. (5.272) yields,
ðAD BCÞVr ¼ DVs BIs ð5:274Þ
Vr ¼ DVs BIs ð5:275Þ
Again, multiplying Eq. (5.262) by C and Eq. (5.263) by A yields,
CVs ¼ ACVr þ BCIr ð5:276Þ
AIs ¼ ACVr þ ADIr ð5:277Þ
ðBC ADÞIr ¼ CVs AIs ð5:278Þ
Is
Ir
A
+
+ ABCD
V Vr
Vs
−
−
Fig. 5.14 Circuit for open circuit test

Ir ¼ CVs AIs ð5:279Þ
Ir ¼ CVs þ AIs ð5:280Þ
The ABCD parameters can be determined using the concept of short circuit
impedance and open circuit impedance. Initially, open the receiving end terminals
and put the measuring instruments in the sending end side as shown in Fig. 5.14.
For an open circuit test, setting Ir = 0 to Eqs. (5.262) and (5.263) yields,
Vs ¼ AVr ð5:290Þ
Vs
A¼ ð5:291Þ
Vr
Is ¼ CVr ð5:292Þ
Is
C¼ ð5:293Þ
Vr
From Eqs. (5.291) and (5.292), the expression of open circuit impedance can be
written as,

Vs A
Zoc ¼ ¼ ð5:294Þ
Is oc C
Again, short circuit the receiving end terminals and put all the measuring
instruments in the sending end side as shown in Fig. 5.15. For a short circuit test,
put Vr = 0 in Eqs. (5.262) and (5.263) yields,
Vs ¼ BIr ð5:295Þ
Is
Ir
A
+
+ ABCD
V Vr
Vs
−
−
Fig. 5.15 Circuit for short circuit test

Vs
B¼ ð5:296Þ
Ir
Is ¼ DIr ð5:297Þ
Is
D¼ ð5:298Þ
Ir
From Eqs. (5.296) and (5.298), the expression of short circuit impedance can be
written as,

Vs B B
Zsc ¼ ¼ ¼ ð5:299Þ
Is sc D A
Substituting A = D into Eq. (5.271) yields,
A2 BC ¼ 1 ð5:300Þ
A B A2 BC
Zoc Zsc ¼ ¼ ð5:301Þ
C A AC
1
Zoc Zsc ¼ ð5:302Þ
AC

A
Zoc
¼ C1 ¼ A2 ð5:303Þ
Zoc Zsc AC
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Zoc
A¼ ð5:304Þ
Zoc Zsc

Zoc
B ¼ Zsc ð5:305Þ
Zoc Zsc

1 Zoc
C¼ ð5:306Þ
Zoc Zoc Zsc
Example 5.5
Figure 5.16 shows a Y-model circuit. Calculate A, B, C, and D parameters.
Solution
Put Vs in the sending end side and the receiving end is open circuit as shown in
Fig. 5.17. Applying KVL to the circuit in Fig. 5.17 yields,
Vs ¼ Vr ð5:307Þ
The parameter A is determined as,
Vs
A¼ ¼1 ð5:308Þ
Vr
Again, applying KVL to the circuit in Fig. 5.17 yields,
Vr þ 10Is ¼ 0 ð5:309Þ
Is 1
C¼ ¼ ¼ 0:1 f ð5:310Þ
Vr 10
Again, short circuit the receiving end to find the parameters B and D as shown in
Fig. 5.18.
Is ¼ Ir ð5:311Þ
Fig. 5.16 Circuit for Is Ir

Example 5.5
+ +
Vs 10 Ω Vr
− −
Fig. 5.17 Circuit with Is Ir = 0

receiving end open circuit
+
+
Vs
10 Ω Vr
−
−
Fig. 5.18 Circuit with Is Ir

receiving end short circuit
+
+
Vs
10 Ω Vr
−
−
Fig. 5.19 Circuit for Practice 4Ω

Problem 5.5 Is Ir
+ +
Vs 10 Ω Vr
− −
Then, the parameters are calculated as,
Is
D¼ ¼1 ð5:312Þ
Ir
Vs 0
B¼ ¼ ¼0 ð5:313Þ
Ir Is
Calculate the parameters A, B, C, and D of the circuit as shown in Fig. 5.19.
5.9 Series Transmission Networks
Figure 5.20 shows transmission networks where the output of the first network is
connected as an input to the second network. This arrangement is known as a
tandem network. The tandem network is normally used in the communication
circuit.
The sending end voltage and current in the first network can be written as,
Vs ¼ A1 V þ B1 I ð5:314Þ
Is ¼ C1 V þ D1 I ð5:315Þ
5.9 Series Transmission Networks 233
I
Is Ir
A1 B1 A2 B2
+ + +
Vs V Vr
C1 D1 − C2 D2 −
−
Fig. 5.20 Transmission networks in series

Vs A1 B1 V
¼ ð5:316Þ
Is C1 D1 I
The sending end voltage and current in the second network can be written as,
V ¼ A2 Vr þ B2 Ir ð5:317Þ
I ¼ C2 Vr þ D2 Ir ð5:318Þ

V A2 B2 Vr
¼ ð5:319Þ
I C2 D2 Ir

Vs A1 B1 A2 B2 Vr
¼ ð5:320Þ
Is C1 D1 C2 D2 Ir

Vs A1 A2 þ B1 C2 A1 B2 þ B1 D2 Vr
¼ ð5:321Þ
Is C1 A2 þ D1 C2 C1 B2 þ D1 D2 Ir

Vs As Bs Vr
¼ ð5:322Þ
Is Cs Ds Ir
The equivalent parameters are represented as,
As ¼ A1 A2 þ B1 C2 ð5:323Þ
Bs ¼ A1 B2 þ B1 D2 ð5:324Þ
Cs ¼ C1 A2 þ D1 C2 ð5:325Þ
Ds ¼ C1 B2 þ D1 D2 ð5:326Þ
Example 5.6
The transmission lines are connected in series and deliver 120A current from the
receiving end terminal with a 0.85 power factor lagging and 100 kV line voltage.
The ABCD parameters are given as A1 ¼ D1 ¼ 0:75 j4 , B1 ¼ 24 j35 X,
C1 ¼ 0:0004 j86 f, A2 ¼ D2 ¼ 0:87 j5 , B2 ¼ 35 j42 X, C2 ¼ 0:0008 j89 f.
Calculate the sending end voltage and current.
Solution
The equivalent constants can be determined as,
A ¼ A1 A2 þ B1 C2 ¼ 0:75 j4 0:87 j5 þ 24 j35 0:0008 j89 ¼ 0:64 j10:55
ð5:327Þ
B ¼ A1 B2 þ B1 D2 ¼ 0:75 j4 35 j42 þ 24 j35 0:87 j5 ¼ 50:73 j40:17 X

ð5:328Þ
C ¼ C1 A2 þ D1 C2 ¼ 0:0004 j86 0:87 j5 þ 0:75 j4 0:0008 j89

ð5:329Þ
¼ 0:0009 j92:27 f
D ¼ C1 B2 þ D1 D2 ¼ 0:0004 j86 35 j42 þ 0:75 j4 0:87 j5

ð5:330Þ
¼ 0:65 j10:09
The per phase receiving end voltage is calculated as,
100 1000
Vr ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 57735:03 V ð5:331Þ
3
The power factor is calculated as,

cos /r ¼ 0:85; /r ¼ 31:79 ð5:332Þ
The receiving end current is expressed as,

Ir ¼ 120 j31:79 A ð5:333Þ
The sending end voltage per phase can be determined as,
Vs ¼ AVr þ BIr ¼ 0:64 j10:55 57735:03 þ 50:73 j40:17 120 j31:79

¼ 43034:27 j10:24 V
ð5:334Þ
5.9 Series Transmission Networks 235
The line voltage at the sending end is calculated as,

pffiffiffi
VsL ¼ 3 43034:27 ¼ 74:54 kV ð5:335Þ
The sending end current can be determined as,
Is ¼ CVr þ DIr ¼ 0:0009 j92:27 57735:03 þ 0:65 j10:09 120 j31:79

¼ 74:1 j18:15 A
ð5:336Þ

A 120 kV line voltage with a 0.85 lagging power factor receiving end terminals
receives 200 A current through series transmission networks. The ABCD param-
eters are given as A1 ¼ D1 ¼ 0:55 j5 , B1 ¼ 20 j25 X, C1 ¼ 0:0003 j87 f,
A2 ¼ D2 ¼ 0:72 j7 , B2 ¼ 32 j36 X, C2 ¼ 0:0005 j89 f. Find the sending end
voltage.
5.10 Parallel Transmission Networks
Transmission lines are sometimes connected in parallel for convenience. Figure 5.21
shows a circuit where the two transmission networks are connected in parallel. From
Fig. 5.21, the following voltage and current equations can be written as,
Vs ¼ Vs1 ¼ Vs2 ð5:337Þ
Vr ¼ Vr1 ¼ Vr2 ð5:338Þ
Is ¼ Is1 þ Is2 ð5:339Þ
Ir ¼ Ir1 þ Ir2 ð5:340Þ
The expressions of the sending end voltages for the two parallel networks are
written as,
Vs1 ¼ A1 Vr1 þ B1 Ir1 ð5:341Þ
Vs2 ¼ A2 Vr2 þ B2 Ir2 ð5:342Þ
Vs ¼ A1 Vr þ B1 Ir1 ð5:343Þ
Vs ¼ A2 Vr þ B2 Ir2 ð5:344Þ
A1 B1
I s1 +
+
Vr1
Vs1 C1 D1 I r1
Is − Ir
−
+ +
Vs Vr
− Is2 Ir 2 −
A2 B2
+ +
Vs 2 Vr 2
− −
C2 D2
Fig. 5.21 Two transmission parallel networks
Multiplying Eq. (5.343) by B2 and Eq. (5.344) by B1 , and adding the results
yields,
ðB1 þ B2 ÞVs ¼ ðA1 B2 þ A2 B1 ÞVr þ B1 B2 ðIr1 þ Ir1 Þ ð5:345Þ
A1 B2 þ A2 B1 B1 B2
Vs ¼ Vr þ ðIr1 þ Ir1 Þ ð5:346Þ
B1 þ B2 B1 þ B2
A1 B2 þ A2 B1 B1 B2
Vs ¼ Vr þ Ir ð5:347Þ
B1 þ B2 B1 þ B2
Vs ¼ Ap Vr þ Bp Ir ð5:348Þ
Where the expressions of general A and B parameters are written as,
A1 B2 þ A2 B1
Ap ¼ ð5:349Þ
B1 þ B2
B1 B2
Bp ¼ ð5:350Þ
B1 þ B2
5.10 Parallel Transmission Networks 237
The expressions of the sending end currents in the parallel networks are written
as,
Is1 ¼ C1 Vr þ D1 Ir1 ð5:351Þ
Is2 ¼ C2 Vr þ D2 Ir2 ð5:352Þ
Is ¼ ðC1 þ C2 ÞVr þ D1 Ir1 þ D2 Ir2 ð5:353Þ
ðA1 A2 ÞVr þ B1 Ir1 B2 Ir2 ¼ 0 ð5:354Þ
Is ¼ ðC1 þ C2 ÞVr þ D1 Ir1 þ D2 Ir D2 Ir1 ð5:355Þ
Is ¼ ðC1 þ C2 ÞVr þ ðD1 D2 ÞIr1 þ D2 Ir ð5:356Þ
ðA1 A2 ÞVr þ B1 Ir1 B2 Ir þ B2 Ir1 ¼ 0 ð3:357Þ
ðB1 þ B2 ÞIr1 ¼ ðA2 A1 ÞVr þ B2 Ir ð5:358Þ
A2 A1 B2
Ir1 ¼ Vr þ Ir ð5:359Þ
B1 þ B2 B1 þ B2

A2 A1 B2
Is ¼ ðC1 þ C2 ÞVr þ ðD1 D2 Þ Vr þ Ir þ D2 Ir ð5:360Þ
B1 þ B2 B1 þ B2

ðD1 D2 ÞðA2 A1 Þ B2
Is ¼ C1 þ C2 þ Vr þ D2 þ ðD1 D2 Þ Ir
B1 þ B2 B1 þ B2
ð5:361Þ

ðD2 D1 ÞðA1 A2 Þ B1 D2 þ B2 D2 þ B2 D1 B2 D2
Is ¼ C1 þ C2 þ Vr þ Ir
B1 þ B2 B1 þ B2
ð5:362Þ

ðD2 D1 ÞðA1 A2 Þ B1 D2 þ B2 D1
Is ¼ C1 þ C2 þ Vr þ Ir ð5:363Þ
B1 þ B2 B1 þ B2
Is ¼ Cp Vr þ Dp Ir ð5:364Þ
Where the expressions of the general C and D parameters are expressed as,
ðD2 D1 ÞðA1 A2 Þ
Cp ¼ C1 þ C2 þ ð5:365Þ
B1 þ B2
B1 D2 þ B2 D1
Dp ¼ ð5:366Þ
B1 þ B2
Example 5.7
The parameters of parallel transmission networks are given by A1 ¼ D1 ¼ 0:65 j3 ,
B1 ¼ 34 j30 X, C1 ¼ 0:0002 j89 f, A2 ¼ D2 ¼ 0:76 j4 , B2 ¼ 45 j48 X,
C2 ¼ 0:0004 j90 f. Calculate the equivalent parameters.
Solution
The equivalent constants can be determined as,
A1 B2 þ A2 B1 0:65 j3 45 j48 þ 0:76 j4 34 j30

Ap ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:7 j2:77
B1 þ B2 34 j30 þ 45 j48
ð5:367Þ
B1 B2 34 j30 45 j48
Bp ¼ ¼ ¼ 19:60 j37:74 X ð5:368Þ
B1 þ B2 34 j30 þ 45 j48
ðD2 D1 ÞðA1 A2 Þ
Cp ¼ C1 þ C2 þ ¼ 0:0002 j89 þ 0:0004 j90
B1 þ B2
ð0:76 j4 0:65 j3 Þð0:65 j3 0:76 j4 Þ ð5:369Þ
þ ¼ 0:00067 j102:36
34 j30 þ 45 j48
B1 D2 þ B2 D1 0:65 j3 45 j48 þ 0:76 j4 34 j30

Dp ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:7 j2:77
B1 þ B2 34 j30 þ 45 j48
ð5:370Þ

The parameters of parallel transmission networks are given by A1 ¼ D1 ¼ 0:61 j4 ,
B1 ¼ 24 j32 X, C1 ¼ 0:0004 j86 f, A2 ¼ D2 ¼ 0:71 j5 , B2 ¼ 35 j40 X,
C2 ¼ 0:0006 j89 f. Calculate the equivalent parameters.
5.11 Ferranti Effect 239
5.11 Ferranti Effect
In 1890, Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti, a British Electrical Engineer introduced a

theory that the receiving end voltage is higher than the sending end voltage of the
medium or the long transmission lines in case of light load or no-load condition.
This phenomenon is known as the Ferranti effect. A high amount of capacitance and
inductance distributed across the entire length of a long transmission line. The
current drawn by the distributed capacitance is greater than the current drawn by the
load at the receiving end of the line during the light or no-load. This charging
current of the capacitor leads to a voltage drop across the inductor, which is in
phase with the sending end voltage. This voltage drop keeps increasing as it moves
toward the receiving end terminals. As a result, the receiving end voltage is greater
than the sending end voltage leading to phenomena called the Ferranti effect.
Therefore, both the inductance and the capacitance are responsible for producing
the Ferranti effect. The distributed capacitance and inductance of a long transmis-
sion line are shown in Fig. 5.22.
The distributed parameters of a long transmission line are represented as lumped
parameters as shown in Fig. 5.23. The shunt capacitance is concentrated at the
receiving end. Figure 5.24 shows the phasor diagram where the receiving end
voltage is considered as a reference phasor. The charging current (Ic) leads the
receiving end voltage by 90 degrees. The sending end voltage can be written as,
Vs ¼ Vr þ Ic ðR þ jXL Þ ð5:371Þ
Substituting the charging current Ic ¼ Vr ðjxCÞ and XL ¼ xL in Eq. (5.371)

yields,
Vs ¼ Vr þ jxCVr ðR þ jxLÞ ð5:372Þ
Vs ¼ Vr x2 LCVr þ jxCVr R ð5:373Þ
Is r l r l r l Ir
+ I c1 Ic2 I c3 +
Vs Vr
− −
Fig. 5.22 Long transmission line with distributed parameters

Fig. 5.23 Long transmission Is R L Ir

line with lumped parameters
Ic +
+
Vr
Vs C
−
−
Fig. 5.24 Phasor diagram of Ic

a long transmission line with
Ic X L
lumped parameters Vs
Ic Z Ic R
Vr
From Fig. 5.24, the following relation can be written as,
Vs2 ¼ ðVr Ic XL Þ2 þ ðIc RÞ2 ð5:374Þ
The effect of resistance in a long transmission line is negligible, and Eqs. (5.373)
and (5.374) are modified as,
Vs ¼ Vr x2 LCVr ð5:375Þ
Vs ¼ Vr Ic XL ð5:376Þ
Vr ¼ Vs þ Ic XL ð5:377Þ
Again, considering a nominal p-model of a medium transmission line to explain

the Ferranti effect. For the open circuit line, putting Ir ¼ 0 in Eq. (5.89) yields,

YZ
Vs ¼ 1þ Vr ð5:378Þ
2
YZ
Vs Vr ¼ Vr ð5:379Þ
2
Substituting the expression of impedance and admittance in Eq. (5.379) yields,
ðjxClÞðr þ jxLÞl
Vs Vr ¼ Vr ð5:380Þ
2
5.11 Ferranti Effect 241
Substitute r = 0 in Eq. (5.380) yields,
x2 Cl2
Vs Vr ¼ LVr ð5:381Þ
2

x2 Cl2
Vs ¼ 1 L Vr ð5:382Þ
2
5.12 Ground Wires and Corona Discharge
Ground wires: The ground wires are bare conductors installed at the top of
transmission towers. The overhead transmission lines are normally protected from
the lightning strikes by the ground wires. The ground wires normally do not carry
current. Therefore, ground wires are made of steel and are directly connected to the
ground at each transmission tower and distribution pole. The ground wires help to
pass the high current that receives during lightning strikes.
Corona discharge: When a low alternating voltage is applied across the two
conductors whose diameters are very small compared to their separation distance,
there is no apparent change of the surrounding atmospheric air of the conductors.
When the applied voltage exceeds a certain value, called critical disruptive voltage,
the conductors are surrounded by a violet glow. Therefore, the corona is a partial
discharge that occurs at the surface of the power conductor when the electric field
exceeds the breakdown strength of the surrounding air. The electric field around the
surface of the conductor increases if the voltage between the conductors is
increased. Due to high electric fields, the surrounding air molecules become ion-
ized. This causes hissing sound and causes a glow on the line. This phenomenon is
known as corona discharge. Coronas may be positive or negative. The positive
corona or negative corona is normally determined by the polarity of the voltage on
the power conductor.
5.13 Traveling Waves
The voltage and current on a long transmission line always satisfy the relation of the
wave equation. The effects of resistance and conductance are neglected for a long
transmission line. In this case, the model is dependent on the inductance and
capacitance. The transmission line without resistance and conductance is known as
a lossless transmission line [4, 5]. Considering a long transmission equation as
shown in Fig. 5.25 for deriving traveling wave equations, applying KVL to the
circuit in Fig. 5.25 yields,
Fig. 5.25 Part of a long i ( x, t ) RΔx LΔx i ( x + Δx, t )

transmission line with lumped
parameters
+ +
v ( x, t ) v( x + Δx, t )
G Δx
− −
C Δx
Δx
@iðx; tÞ
vðx; tÞ þ RDxiðx; tÞ þ LDx þ vðx þ Dx; tÞ ¼ 0 ð5:383Þ
@t
vðx þ Dx; tÞ vðx; tÞ @iðx; tÞ
¼ Riðx; tÞ L ð5:384Þ
Dx @t
Taking limit as Dx ! 0, Eq. (5.384) is modified as,
vðx þ Dx; tÞ vðx; tÞ @iðx; tÞ

LtDx!0 ¼ Riðx; tÞ L ð5:385Þ
Dx @t
@vðx; tÞ @iðx; tÞ
¼ Riðx; tÞ L ð5:386Þ
@x @t
@vðx; tÞ
iðx; tÞ ¼ GDxvðx; tÞ þ CDx þ iðx þ Dx; tÞ ð5:387Þ
@t
iðx þ Dx; tÞ iðx; tÞ @vðx; tÞ
¼ Gvðx; tÞ C ð5:388Þ
Dx @t
Taking limit as Dx ! 0, Eq. (5.388) is modified as,
iðx þ Dx; tÞ iðx; tÞ @vðx; tÞ

LtDx!0 ¼ Gvðx; tÞ C ð5:389Þ
Dx @t
@iðx; tÞ @vðx; tÞ
¼ Gvðx; tÞ C ð5:390Þ
@x @t
Considering the voltage and current in complex forms as

vðx; tÞ ¼ Re VðxÞejxt ð5:391Þ

iðx; tÞ ¼ Re IðxÞejxt ð5:392Þ
5.13 Traveling Waves 243
@VðxÞ
¼ ðR þ jxLÞIðxÞ ð5:393Þ
@x
@IðxÞ
¼ ðG þ jxCÞVðxÞ ð5:394Þ
@x
For a long transmission line, R = 0 and G = 0, Eqs. (5.393) and (5.394) are
modified as,
@VðxÞ
¼ jxLIðxÞ ð5:395Þ
@x
@IðxÞ
¼ jxCVðxÞ ð5:396Þ
@x
Differentiating Eqs. (5.395) and (5.396) with respect to x yields,
@ 2 VðxÞ
þ x2 LC VðxÞ ¼ 0 ð5:397Þ
@x2
@ 2 IðxÞ
þ x2 LC IðxÞ ¼ 0 ð5:398Þ
@x2
Considering the expression of phase constant as

pffiffiffiffiffiffi
b ¼ x LC ð5:399Þ
The general solutions of Eqs. (5.397) and (5.398) are,
VðxÞ ¼ V0þ ebx þ V0 ebx ð5:400Þ
IðxÞ ¼ I0þ ebx þ I0 ebx ð5:401Þ
Here, the superscripts positive (+) and negative () represent the wave traveling
in the þ x and x directions along the transmission line.
The wavelength (k) of a signal is defined as the distance between the two peaks
over 2p radians, and it can be expressed as,
bk ¼ 2p ð5:402Þ
2p
k¼ ð5:403Þ
b
1
k ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi ð5:404Þ
f LC
Since the signal is oscillating in time at rate x rad sec, the propagation velocity
of the wave is expressed as,
x
v¼ ð5:405Þ
b
1
v ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi ð5:406Þ
LC
Example 5.8 The per phase per km line inductance and capacitance of 200 km
long three-phase 500 kV, 50 Hz transmission line are 0.87 mH and 0:012 lF.
Assume a lossless line, and the line supplies power from 500 kV line to the load of
600 MW at a 0.85 power factor lagging. Determine the phase constant velocity of
the wave propagation, wavelength, surge impedance, per phase sending end volt-
age, sending end current, three-phase sending end power, and voltage regulation.
Solution
The value of the phase constant is calculated as,
pffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
b ¼ x LC ¼ 2p 50 0:87 103 0:012 106 ¼ 0:001 rad/km ð5:407Þ
The velocity of the wave propagation is calculated as,
1 1
v ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 3:09 105 km/s ð5:408Þ
LC 0:87 10 0:012 106
3
The value of the wavelength is as,
v 3:09 105
k¼ ¼ ¼ 6189:84 km ð5:409Þ
f 50
The value of the surge impedance is determined as,

rffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
L 0:87 103
Zc ¼ ¼ ¼ 269:26 X ð5:410Þ
C 0:012 106
5.13 Traveling Waves 245
The receiving end current per phase is calculated as,
600 1000
Ir ¼ pffiffiffi j31:79 ¼ 815:08 j31:79 A ð5:412Þ
3 500 0:85
Per phase receiving end voltage is calculated as,
500000
Vr ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 288675:13 V ð5:413Þ
3
The value of the following parameter is calculated as,
bl ¼ 0:001 200 ¼ 0:2 rad ¼ 11:46 ð5:414Þ
The sending end voltage can be determined as,
Vs ¼ Vr cos bl þ jZc Ir sin bl

¼ ðcos 11:46Þ 288675:13 þ ðj269:26 sin 11:46Þ815:08 j31:79 ð5:415Þ
Vs ¼ ð0:980Þ 288675:13 þ ðj269:26 sin 11:46Þ815:08 j31:79

ð5:416Þ
¼ 308110:32 j6:91 V
The sending end current is calculated as,

1 1
Is ¼ j sin bl Vr þ ðcos blÞIr ¼ j sin 11:46 288675:13
Zc 269:26 ð5:417Þ

þ ðcos 11:46Þ 815:08 j31:79 ¼ 710:09 j17:02 A
Three-phase sending end power is calculated as,
Ss ¼ 3Vs Is ¼ 3 308110:32 j6:91 710:09 j17:02

¼ 599:94 MW þ 266:23 MVAR ð5:418Þ
The percentage voltage regulation can be determined as,

Vs
Vr 308110:32
288675:13
VR ¼ A
100 0:98 100 ¼ 8:91% ð5:419Þ
Vr 288675:13
A three-phase 400 kV 50 Hz long transmission line is having a length of 170 km.
The per phase per km line inductance and capacitance are 0.96 mH and 0.025 lF.
Assume a lossless line, and the line supplies power to the load of 300 MW at a 0.95
power factor lagging. Calculate the phase constant, the velocity of the wave
propagation, wavelength, surge impedance, and sending end phase voltage.
References
1. Glover JD, Sarma MS, Overbye TJ (2017) Power system analysis and design, 6th ed, Cengage
Learning, pp 1–942, USA
2. Nagsarkar TK, Sukhija MS (2014) Power system analysis, 6th ed, Oxford University Press,
pp 1–726
3. Grainger JJ, Stevenson WD, Stevenson WD (2015) Power systems analysis, 2nd Education,
McGraw-Hill Education, USA
4. Wildi T (2005) Electrical machines, drives and power systems, 6th Edn, Pearson Education,
pp 1–934, USA
5. Bergen AR, Vijay V (1999) Power systems analysis, 2nd Edn., Pearson Education, pp 1–632,
USA
Exercise Problems
5:1 The per phase series impedance of a single-phase short transmission line is
5 þ j16 X, and the line delivers a power of 10 kW at a power factor of 0.95
lagging from the 240 V receiving end terminals. Calculate the sending end
voltage, sending end power factor, and transmission efficiency.
5:2 A long single-phase 24 km long short transmission line delivers a power of
200 kW at a 0.85 leading power factor to the load from the 11 kV terminals.
The per phase per km resistance and reactance of the line are 0:2 X and
0:5 X, respectively. Find the sending end voltage, voltage regulation, and
efficiency.
5:3 A 10 km long single-phase short transmission line delivers a power of
180 kW at a 0.90 lagging power factor to the load from the 6.6 kV receiving
end terminals. The per phase per km resistance and reactance of the line are
0:1 X and 0:4 X, respectively. Calculate the sending end voltage, voltage
regulation, and efficiency.
5:4 A load of 140 kW receives power from the 11 kV single-phase short
transmission line with a unity power factor. The per phase impedance of the
line is 3 þ j8 X. Find the sending end voltage and efficiency.
5:5 The sending end voltage of a three-phase short transmission line is 11 kV
and delivers a power of 1200 kW at a 0.9 power factor lagging to a
three-phase load. The impedance of the line is found to be 3 þ j5 X. Calculate
the receiving end voltage, line current, and efficiency.
5:6 The per phase impedance of an 11 kV three-phase short transmission line is
found to be 10 þ j18 X. A three-phase load of 4 MW at a 0.95 power factor
lagging is connected at the receiving end of the line. Find the sending end
voltage per phase and load angle.
5:7 The per phase per km resistance and reactance of the three-phase 11 kV and
50 km short transmission line are 0:16 X and 0:3 X, respectively. The line
delivers a three-phase load of 280 MVA at a 0.85 power factor lagging.
Calculate the sending end voltage, real power, and sending end complex
power.
5:8 The impedance of a three-phase short transmission line is 4 þ j10 X. This line
delivers power to the load at a 0.85 power factor lagging. The per phase
sending ending voltage and receiving end voltage are 11 kV and 6.6 kV,
respectively. Calculate the line current, per phase load power, and sending
end power factor.
5:9 A load of 20 MW at a 0.85 lagging power factor is connected with a
three-phase 66 kV medium transmission line. The line has a per phase
impedance of 1:2 þ j5 X and a per phase shunt admittance j0:0003 S. Use the
nominal T-model to determine the A, B, C, D parameters, sending end line
voltage, sending end current, and sending end power factor.
5:10 The line has an impedance and a shunt admittance of a three-phase 33 kV,
and 90 km medium transmission line is 0:1 þ j0:6 X per km and j2:4
106 S per km, respectively. The line delivers a power of 24 MW at a 0.90
power factor leading to the load. Use the nominal T-model to determine the
A, B, C, D parameters, sending end line voltage, sending end current, and
sending end power factor.
5:11 The line has an impedance, and a shunt admittance of a three-phase 66 kV
and 100 km long medium transmission line are 0:2 þ j0:8 X per km and
j3:5 106 S per km, respectively. The line delivers a power of 30 MW at a
0.95 power factor lagging to the load. Use the nominal p-model to determine
the A, B, C, D parameters, sending end line voltage, sending end current, and
sending end power factor.
5:12 The per km line impedance and admittance of a three-phase 100 kV and
120 km long medium transmission line are 0:3 þ j0:5 X and j1:9 106 S,
respectively. The line delivers a power of 25 MW at a 0.85 power factor
lagging to the load. Use a nominal T-model to determine the sending end line
voltage, sending end current, and transmission efficiency.
5:13 A 130 km long three-phase 50 Hz medium transmission line delivers a
power of 30 MW at a power factor of 0.90 lagging to a balanced load whose
line voltage is 66 kV. The per phase per km transmission line parameters are
R ¼ 0:3 X,XL ¼ 0:6 X, Y ¼ 0:06 104 f. Calculate the sending end phase
voltage and voltage regulation by considering the nominal T-model.
5:14 The per phase per km parameters of a 250 km long transmission line are
r ¼ 0:04 X,x ¼ 0:19 X, y ¼ 0:09 104 f. The transmission line delivers a
power of 40 MW at a 0.90 lagging power factor. Calculate the per phase
sending end line voltage and sending end current if the receiving end voltage
is 110 kV.
5:15 The parameters of a series of transmission networks are given by
A1 ¼ D1 ¼ 0:85 j6 , B1 ¼ 30 j38 X, C1 ¼ 0:0003 j82 f, A2 ¼ D2 ¼ 0:89 j8 ,
B2 ¼ 37 j40 X, C2 ¼ 0:0006 j87 f.
The line delivers a current of 90 A from the 110 kV receiving end terminal at
a 0.95 power factor lagging. Calculate the sending end voltage and current.
5:16 The parameters of a parallel transmission network are given by

A1 ¼ D1 ¼ 0:56 j6 , B1 ¼ 44 j35 X, C1 ¼ 0:0004 j82 f, A2 ¼ D2 ¼ 0:77 j5 ,
B2 ¼ 35 j44 X, C2 ¼ 0:0007 j89 f. Calculate the equivalent parameters.
5:17 The per phase per km line inductance and capacitance of 180 km 50 Hz long
transmission line are 0.79 mH and 0:018 lF. Assume a lossless line and the
line supplies power to the load of 600 MW at a 0.85 power factor lagging
from the 500 kV line. Calculate the phase constant, the velocity of the wave
propagation, wavelength, and surge impedance.
Chapter 6
Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical Faults
6.1 Introduction
The goal of any power utility company is to run its power system network under
balanced condition. The power system network is said to be balanced when it is
operating in normal-load condition. This normal operating condition of the power
system can be disrupted due to adverse weather conditions such as heavy wind,
lightning strikes, or due to other factors such as birds shorting out the lines, vehicles
collide with transmission line poles or towers by accident, or trees fall on the
transmission lines. The lightning strike on the transmission line may generate a very
high transient voltage, which exceeds the basic insulation voltage level of the
transmission lines. This event triggers the flashover from the resultant high mag-
nitude of the current that passes through the transmission tower to the ground. This
condition of the transmission lines is known as a short circuit condition, and the
fault associated with this phenomenon is known as a short circuit fault. In a short
circuit situation, a very low impedance path is created either in between two
transmission lines or in between a transmission line and ground. In this case, the
resulting high magnitude current imposes a heavy duty on the circuit breaker and
other controlling equipment. The short circuit faults are classified as symmetrical
and unsymmetrical faults. In this chapter, symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults,
symmetrical components, zero sequence components of the machines, and classi-
fication unsymmetrical faults will be discussed.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3212-2_6
250 6 Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical Faults
6.2 Symmetrical Faults
The symmetrical faults are often known as balanced faults. In the case of balanced
faults, three lines are affected equally, and the system remains in a balanced con-
dition. These types of faults are rare in the power system, and it contributes 2–5% of
the total fault.
These faults are easy to analyze. The symmetrical faults are classified as three
line-to-ground fault (LLLG) and three-line fault (LLL). The connection diagrams of
symmetrical faults are shown in Fig. 6.1. If the fault impedance Zf = 0, then the
fault is known as a solid or bolted fault.
The balanced three-phase fault occurs suddenly at synchronous generator ter-
minals. Initially, the magnitude of the short circuit current is high. Later on, the
magnitude of this current is reduced. This short circuit current is divided into three
periods, namely subtransient, transient, and steady-state periods. The trace of a
short circuit stator current with subtransient, transient, and steady-state periods is
shown in Fig. 6.2. In the subtransient period, the short circuit current reduces
rapidly, and it is lasting for a few cycles.
In the transient period, the reduction of the short circuit current is more mod-
erate, and it continues for more cycles. In the final state, the oscillation of the
current is stable, and the currents in these regions are used to define the various
reactances of the synchronous generator if the armature resistance is neglected. The
rms value of the ac current flows in the generator during the subtransient period is
known as subtransient current. This current is represented by I 00 , and it is generated
by the damper windings of the generator. The ratio of generated voltage to the
subtransient current is known as subtransient reactance, and it is denoted by Xd00 . The
subtransient reactance can be expressed as,
oc Eg
I 00 ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 00 ð6:1Þ
2 Xd
The rms value of the AC current flows in the generator during the transient
period is known as transient current. This current is represented by I 0 , and it is
generated by the transient DC component of the field current of the generator during
a fault. The ratio of generated voltage to the transient current is known as transient
reactance, and it is denoted by Xd0 . The subtransient reactance can be expressed as,
(a) Zf (b) Zf
a a
b b
Zf Zf
G c c
Zf Zf
LLLG LLL
Fig. 6.1 Symmetrical faults’ connection diagram

6.2 Symmetrical Faults 251
I sc
Subtransient Steady state

Transient
c
b
a
t
o
Fig. 6.2 Short circuit current waveform
ob Eg
I 0 ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 0 ð6:2Þ
2 Xd
After a transient period, the fault current reaches a stable condition which is
known as steady-state current, and it is denoted by I. The synchronous reactance or
direct axis reactance is the ratio of induced voltage to the steady-state current, and it
can be expressed as,
oa Eg
I ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ ð6:3Þ
2 Xd
The rms value of the AC fault current in a synchronous generator varies over
time, and it can be expressed as,
IðtÞ ¼ ðI 00 I 0 ÞeT 00 þ ðI 0 IÞeT 0 þ I

t t
ð6:4Þ
where
T 00 is the time constant for the subtransient period,
T 0 is the time constant for the transient period

Example 6.1
A three-phase 100 MVA, 11 kV, 50 Hz synchronous generator is used in the power
station, and a three-phase fault occurs at the generator terminals. The per unit
reactances of the generator are given as X 00 ¼ 0:16, X 0 ¼ 0:25, and X ¼ 1:05. The
subtransient and transient time constants are 0.05 s and 1.04 s, respectively.
Assume the initial DC component of the current is 50% of the initial AC component
of the current. Calculate the subtransient current, transient current, steady-state
current, total current at the beginning of the fault, and AC component of the current
as a function of time.
Solution
Consider the base values are 100 MVA and 11 kV. The value of the base current is
calculated as,
100 106
Ib ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 5248:63 A ð6:5Þ
3 11 103
The value of the subtransient current or initial AC component of the current is

calculated as,
1
I 00 ¼ ¼ 6:25 pu ð6:6Þ
0:16
I 00 ¼ 6:25 5248:63 ¼ 32803:93 A ð6:7Þ
The value of the transient current is calculated as,
1
I0 ¼ ¼ 4 pu ð6:8Þ
0:25
I 0 ¼ 4 5248:63 ¼ 20994:52 A ð6:9Þ
The value of the steady-state current is calculated as,
1
I¼ ¼ 0:95 pu ð6:10Þ
1:05
I ¼ 0:95 5248:63 ¼ 4986:19 A ð6:11Þ
The total current at the beginning of the fault is calculated as,
Itotal ¼ 1:5I 00 ¼ 1:5 32803:93 ¼ 49205:89 A ð6:12Þ
The value of the AC component of the current can be determined as,
IðtÞ ¼ ðI 00 I 0 ÞeT 00 þ ðI 0 IÞeT 0 þ I

t t
¼ 11809:41e0:05 þ 16008:33e1:04 þ 4986:19 A

t t
ð6:13Þ

A three-phase 90 MVA, 11 kV, 50 Hz generator is installed at the power station,
and the three-phase fault occurs at the generator terminals. The per unit reactances
6.2 Symmetrical Faults 253
of the generator are given as X 00 ¼ 0:11, X 0 ¼ 0:20, and X ¼ 1:12. Assume the
initial DC component of the current is 50% of the initial AC component of the
current. Find the subtransient current, transient current, steady-state current, and
total current at the beginning of the fault.
6.3 Calculation of Short Circuit Current and kVA
A short circuit in a power system occurs due to failure of the insulation of the
equipment during lightning or switching activities. This short circuit current is
several times higher than the normal rating current, which in turn damages the
system severely. Sometimes, a high impedance fault current is not enough to run the
relay and circuit breaker or blow the related fuses. Therefore, there is a prime
importance to determine the short circuit current in the power system. The trans-
former and transmission line is normally represented by the leakage reactance and
series reactance, respectively. The voltage source and the reactance represent the
synchronous generator. Initially, the percentage of reactance needs to be defined to
derive the expression of the short circuit current. The voltage drop due to reactance
at rated current is expressed in percent of the rated voltage as,
IX
%Xp ¼ 100 ð6:14Þ
V
X %Xp
¼ ð6:15Þ
V 100 I
V 100 I
¼ ð6:16Þ
X %Xp
Again, consider a short circuit reactance X. For a rated voltage, the short circuit
current can be determined as,
V
Isc ¼ ð6:17Þ
X
100
Isc ¼ I ð6:18Þ
%Xp
For given base VA and voltage, the expression of base impedance is written as,
Vb2 V2
Zb ¼ ¼ b ð6:19Þ
Sb Vb Ib
The right side of Eq. (6.19) can be rearranged as,

Vb 2

1000 1000
2
Zb ¼ ð6:20Þ
1000 1000
Vb Ib
ðbase kVÞ2 10002

Zb ¼ ð6:21Þ
ðbase kVAÞ 1000
ðbase kVÞ2 1000

Zb ¼ ð6:22Þ
ðbase kVAÞ
The expression of per unit impedance can be written as,
Zactual
Zpu ¼ ð6:23Þ
Zb
Zactual
Zpu ¼ ð6:24Þ
ðbase kVÞ 1000
2
ðbase kVAÞ
Zactual ðbase kVAÞ

Zpu ¼ ð6:25Þ
ðbase kVÞ2 1000
From Eq. (6.25), the per unit impedance in percentage can be represented as,

%Zpu ¼ 100 ð6:26Þ
ðbase kVÞ2 1000

% Zpu ¼ ð6:27Þ
ðbase kVÞ2 10
The short circuit kVA at any bus m can be expressed as,

pffiffiffi
kVAsc ¼ 3 VLm IF ð6:28Þ
6.3 Calculation of Short Circuit Current and kVA 255
where
VLm is the line voltage in kV,
IF is the fault current in A.
The per unit three-phase fault current at any bus m can be determined as,
Vm
IF ðpuÞ ¼ ð6:29Þ
Xm
where
Vm is the prefault bus voltage in pu,
Xm is the total reactance up to the point of fault in pu.
Consider Sb is the base kVA and Vb is the base voltage in kV, and the base
current can be determined as,
Sb
Ib ¼ pffiffiffi ð6:30Þ
3V b
The expression of fault current in ampere is expressed as,
IF ¼ IF ðpuÞ Ib ð6:31Þ
Vm Sb
IF ¼ pffiffiffi ð6:32Þ
Xm 3Vb

pffiffiffi Vm Sb
kVAsc ¼ 3 VLm pffiffiffi ð6:33Þ
Xm 3V b
Vm VLm Sb
kVAsc ¼ ð6:34Þ
Xm Vb
If the base voltage ðVb Þ is equal to the line voltage ðVLm Þ, Eq. (6.34) becomes,
V m Sb
kVAsc ¼ ð6:35Þ
Xm
The value of the prefault bus voltage ðVm Þ is usually considered as 1 pu and
Eq. (6.35) becomes,
Sb
kVAsc ¼ ð6:36Þ
Xm
In terms of percentage reactance, Eq. (6.36) can be expressed as,
100
kVAsc ¼ Base kVA ð6:37Þ
%Xm
Example 6.2
Figure 6.3 shows a single-line diagram of a power system. The ratings of the
equipment are as follows.
Generator 20 MVA, 11 kV, X = 0.20
Transformer 10 MVA, 11/66 kV, X = 0.08
Line RL ¼ 0:4 X, XL ¼ 1:6 X
Load 20 MW, 40 MVAR
A three-phase balanced fault occurs at the load bus. Calculate the short circuit
kVA and short circuit current.
Solution
Consider the base values are 20 MVA and 11 kV. The new percentage reactance of
the generator, transformer, and line can be determined as,
20
XG ¼ 0:20 ¼ 0:20 ð6:38Þ
20
20
XT ¼ 0:08 ¼ 0:16 ð6:39Þ
10
New base in the secondary side of the transformer is,
Vb1 66
Vb2 ¼ ¼ 11 ¼ 66 kV ð6:40Þ
a 11
RLactual ðbase kVAÞ 0:4 20000
%RL ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:18 ð6:41Þ
2
ðbase kVÞ 10 662 10
Fig. 6.3 Single-line diagram B1 T B2 B3

for Example 6.2 G
Line
Load
XLactual ðbase kVAÞ 1:6 20000

%XL ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:73 ð6:42Þ
2
ðbase kVÞ 10 662 10
The total reactance up to the fault is calculated as,
Xtotal ¼ 20 þ 16 þ 0:73 ¼ 36:73% ð6:43Þ
The value of the short circuit kVA can be calculated as,
100 100
kVAsc ¼ Base kVA ¼ 20 1000 ¼ 54:45 103 ð6:44Þ
%X 36:73
The value of the short circuit MVA is,
MVAsc ¼ 54:45 ð6:45Þ
The full load current with 20 MVA base and 66 kV base voltage is calculated as,
20000
IF ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 174:95 A ð6:46Þ
3 66
The short circuit current can be determined as,
100 100
Isc ¼ IF ¼ 174:95 ¼ 476:32 A ð6:47Þ
%X 36:73
The single-line diagram is drawn in the CYME power system software. Then
data are given input by selecting each equipment. Then press the run button, and
select the parameters as the prefault base voltage and the machine impedance as the
steady state. Finally, apply fault at bus 3 and run the simulation. The simulation
results are shown in Fig. 6.4.
Fig. 6.4 CYME simulation results for Example 6.2

From Fig. 6.4, it is seen that the three-phase fault (LLL) current is,
IscCYME ¼ 476 A ð6:48Þ
MVAsc ¼ 54 ð6:49Þ
Example 6.3
Figure 6.5 shows a single-line diagram of a power system. A three-phase balanced
fault occurs at the generator bus. The ratings of the equipment are as follows.
Generator 1 20 MVA, 11 kV, X ¼ 30%
Transformer 15 MVA, 11/33 kV, X ¼ 10%
Line XL ¼ 20 X
Load 25 MW, 55 MVAR
Calculate the short circuit kVA and the short circuit current.
Solution
Consider the base values are 40 MVA and 11 kV. The new percentage reactance of
the generators, transformer, and line can be determined as,
40
XG1 ¼ 0:30 ¼ 60% ð6:50Þ
20
40
XG2 ¼ 0:20 ¼ 20% ð6:51Þ
40
2
40 33
XT ¼ 0:10 ¼ 26:67% ð6:52Þ
15 33
XLactual ðbase kVAÞ 20 40000

%XL ¼ ¼ ¼ 73:46 ð6:53Þ
ðbase kVÞ2 10 332 10

G1
for Example 6.3
Line
Load
G2
F
The value of the new base voltage is calculated as,
33
Vb1 ¼ 11 ¼ 33 kV ð6:54Þ
11
The value of the base impedance is calculated as,

2
Vb1 332
Zb ¼ ¼ ¼ 27:23 X ð6:55Þ
Sb 40
The value of the per unit line reactance is,
20
Xline ¼ ¼ 0:7344 ð6:56Þ
27:23
To calculate the reactance up to the fault point, the reactance diagram is con-
sidered, which is shown in Fig. 6.6.
The total reactance up to the fault point can be determined as,
%X ¼ ðð73:46 þ 26:67Þk20Þk60 ¼ 13:04 ð6:57Þ
The short circuit kVA can be determined as,
100 100
kVAsc ¼ Base kVA ¼ 40 1000 ¼ 306748 ð6:58Þ
%X 13:04
MVAsc ¼ 306:75 ð6:59Þ
The value of the base current is calculated as,
40 106
Ib ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 2099:45 A ð6:60Þ
3 11 1000
Fig. 6.6 Reactance diagram Neutral line

for Example 6.3
X G1 XG2
XT XL
The short circuit current can be determined as,
100 100
Isc ¼ Ib ¼ 2099:45 ¼ 16100 A
%X 13:04
The simulation results are shown in Fig. 6.7. From Fig. 6.7, it is seen that the
three-phase fault (LLL) current is,
IscCYME ¼ 13996 A ð6:61Þ
MVAsc ¼ 267 ð6:62Þ

A single-line diagram of a power system is shown in Fig. 6.8. A three-phase bal-
anced fault occurs at the load bus. The ratings of the equipment are as follows.
Generator 10 MVA, 11 kV, X ¼ 20%
Transformer 5 MVA, 11/33 kV, X ¼ 8%
Line X¼2X
Load 30 MW, 60 MVAR
Calculate the short circuit kVA and short circuit current.

Load
for Practice Problem 6.2
G Line
F

Figure 6.9 shows a single-line diagram where three generators are connected to a
common busbar. A three-phase balanced fault occurs at the generator bus. The
ratings of the equipment are as follows.
Load 30 MW, 50 MVAR
Find the short circuit kVA and short circuit current.
Example 6.4
Generator G1 100 MVA, 20 kV, X ¼ 0:20 pu
Transformer T1 100 MVA, 20/138 kV, primary delta and secondary earthed wye,
X ¼ 0:08 pu
Transformer T2 50 MVA, 20/138 kV, primary delta and secondary wye,
X ¼ 0:04 pu
Line 100 MVA, XL ¼ 20 X
A three-phase balanced fault occurs at bus 1. Calculate the short circuit kVA and
short circuit current. Compare the result with IPSA software simulation.
B1
G1
Load
G2
G2 F
Fig. 6.9 Single-line diagram for Practice Problem 6.3
T1 T2
B1 B2 B3 Δ−Y B4
G1 Δ−Y
G3
F Line
G2

Solution
Consider the base values 100 MVA and 20 kV. The new percentage reactance of
the generators, transformers, and line can be determined as,
100
XG1 ¼ 0:20 ¼ 0:2 pu ð6:63Þ
100
100
XG1 ¼ 0:20 ¼ 0:2 pu ð6:64Þ
100
100
XG2 ¼ 0:20 ¼ 0:25 pu ð6:65Þ
80
100
XG3 ¼ 0:12 ¼ 0:20 pu ð6:66Þ
60
100
XT1 ¼ 0:08 ¼ 0:08 pu ð6:67Þ
100
100
XT2 ¼ 0:04 ¼ 0:08 pu ð6:68Þ
50
The base voltage for the line is calculated as,
Vb 138
Vb1 ¼ ¼ 20 ¼ 138 kV ð6:69Þ
a 20
The value of the base impedance is calculated as,

2
Vb1 1382
Zb ¼ ¼ ¼ 190:44 X ð6:70Þ
Sb 100
The per unit line reactance is calculated as,
Xline 20
Xline ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:105 ð6:71Þ
Zb 190:44
The reactance diagram is considered which is shown in Fig. 6.11, to calculate

the reactance up to the fault point,
The equivalent reactance for the generator 1 and generator 2 is calculated as,
0:2 0:25
Xge ¼ ¼ 0:111 pu ð6:72Þ
0:45
Neutral line
X G1 XG2 X G3
X T1 XL XT 2
Fig. 6.11 Reactance diagram for Example 6.4
The total reactance up to the fault point can be determined as,
X ¼ ð0:08 þ 0:08 þ 0:105 þ 0:2Þ k 0:111 ð6:73Þ
0:465 0:111
X¼ ¼ 0:0896 pu ð6:74Þ
0:576
The value of the short circuit kVA can be determined as,
100 1
kVAsc ¼ Base kVA ¼ 100 1000 ¼ 1116071:429 ð6:75Þ
%X 0:0896
The short circuit MVA is calculated as,

MVAsc ¼ 1116:071 ð6:76Þ
100 106
Ib ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 2886:751 A ð6:77Þ
3 20 1000
The value of the short circuit current can be determined as,
100 1
Isc ¼ Ib ¼ 2886:751 ¼ 32218:20 A ð6:78Þ
%X 0:0896
The simulation is done by the software IPSA, and the result is shown in
Fig. 6.12. The balanced three-phase fault current is,
IfIPSA ¼ 32188:831 A ð6:79Þ
The simulation is done by the software CYME, and the result is shown in
Fig. 6.13. The balanced three-phase fault current is,
IfCYME ¼ 26062 A ð6:80Þ
MVAscCYME ¼ 903 ð6:81Þ

Fig. 6.12 IPSA simulation results for Example 6.4

X = 0.12
X = 0.11
Line XL ¼ 28 X
A three-phase balanced fault occurs at bus 3. Calculate the short circuit kVA and
short circuit current.
6.4 Unsymmetrical Faults 265
T1 T2 G3
B1 B2 B3 B4
G1 Δ−Y Y−Δ
F Line
G4
G2
6.4 Unsymmetrical Faults
The faults in the power system network which disturb the balanced condition of the
network are known as unsymmetrical faults. The unsymmetrical faults are classified
as a single-line-to-ground faults (SLG), double-line-to-ground faults (DLG), and
line-to-line faults. More than 90% of faults which occur in a power system are
single-line-to-ground faults. The connection diagrams of different types of
unsymmetrical faults are shown in Fig. 6.15.
6.5 Symmetrical Components
The knowledge of phase sequence is very important to analyze the symmetrical

components. The phase sequence is defined as the order in which they reach the
maximum value of the voltage. In 1918, C. L. Fortescue, an American Scientist,
stated that three separate balanced phasors can replace the three-phase unbalanced
phasors of a three-phase system.
Zf Zf
a a
SLG
G G b
Zf
Zf DLG
a
LL
b
Zf
Fig. 6.15 Unsymmetrical faults’ connection diagram

Fig. 6.16 Representation of I c1

positive sequence components
120 I a1
120
120
I b1
Fig. 6.17 Representation of

negative sequence Ib 2 Ia2
components 120
120 120
Ic2
The symmetrical components are classified as positive sequence components,

negative sequence components, and zero sequence components.
The components of the system have three phasors with equal magnitude but are
displaced from each other by 120°, and they follow the abc phase sequence. Phase
b lags the phase a by 120°, and phase c lags the phase b by 120°. The neutral
current of the positive sequence components is zero. The positive sequence com-
ponents Ia1 , Ib1 , and Ic1 are shown in Fig. 6.16. In this system, the components have
three phasors with an equal magnitude but are displaced from each other by 120°,
and they maintain the acb phase sequence. Phase c lags the phase a by 120°, and
phase b lags the phase c by 120°. The negative sequence components are similar to
the positive sequence components, except the phase order is reversed. The neutral
current of the negative sequence components is zero. The negative sequence
components Ia2 , Ib2 , and Ic2 are shown in Fig. 6.17.
The components have three phasors with equal magnitude, but zero displace-
ments are known as zero sequence components. The zero sequence components are
in phase with each other and have the neutral current. The zero sequence compo-
nents of the current Ia0 , Ib0 , and Ic0 are shown in Fig. 6.18. The unsymmetrical
components of the currents Ia , Ib , and Ic can be derived from the phasor diagram as
shown in Fig. 6.18.
6.6 Representation of Symmetrical Components 267
Fig. 6.18 Representation of I c0 Ib0 I a0

zero sequence components
6.6 Representation of Symmetrical Components
Figure 6.19 represents a phasor diagram where the line OA represents the current
phasor I. This phasor, after being multiplied by the operator a, gives the new phasor
aI which is represented by the line OB. The phasor aI in the diagram is leading (in
the counterclockwise direction) the phasor by 120°, which can be expressed as,
aI ¼ I j120 ð6:82Þ
a ¼ 1 j120 ¼ 0:5 þ j0:866 ð6:83Þ
Similarly, multiplying the phasor aI by a which gives a new phasor a2 I; which is

represented by the line OC. This new phasor a2 I is leading phasor I by 240 in the
phasor diagram, which can be mathematically expressed as,
a2 I ¼ I j240 ð6:84Þ
Ia I a0
Ic
I c0
I c1
Ib
I b0 I a2
I a1
I c2
I b2
I b1
Fig. 6.19 Representation of unsymmetrical and symmetrical components of current

Fig. 6.20 Phasors with B

counterclockwise direction
aI
120
I
120 A
O
120
a2 I
a2 ¼ 1 j240 ¼ 0:5 j0:866 ð6:85Þ
A similar approach can lead us to the following expression:
a3 ¼ 1 j360 ¼ 1 ð6:86Þ
Adding Eqs. (6.83), (6.85), and (6.86) yields,
1 þ a2 þ a3 ¼ 0 ð6:87Þ
Comparing Fig. 6.16 with Fig. 6.20, the positive phase sequence components of
the current can be represented as,
Ia1 ¼ Ia1 j0 ð6:88Þ
Ib1 ¼ Ia1 j240 ¼ a2 Ia1 ð6:89Þ
Ic1 ¼ Ia1 j120 ¼ aIa1 ð6:90Þ
Again, comparing Fig. 6.17 with Fig. 6.20, the negative phase sequence com-
ponents of the current can be represented as,
Ia2 ¼ Ia2 j0 ð6:91Þ
Ib2 ¼ Ia2 j120 ¼ aIa2 ð6:92Þ
Ic2 ¼ Ia2 j240 ¼ a2 Ia2 ð6:93Þ
The magnitudes of the zero phase sequence components are the same, and it can
be written as,
Ia0 ¼ Ib0 ¼ Ic0 ð6:94Þ

From Fig. 6.19, the unsymmetrical currents can be represented by the sym-
metrical components of current as,
Ia ¼ Ia0 þ Ia1 þ Ia2 ð6:95Þ
Ib ¼ Ib0 þ Ib1 þ Ib2 ð6:96Þ
Ic ¼ Ic0 þ Ic1 þ Ic2 ð6:97Þ
where the suffixes 0, 1, and 2 indicate the zero sequence, positive sequence, and
negative sequence components, respectively. Equations (6.96) and (6.97) can be
replaced by the symmetrical components of the current of phase a. Substituting
Eqs. (6.89), (6.92), and (6.94) into Eq. (6.96) yields,
Ib ¼ Ia0 þ a2 Ia1 þ aIa2 ð6:98Þ
Again, substituting Eqs. (6.90), (6.93) and (6.94) into the Eq. (6.97) yields,
Ic ¼ Ia0 þ aIa1 þ a2 Ia2 ð6:99Þ
Equations (6.95), (6.98), and (6.99) can be rearranged in the matrix form as,
2 3 2 32 3
Ia 1 1 1 Ia0
4 I b 5 ¼ 4 1 a2 a 54 Ia1 5 ð6:100Þ
Ic 1 a a2 Ia2
In Eq. (6.100), let’s represent the following symmetrical component transfor-

mation matrix as A, where
2 3
1 1 1
A ¼ 4 1 a2 a5 ð6:101Þ
1 a a2

2 3 2 3
Ia Ia0
4 Ib 5 ¼ A4 Ia1 5 ð6:102Þ
Ic Ia2
Taking the inverse of A, Eq. (6.102) can be written as,

2 3 2 3
Ia0 Ia
4 Ia1 5 ¼ A1 4 Ib 5 ð6:103Þ
Ia2 Ic
From Eq. (6.103), the inverse of the A can be derived as,

2 3
1 1 1
14
A1 ¼ 1 a a2 5 ð6:104Þ
3
1 a2 a

2 3 2 32 3
Ia0 1 1 1 Ia
1
4 Ia1 5 ¼ 4 1 a a2 54 Ib 5 ð6:105Þ
3
Ia2 1 a2 a Ic
From Eq. (6.105), the following expressions for the current components can be
found,
1
Ia0 ¼ ðIa þ Ib þ Ic Þ ð6:106Þ
3
1
Ia1 ¼ Ia þ aIb þ a2 Ic ð6:107Þ
3
1
Ia2 ¼ Ia þ a2 Ib þ aIc ð6:108Þ
3
Similarly, the mathematical expressions for voltage components can be written

as,
1
Va0 ¼ ðVa þ Vb þ Vc Þ ð6:109Þ
3
1
Va1 ¼ Va þ aVb þ a2 Vc ð6:110Þ
3
1
Va2 ¼ Va þ a2 Vb þ aVc ð6:111Þ
3
In a three-phase Y-connection system, the magnitude of the neutral current can

be calculated as,
In ¼ Ia þ Ib þ Ic ð6:112Þ
1
Ia0 ¼ In ð6:113Þ
3
In ¼ 3Ia0 ¼ 3I0 ð6:114Þ
Example 6.5
A three-phase system is having phase voltages Va ¼ 90 j0 kV; Vb ¼ 66 j100 kV;
and Vc ¼ 22 j85 kV: Calculate the symmetrical voltage components of for phases
a, b, and c.
Solution
The magnitude of the zero sequence voltage component is calculated as,
1
Va0 ¼ 90 þ 66 j100 þ 22 j85 ¼ 30:42 j28:17 kV ð6:115Þ
3
The magnitude of the positive sequence voltage component is calculated as,
1
Va1 ¼ 90 þ 66 j100 þ 120 þ 22 j85 þ 240 ¼ 56:21 j3:35 kV ð6:116Þ
3
The magnitude of the negative sequence voltage component is,
1 1
Va2 ¼ Va þ a2 Vb þ aVc ¼ 90 þ 66 j100 þ 240 þ 22 j85 þ 120
3 3
¼ 12:69 j59:51 kV
ð6:117Þ
For phase b:
The zero sequence voltage component is calculated as,
Vb0 ¼ 30:42 j28:17 kV ð6:118Þ
The positive sequence voltage component is calculated as,
Vb1 ¼ a2 Va1 ¼ 56:21 j240 þ 3:35 ¼ 56:21 j243:35 kV ð6:119Þ
The negative sequence voltage component is calculated as,
Vb2 ¼ Va2 j120 ¼ 12:69 j120 þ 59:51 ¼ 12:69 j179:51 kV ð6:120Þ
For phase c:
The zero sequence voltage component is,
Vc0 ¼ 30:42 j28:17 kV ð6:121Þ
The positive sequence voltage component is determined as,
Vc1 ¼ Va1 j120 ¼ 56:21 j120 þ 3:35 ¼ 56:21 j123:35 kV ð6:122Þ

The negative sequence voltage component is calculated as,
Vc2 ¼ Va2 j240 ¼ 12:69 j240 þ 59:51 ¼ 12:69 j299:51 kV ð6:123Þ
Example 6.6
The symmetrical voltage components of a three-phase system are given by Va0 ¼
94 j150 kV; Va1 ¼ 56 j80 kV; and Va2 ¼ 122 j55 kV for phase a. Find the
three-phase unbalanced voltages.
Solution
The positive phase sequence voltage components can be determined as,
Vb1 ¼ Va1 j240 ¼ 56 j80 þ 240 ¼ 56 j320 kV ð6:124Þ
Vc1 ¼ Va1 j120 ¼ 56 j80 þ 120 ¼ 56 j200 kV ð6:125Þ
The negative phase sequence voltage components are calculated as,
Vb2 ¼ Va2 j120 ¼ 122 j55 þ 120 ¼ 122 j175 kV ð6:126Þ
Vc2 ¼ Va2 j240 ¼ 122 j55 þ 240 ¼ 122 j295 kV ð6:127Þ
The zero phase sequence voltage components can be calculated as,
Va0 ¼ Vb0 ¼ Vc0 ¼ 94 j150 kV ð6:128Þ
Unbalance three-phase voltage components can be determined as,
Va ¼ 94 j150 þ 56 j80 þ 122 j55 ¼ 202:09 j90:48 kV ð6:129Þ
Va ¼ 94 j150 þ 56 j320 þ 122 j175 ¼ 161:50 j172:5 kV ð6:130Þ
Vc ¼ 94 j150 þ 56 j200 þ 122 j295 ¼ 116:81 j134:91 kV ð6:131Þ

A Y-connected three-phase load draws current from the source as Ia ¼ 15 j0 A;
Ib ¼ 25 j20 A; and Ic ¼ 30 j40 A: Calculate the symmetrical current components
for the phases a, b, and c.
A three-phase system has the following symmetrical current components: Positive
sequence current components are Ia1 ¼ 6 j10 A and Ib1 ¼ 6 j250 A: The nega-
tive sequence current components are Ia2 ¼ 5 j53:13 A; Ib2 ¼ 5 j173:13 A; and
Ic2 ¼ 5 j293:13 A: The zero sequence current components are Ia0 ¼ Ib0 ¼ Ic0 ¼
4 j35 A: Calculate the unsymmetrical current components.
6.7 Complex Power in Symmetrical Components 273
6.7 Complex Power in Symmetrical Components
The product of the voltage and the conjugate of the current is known as complex
power, and it is denoted by the capital letter S. The expression of the complex
power is,
S ¼ P þ jQ ¼ VI ¼ VI cos / þ VI sin / ð6:132Þ
Based on Eq. (6.132), the expression of the complex power for the three-phase
lines can be written as,
P þ jQ ¼ Va Ia þ Vb Ib þ Vc Ic ð6:133Þ
Equation (6.133) can be rearranged in the matrix form as,

2 3 2 3T 2 3
Ia Va Ia
P þ jQ ¼ ½Va þ Vb þ Vc 4 Ib 5 ¼ 4 Vb 5 4 Ib 5 ð6:134Þ
Ic Vc Ic
According to Eq. (6.100), the unbalanced voltages can be written as,

2 3 2 32 3
Va 1 1 1 Va0
4 Vb 5 ¼ 4 1 a2 a 54 Va1 5 ¼ AV012 ð6:135Þ
Vc 1 a a2 Va2
where
2 3
Va0
4 Va1 5 ¼ V012 ð6:136Þ
Va2
Taking transpose of Eq. (6.135) yields,

2 3T
Va
4 Vb 5 ¼ ðAV012 ÞT ¼ AT V T ð6:137Þ
012
Vc
2 3T 2 3
Va 1 1 1
4 Vb 5 ¼ 4 1 a2 a 5½ Va0 Va1 Va2 ð6:138Þ
Vc 1 a a2
Taking conjugate of Eq. (6.100) yields,

2 3 2 3 2 3 2 32 3
Ia 1 1 1 Ia0 1 1 1 Ia0
4 I b 5 ¼ 4 1 a2 a 5 4 Ia1 5 ¼ 4 1 a a2 54 Ia1 5 ð6:139Þ
Ic 1 a a2 Ia2 1 a2 a Ia2

2 3 2 32 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 Ia0
P þ jQ ¼ 4 1 a2 a 5 ½ Va0 Vb0 Vc0 4 1 a a2 54 Ia1 5 ð6:140Þ
1 a a2 1 a2 a Ia2
2 32 32 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 Ia0
P þ jQ ¼ ½ Va0 Va1 Va2 4 1 a2 a 54 1 a a2 54 Ia1 5 ð6:141Þ
1 a a2 1 a2 a Ia2

2 32 3
1þ1þ1 1 þ a þ a2 1 þ a2 þ a Ia0
P þ jQ ¼ ½ Va0 Va1 Va2 4 1 þ a2 þ a 1 þ a3 þ a3 1 þ a4 þ a2 54 Ia1 5
1 þ a þ a2 1 þ a2 þ a4 1 þ a3 þ a3 Ia2
ð6:142Þ
2 32 3
3 0 0 Ia0
P þ jQ ¼ ½ Va0 Va1 Va2 4 0 3 0 54 Ia1 5 ð6:143Þ
0 0 3 Ia2
2 3
Ia0
P þ jQ ¼ 3½ Va0 Va1 Va2 4 Ia1 5 ð6:144Þ
Ia2

P þ jQ ¼ 3 Va0 Ia0 þ Va1 Ia1 þ Va2 Ia2 ð6:145Þ
Equation (6.145) can be used to find the real power and reactive power from the
symmetrical components of voltage and current. According to Eq. (6.132), the
expressions of real and reactive power from Eq. (6.145) can be written as,
P ¼ 3Va0 Ia0 cos /0 þ 3Va1 Ia1 cos /1 þ 3Va2 Ia2 cos /2 ð6:146Þ
Q ¼ 3Va0 Ia0 sin /0 þ 3Va1 Ia1 sin /1 þ 3Va2 Ia2 sin /2 ð6:147Þ
6.8 Sequence Impedance of Power System Equipment 275
6.8 Sequence Impedance of Power System Equipment
The sequence impedances of a power system equipment are defined as the impe-
dance offered by the equipment to the flow of sequence (positive or negative or
zero) current through it. These sequence impedances are zero, positive, and nega-
tive sequence impedances. The zero sequence impedance of equipment is defined as
the impedance offered by the equipment to the flow of the zero sequence current,
and it is represented by Z0. The impedance offered by the power system equipment
to the flow of the positive sequence current is known as the positive sequence
impedance, and it is denoted by Z1. The impedance offered by the power system
equipment to the flow of the negative sequence current is known as the negative
sequence impedance, and it is denoted by Z2. In the case of a synchronous machine,
positive sequence impedance is equal to the synchronous impedance of the
machine, whereas the negative sequence impedance is much less than the positive
sequence impedance. If the zero sequence impedance is not given, then its value is
assumed to be equal to the positive sequence impedance. For the transformer,
positive sequence impedance, negative sequence impedance, and zero sequence
impedances are equal. In the case of the transmission line, positive sequence
impedance and negative sequence impedances are equal. The zero sequence
impedance is much higher than the positive sequence impedance or the negative
sequence impedance. The balanced Y-connected load and the neutral impedance are
shown in Fig. 6.21. The current in the neutral point is,
The voltage between the phase a and the ground point is,
Vag ¼ Ia Zy þ Zn In ð6:149Þ
Fig. 6.21 Balanced Ia

Y-connected load a
Zy
Ib
b
Zy
n
Zy
Zn
Ic
c In
g

Vag ¼ Ia Zy þ Zn ðIa þ Ib þ Ic Þ ð6:150Þ
Vag ¼ Ia ðZy þ Zn Þ þ Zn Ib þ Zn Ic ð6:151Þ
Similarly, the voltages of phase b and phase c to the ground point are,
Vbg ¼ Zn Ia þ ðZn þ Zy ÞIb þ Zn Ic ð6:152Þ
Vcg ¼ Zn Ia þ Zn Ib þ ðZn þ Zy ÞIc ð6:153Þ
Equations (6.151), (6.71), and (6.153) can be expressed in the matrix format as,
2 3 2 32 3
Vag Z n þ Zy Zn Zn Ia
4 Vbg 5 ¼ 4 Zn Z n þ Zy Zn 54 Ib 5 ð6:154Þ
Vcg Zn Zn Zn þ Zy Ic
Substituting the expression of unsymmetrical voltages into Eq. (6.154) yields,

2 32 3 2 32 3
1 1 1 Va0 Z n þ Zy Zn Zn Ia
4 1 a2 a 54 Va1 5 ¼ 4 Zn Zn þ Zy Zn 54 Ib 5 ð6:155Þ
1 a a2 Va2 Zn Zn Zn þ Zy Ic
Again, substituting the expression of unsymmetrical currents into Eq. (6.155)

yields,
2 3 2 32 32 32 3
Va0 1 1 1 Zn þ Zy Zn Zn 1 1 1 Ia0
1
4 Va1 5 ¼ 4 1 a a2 54 Zn Zn þ Zy Zn 54 1 a2 a 54 Ia1 5
3 Zn þ Zy
Va2 1 a2 a Zn Zn 1 a a2 Ia2
ð6:156Þ
2 3 2 32 32 3
Va0
1
1 1 1 3Zn þ Zy Zn þ Zy þ Zn ða2 þ aÞ Zn þ Zy þ Zn ða2 þ aÞ Ia0
4 Va1 5 ¼ 4 1 a a2 54 3Zn þ Zy Zn þ a2 ðZy þ Zn Þ þ aZn Zn þ aðZy þ Zn Þ þ a2 Zn 54 Ia1 5
3
Va2 1 a2 a 3Zn þ Zy Zn þ a2 Zn þ aðZn þ Zy Þ Zn þ aZn þ a2 ðZy þ Zn Þ Ia2
ð6:157Þ
2 3 2 32 32 3
Va0 1 1 1 3Zn þ Zy Zy Zy Ia0
4 Va1 5 ¼ 1 4 1 a a2 54 3Zn þ Zy a2 Z y aZy 54 Ia1 5 ð6:158Þ
3 3Zn þ Zy a2 Z y
Va2 1 a2 a aZy Ia2
2 3 2 32 3
Va0
1 9Zn þ 3Zy Zy ða2 þ a þ 1Þ Zy ða2 þ a þ 1Þ Ia0
4 Va1 5 ¼ 4 ð3Zn þ Zy Þða2 þ a þ 1Þ Zy þ a3 Zy þ a3 Zy Zy þ a2 Zy þ a4 Zy 54 Ia1 5
3
Va2 ð3Zn þ Zy Þða2 þ a þ 1Þ Zy þ a4 Zy þ a2 Zy Zy þ a3 Zy þ a3 Zy Ia2
ð6:159Þ
6.8 Sequence Impedance of Power System Equipment 277
Fig. 6.22 Sequence I a0 I a1

networks
+ Zy +
Va 0 Z 0 = Z y + 3Z n Va1 Z1 = Z y
Zy
− −
3Z n
Zero sequence Positive sequence

Ia2
+
Va 2 Z2 = Z y
Zy
−
Negative sequence
2 3 2 32 3
Va0 9Zn þ 3Zy 0 0 Ia0
1
4 Va1 5 ¼ 4 0 3Zy 0 54 Ia1 5 ð6:160Þ
3 0 0 3Zy
Va2 Ia2
2 3 2 32 3
Va0 3Zn þ Zy 0 0 Ia0
4 Va1 5 ¼ 4 0 Zy 0 54 Ia1 5 ð6:161Þ
Va2 0 0 Zy Ia2
From Eq. (6.161), the expressions of symmetrical components of voltage for the
phase a can be written as,
Va0 ¼ ð3Zn þ Zy ÞIa0 ð6:162Þ
Va1 ¼ Zy Ia1 ð6:163Þ
The sequence circuits based on Eqs. (6.162), (6.163), and (6.164) are shown in
Fig. 6.22. The neutral impedance of the Y-connection would be zero if it is solidly
grounded. Equation (6.162) can be modified as,
The neutral impedance of the Y-connection will provide an infinite quantity if it

is not grounded. That means zero sequence circuit will provide an open circuit and
nonzero sequence current will flow through an ungrounded Y-connection.
6.9 Zero Sequence Models
In transmission lines, there is no effect on the impedance due to positive and native
sequence components of voltages and currents. In this case, positive sequence and
negative sequence impedances are equal to each other, that is,
Z1 ¼ Z2 ð6:166Þ
The zero sequence impedance is much higher than the positive or negative
sequence impedance due to its ground return path. In this case, the expression can
be written as,
Z0 ¼ Z1 þ 3Zn ð6:167Þ
Similarly, the zero sequence reactance can be written as,
X0 ¼ X1 þ 3Xn ð6:168Þ
where the neutral reactance (per mile) can be expressed as,
Dm
Xn ¼ 2:02 103 f ln X=mile ð6:169Þ
Ds
where
Dm is the geometric mean distance (GMD),
Ds is the geometric mean radius,
f is the frequency.
The sequence networks for transmission lines are shown in Fig. 6.23. There are
three impedances, namely subtransient, transient, and direct axis reactance. The
positive and negative sequence impedances are equal to the subtransient reactance
during a fault condition.
The generator offers a very small reactance due to the leakage flux. Therefore,
the zero sequence impedance is smaller than the others. The following equations for
a generator can be written as,
6.9 Zero Sequence Models 279
Z0 Z1
I0 I1
ground ground
Z2
I2
ground
Negative sequence
Fig. 6.23 Sequence networks for the transmission line
Z0 Z1
I0 I1
3Z n E1

Z2
I2
Negative sequence
Fig. 6.24 Sequence networks for generator
Z1 ¼ Z2 ¼ Zd00 ð6:170Þ
Z0 ¼ Zl ð6:171Þ
The sequence networks for the generator are shown in Fig. 6.24. In the trans-
former, the zero sequence current flows if the neutral is grounded. In this case, the
positive and the negative sequence impedances are equal to the zero sequence
impedance, that is,
a
A
Z0
B b A a
c g
C
Symbol Connection diagram Equivalent circuit
Fig. 6.25 Sequence networks for Y-Y-connection with both sides grounded
Z1 ¼ Z2 ¼ Z0 ð6:172Þ
Y-Y-Connection with both neutral grounded: In this connection, both neutrals

are connected to the ground. Therefore, zero sequence current will flow in the
primary and the secondary windings through the two grounded neutrals. As a result,
the zero sequence impedance connects the high voltage and the low voltage ter-
minals as shown in Fig. 6.25.
Y-Y-connection with only one grounded: In this arrangement, one side of the
Y-connection is not grounded. If anyone of the Y-Y-connection is not grounded,
then the zero sequence current will not flow through the ungrounded wye.
Therefore, an open circuit will appear between the high voltage and low voltage
sides, as shown in Fig. 6.26.
Y-Y-connection with no grounded: In this arrangement, the sum of the phase
current in both cases is zero. As a result, no zero sequence current will flow in any
of the windings. Hence, there is an open circuit between the high voltage and the
low voltage sides, as shown in Fig. 6.27.
Grounded Y- and Δ connections: In this connection, zero sequence current will
flow in the Y-connection as its neutral is connected to the ground. The balanced
zero sequence current will flow within the phases of the Δ connection, but this
a
A
Z0
B b A a
c g
C
Fig. 6.26 Sequence networks for Y-Y-connection for one side grounded
a
A
Z0
B b A a
c g
C
Fig. 6.27 Sequence networks for Y-Y-connection with no ground
A a
Z0
B b A a
c
C g
Fig. 6.28 Sequence networks for grounded Y- and delta connection
current will not flow out of the terminal. Therefore, no zero sequence current will
flow in the line as shown in Fig. 6.28.
Ungrounded Y- and Δ connections: In this case, there will be no connection
between the neutral and the ground. Therefore, the zero sequence current will not
flow in the windings of both transformers. As a result, an open circuit will exist
between the high and low voltage sides as shown in Fig. 6.29.
Δ-Δ connection: In this connection, no zero sequence current will leave or enter
the terminals. However, it is possible for the current components to circulate within
the windings. Therefore, there is an open circuit between the high voltage and the
low voltage windings. The zero sequence impedance will form a closed path with
grounding terminals as shown in Fig. 6.30.
Example 6.7
Figure 6.31 shows a single-line diagram of a three-phase power system. Draw the
positive sequence, negative sequence, and zero sequence networks.
Solution
The generator is represented with a voltage source and a series reactance in the
positive sequence network. The transformer and transmission lines are also repre-
sented by the respective reactance quantities as shown in Fig. 6.32.
A a
Z0
B b A a
c
C g
Fig. 6.29 Sequence networks for ungrounded Y- and delta connection
A a
B Z0 a
b A
c
C g
Fig. 6.30 Sequence networks for delta-delta connection

G2
Line
G1 T1 T2
Fig. 6.31 A single-line diagram for Example 6.7
By omitting the voltage sources from the positive sequence network and by
replacing the generator reactance components with negative sequence reactance
components as shown in Fig. 6.33 has been derived.
The equivalent reactance of the generator G1 is Xg0 þ 3Xn as it is grounded
through a reactance. The total equivalent reactance of the generator G2 is zero as it
is solidly grounded. The primary sides of both the transformers T1 and T2 are delta
connected. The zero sequence network is, therefore, in an open circuit near the bus
1 and bus 4. The secondary sides of both the transformers are wye-connected and
solidly grounded. The zero sequence network is shown in Fig. 6.34.
Figure 6.35 shows a single-line diagram of a three-phase power system. Draw the
positive sequence, negative sequence, and zero sequence networks.
X1,T 1 X1,L X1,T 2
jX1, g1 jX1, g 2
E1
E2
Reference
Fig. 6.32 A positive sequence network for Example 6.7
X 2,T 1 X 2,L X 2,T 2
jX 2, g1 jX 2, g 2
Reference
Fig. 6.33 A negative sequence network for Example 6.7
Bus 1 X 0,T 1 X 0,L Bus 4

X 0,T 2
jX g 0, g1
jX 0, g 2
j 3 X n , g1 G2
G1
Reference
Fig. 6.34 A zero sequence network for Example 6.7


L1
M
G T1 L2 T2
Fig. 6.35 A single-line diagram for Practice Problem 6.7
a a a
b b b
c c c
LL DLG
SLG
Fig. 6.36 Different types of unsymmetrical faults
6.10 Classification of Unsymmetrical Faults
Unsymmetrical faults are the most common faults that occur in the power system.
Due to this fault, the magnitudes of the line currents become unequal, and also these
current components observed a phase displacement among them.
In this case, symmetrical components are required to analyze the current and
voltage quantities during the unsymmetrical faults. These unsymmetrical faults can
be classified into three categories, namely single-line-to-ground fault (SLG),
line-to-line fault (LL), and double-line-to-ground fault (DLG). The unsymmetrical
faults are shown in Fig. 6.36.
6.11 Sequence Network of an Unloaded Synchronous

Generator
A three-phase unloaded synchronous generator is having a synchronous impedance

of Zy per phase, and its neutral is grounded by an impedance Zn as shown in
Fig. 6.37.
In balanced condition, the negative sequence and zero sequence voltages are
zero [1, 2]. The expression of neutral current is,
6.11 Sequence Network of an Unloaded Synchronous Generator 285
Ia
a
+
Zy Va
Ea
Ec Eb
Zn
Zy Ib b
Zy
+
Ic Vb
+ c
In Vc -
n
Fig. 6.37 Unloaded three-phase synchronous generator
Applying KVL to the circuit shown in Fig. 6.37, the following equation can be
found:
Va ¼ Ea Zy Ia Zn In ð6:174Þ
Ea ¼ Va þ Zy Ia þ Zn ðIa þ Ib þ Ic Þ ð6:175Þ
Ea ¼ Va þ ðZy þ Zn ÞIa þ Zn Ib þ Zn Ic ð6:176Þ
Similarly, the expression of other voltages can be found as,
Eb ¼ Vb þ Zn Ia þ ðZy þ Zn ÞIb þ Zn Ic ð6:177Þ
Ec ¼ Vc þ Zn Ia þ Zn Ib þ ðZy þ Zn ÞIc ð6:178Þ

Equations (6.176), (6.177), and (6.178) can be written in the matrix form as,
2 3 2 3 2 32 3
Ea Va Zy þ Zn Zn Zn Ia
4 Eb 5 ¼ 4 Vb 5 þ 4 Zn Zy þ Zn Zn 54 Ib 5 ð6:179Þ
Ec Vc Zn Zn Zy þ Zn Ic
More concisely, Eq. (6.179) can be written as,
½Eabc ¼ ½V abc þ ½Z abc ½I abc ð6:180Þ
where the following terms can be expressed as,
½Eabc ¼ ½ Ea Eb Ec T ð6:181Þ
½V abc ¼ ½ Va Vb Vc T ð6:182Þ
½I abc ¼ ½ Ia Ib Ic T ð6:183Þ
Multiplying Eq. (6.180) by ½ A1 yields,
½ A1 ½E abc ¼ ½ A1 ½V abc þ ½ A1 ½Z abc ½I abc ð6:184Þ
Let us consider the generator voltage,
Ea ¼ E ð6:185Þ
According to the a operator, the following relationships can be affirmed,
Eb ¼ a2 E ð6:186Þ
Ec ¼ aE ð6:187Þ
The left-hand side of Eq. (6.184) can be modified as,

2 32 3
1 1 1 E
14
1
½ A ½E abc ¼ 1 a a2 54 a2 E 5 ð6:188Þ
3
1 a2 a aE
2 3 2 3 2 3
E 1 þ a þ a 2
E
0 0
½ A1 ½Eabc ¼ 4 1 þ a3 þ a3 5 ¼ 4 3 5 ¼ 4 E 5 ð6:189Þ
3 3
1 þ a4 þ a2 0 0
The first part of the right-hand side of Eq. (6.184) becomes,

6.11 Sequence Network of an Unloaded Synchronous Generator 287
½ A1 ½V abc ¼ ½V 012 ð6:190Þ
The second part of the right-hand side of Eq. (6.184) can be written as,
½ A1 ½Z abc ½I abc ¼ ½ A1 ½Z abc ½ A½I 012 ð6:191Þ
However, the following relation can be written as,
½ A1 ½Z abc ½ A ¼ ½Z 012 ð6:192Þ
½ A1 ½Z abc ½I abc ¼ ½Z 012 ½I 012 ð6:193Þ
where
2 3 2 3
3Zn þ Zy 0 0 Z0 0 0
½Z 012 ¼ 4 0 Zy 05 ¼ 40 Z1 05 ð6:194Þ
0 0 Zy 0 0 Z2
In Eq. (6.194),
Z0 ¼ Zy þ 3Zn is the zero sequence impedance,
Z1 ¼ Zy is the positive sequence impedance,
Z2 ¼ Zy is the negative sequence impedance.
2 3 2 3 2 32 3
0 V0 Z0 0 0 I0
4 E 5 ¼ 4 V1 5 þ 4 0 Z1 0 54 I1 5 ð6:195Þ
0 V2 0 0 Z2 I2

2 3 2 3 2 32 3
V0 0 Z0 0 0 I0
4 V1 5 ¼ 4 E 5 4 0 Z1 0 5 4 I1 5 ð6:196Þ
V2 0 0 0 Z2 I2
From Eq. (6.196), the voltages are expressed as,
V0 ¼ 0 I0 Z0 ð6:197Þ
V1 ¼ E I1 Z1 ð6:198Þ
V2 ¼ 0 I2 Z2 ð6:199Þ
The sequence networks are shown in Fig. 6.24.
6.12 Single-Line-to-Ground Fault
A three-phase Y-connected unload generator is shown in Fig. 6.38. Initially, the

neutral of the generator is grounded with a solid wire. In this case, consider that a
single-line-to-ground fault occurs in phase a of the unloaded generator which
disturbs the balance of the power system network [3]. For this scenario, the
boundary conditions are,
Va ¼ 0 ð6:200Þ
Ib ¼ 0 ð6:201Þ
Ic ¼ 0 ð6:202Þ
The expressions of symmetrical components of current of phase a are,

2 3 2 32 3
Ia0 1 1 1 Ia
1
4 Ia1 5 ¼ 4 1 a a2 54 Ib 5 ð6:203Þ
3
Ia2 1 a2 a Ic

2 3 2 32 3
Ia0 1 1 1 Ia
4 Ia1 5 ¼ 1 4 1 a a2 54 0 5 ð6:204Þ
3
Ia2 1 a2 a 0
Fig. 6.38 Unloaded a

generator
Ea
b
n
Eb
Ec
c
Va Vb Vc
6.12 Single-Line-to-Ground Fault 289
From Eq. (6.204), the symmetrical components of the current of phase a can be
written as,
Ia
Ia0 ¼ Ia1 ¼ Ia2 ¼ ð6:205Þ
3
From Eq. (6.205), it is observed that the symmetrical components of current are
equal in a single-line-to-ground fault.
Substituting the values of symmetrical components of current in Eq. (6.195)
yields,
2 3 2 3 2 32 3
Va0 0 Z0 0 0 Ia1
4 Va1 5 ¼ 4 Ea 5 4 0 Z1 0 54 Ia1 5 ð6:206Þ
Va2 0 0 0 Z2 Ia1
From Eq. (6.206), the symmetrical components of voltage can be written as,
Va0 ¼ Z0 Ia1 ð6:207Þ
Va1 ¼ Ea Z1 Ia1 ð6:208Þ
Va2 ¼ Z2 Ia1 ð6:209Þ
However, we know that the unbalanced voltage for phase a is,
Va ¼ Va0 þ Va1 þ Va2 ¼ 0 ð6:210Þ
Z0 Ia1 þ Ea Z1 Ia1 Z2 Ia1 ¼ 0 ð6:211Þ
Ea
Ia1 ¼ ð6:212Þ
Z 0 þ Z 1 þ Z2
For a single-line-to-ground fault, the positive sequence current, negative

sequence current, and the zero sequence current are equal and can be determined
from Eq. (6.212).
From Eq. (6.205), the expression of fault current in phase a can be determined
as,
Ia ¼ 3Ia1 ð6:213Þ

Fig. 6.39 Sequence

networks for Ia0 I a0
single-line-to-ground fault zero Z0 Va 0
without fault impedance sequence Va 0
I a1 I a1
positive Va1 Z1
sequence
Ea Va1
Ia2
Ia2
negative
sequence Va 2
Z2 Va 2
3Ea
Ia ¼ ð6:214Þ
Z0 þ Z1 þ Z2
The sequence network connection for the single-line-to-ground fault without a

fault impedance is shown in Fig. 6.39.
If a single-line-to-ground fault occurs in phase a through the impedance Zf , then
the expression of fault current from Eq. (6.210) can be derived as,
Va ¼ Va0 þ Va1 þ Va2 ¼ Ia Zf ð6:215Þ
Substituting Eqs. (6.187), (6.188), (6.189), and (6.193) into Eq. (6.195) yields,
Z0 Ia1 þ Ea Z1 Ia1 Z2 Ia1 ¼ 3Zf Ia1 ð6:216Þ
Ea
Ia1 ¼ ð6:217Þ
Z0 þ Z1 þ Z2 þ 3Zf
Again, substituting Eq. (6.217) into Eq. (6.213), the fault current in phase a can
be determined as,
3Ea
Ia ¼ ð6:218Þ
Z0 þ Z1 þ Z2 þ 3Zf
The sequence network connection for the single-line-to-ground fault with a fault
impedance is shown in Fig. 6.40.
Fig. 6.40 Sequence

networks for Ia0 Ia0
single-line-to-ground fault zero Z0 Va 0
with fault impedance sequence Va 0
I a1 I a1
positive Va1 3Z f Z1
sequence 3Z f
Ea Va1
Ia2
Ia2
negative
sequence Va 2
Z2 Va 2
Example 6.8
A three-phase 15 MVA, Y-connected, 11 kV synchronous generator is solidly
grounded. The positive, negative, and zero sequence impedances are j1:5 X, j0:8 X,
and j0:3 X, respectively. Determine the fault current in phase a if the
single-line-to-ground fault occurs in that phase.
Solution
The value of the generated voltage per phase is calculated as,
11000
Ea ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 6350:8 V ð6:219Þ
3
The value of the symmetrical component of the current is determined as,
Ea 6350:8
Ia1 ¼ ¼ ¼ j2442:6 A ð6:220Þ
Z0 þ Z1 þ Z2 j1:5 þ j0:8 þ j0:3
The value of the fault current in phase a is calculated as,
Ia ¼ 3Ia1 ¼ 3 j2442:6 ¼ j7327:8 A ð6:221Þ
Example 6.9
Figure 6.41 shows a Y-connected, three-phase synchronous generator whose neu-
tral is earthed with solid wire. A single-line-to-ground fault occurs in phase a, and
the current in this phase is found to be 100 A. Find the positive sequence, negative
sequence, and zero sequence currents for all three phases.
Fig. 6.41 A Y-connected a

synchronous generator for
100 A
Example 6.9
c
b
Solution
During fault, the currents in different phases are,
Ia ¼ 100 A ð6:222Þ
Ib ¼ 0 A ð6:223Þ
Ic ¼ 0 A ð6:224Þ
The zero sequence components of the current are determined as,
1 1
Ia0 ¼ Ib0 ¼ Ic0 ¼ ðIa þ Ib þ Ic Þ ¼ 100 ¼ 33:33 A ð6:225Þ
3 3
The positive sequence components of the current can be determined as,
1 1
Ia1 ¼ ðIa þ aIb þ a2 Ic Þ ¼ 100 ¼ 33:33 A ð6:226Þ
3 3
Ib1 ¼ a2 Ia1 ¼ 33:33 j240 A ð6:227Þ
Ic1 ¼ aIa1 ¼ 33:33 j120 A ð6:228Þ
The negative sequence components of the current can be determined as,
1 1
Ia2 ¼ ðIa þ a2 Ib þ aIc Þ ¼ 100 ¼ 33:33 A ð6:229Þ
3 3
Ib2 ¼ aIa2 ¼ 33:33 j120 A ð6:230Þ
Ic2 ¼ a2 Ia2 ¼ 33:33 j240 A ð6:231Þ

Fig. 6.42 A circuit for a

c 150A
b

A three-phase 20 MVA, 11 kV synchronous generator is having a subtransient
reactance of 0.20 pu, and its neutral is solidly grounded. The negative and zero
sequence reactance are 0.30 pu and 0.15 pu, respectively. Determine the fault
current if a single-line-to-ground fault occurs in phase a.
The neutral of a three-phase Y-connected synchronous generator is solidly
grounded as shown in Fig. 6.42. A single-line-to-ground fault occurs in phase b,
and the current in this phase is found to be 150 A. Calculate the positive sequence,
negative sequence, and zero sequence currents for all three phases.
6.13 Line-to-Line Fault
A three-phase synchronous generator whose line-to-line fault occurs between phase

b and phase c as shown in Fig. 6.43. In this condition, the voltages at phases b and
c must be the same, whereas the currents in phase b and phase c must be equal but
in opposite direction to each other [4].
In the line-to-line fault, the boundary conditions are,
Ia ¼ 0 ð6:232Þ
Ib ¼ Ic ð6:233Þ
Vb ¼ Vc ð6:234Þ
Fig. 6.43 Line-to-line fault a

on an unloaded synchronous
generator
Ea
Ia
b
n
Eb Ib
Ec
c
Va Ic
Vb Vc

2 3 2 32 3
Ia0 1 1 1 0
1
4 Ia1 5 ¼ 4 1 a a2 54 Ib 5 ð6:235Þ
3
Ia2 1 a2 a Ib
2 3 2 3
Ia0 0 þ Ib Ib
1
4 Ia1 5 ¼ 4 0 þ ða a2 ÞIb 5 ð6:236Þ
3
Ia2 0 þ ða2 aÞIb
From Eq. (6.236), the symmetrical components of current in phase a can be

written as,
Ia0 ¼ 0 ð6:237Þ
1
Ia1 ¼ ða a2 ÞIb ð6:238Þ
3
1
Ia2 ¼ ða2 aÞIb ð6:239Þ
3
From Eq. (6.237), it is seen that the zero sequence component of current is zero.
Hence, the value of the zero sequence voltage can be written as,
Va0 ¼ Ia0 Z0 ¼ 0 ð6:240Þ
From Eqs. (6.238) and (6.239), it is also seen that the positive sequence com-
ponent of current is equal to the negative sequence component of current but in
opposite direction.
6.13 Line-to-Line Fault 295
The symmetrical components of voltage can be determined as,
Vb ¼ Va0 þ a2 Va1 þ aVa2 ð6:241Þ
Vc ¼ Va0 þ aVa1 þ a2 Va2 ð6:242Þ
Va0 þ a2 Va1 þ aVa2 ¼ Va0 þ aVa1 þ a2 Va2 ð6:243Þ
ða2 aÞVa1 ¼ ða2 aÞVa2 ð6:244Þ
Va1 ¼ Va2 ð6:245Þ
Ea Ia1 Z1 ¼ Ia2 Z2 ð6:246Þ
Ea Ia1 Z1 ¼ Ia1 Z2 ð6:247Þ
Ea
Ia1 ¼ ð6:248Þ
Z 1 þ Z2
If there is a fault impedance Zf in between lines b and c, then the following

expression can be written as,
Vb ¼ Vc þ Ib Zf ð6:249Þ
Va0 þ a2 Va1 þ aVa2 ¼ Va0 þ aVa1 þ a2 Va2 þ ðIa0 þ a2 Ia1 þ aIa2 ÞZf ð6:250Þ
Again, substituting Eqs. (6.237), (6.238), and (6.239) into Eq. (6.250) provides,
ða2 aÞVa1 ¼ ða2 aÞVa2 þ ða2 aÞIa1 Zf ð6:251Þ
Va1 ¼ Va2 þ Ia1 Zf ð6:252Þ
The interconnection of the sequence network without a fault impedance is shown

in Fig. 6.44.
The interconnection of the sequence network with a fault impedance is shown in
Fig. 6.45.
Fig. 6.44 Sequence network Z1 I a1

for line-to-line fault without I a0
fault impedance zero
sequence Va 0
Ea Va1
I a1
positive Va1
sequence
Ia2
Ia2
negative
sequence Va 2 Z2 Va 2
Fig. 6.45 Sequence network Z1 I a1

for line-to-line fault with a Ia0
fault impedance zero
sequence Va 0
Ea Va1
I a1
Zf
positive Va1
sequence
Ia2
Zf
Ia2
negative
sequence Va 2 Z2 Va 2
Example 6.10
The positive sequence, negative sequence, and zero sequence reactance of a 15
MVA, 13 kV three-phase Y-connected synchronous generator are 0.4 pu, 0.3 pu,
and 0.1 pu, respectively. The neutral point of the generator is solidly grounded and
is not supplying current to the load. Calculate the fault current and the actual
line-to-line voltages if a line-to-line fault occurs between phase b and phase c.
Solution
Let us consider that the base values are 15 MVA and 13 kV. The per unit generator
voltage can be determined as,
13
E¼ ¼ 1 j0 pu ð6:253Þ
13
6.13 Line-to-Line Fault 297
The zero sequence component of current is,

Ia0 ¼ 0 ð6:254Þ
The values of the positive and negative sequence components of current are,
E 1
Ia1 ¼ Ia2 ¼ ¼ ¼ j1:42 pu ð6:255Þ
Z1 þ Z2 j0:4 þ j0:3
The value of the fault current can be determined as,
Ib ¼ Ia0 þ a2 Ia1 þ aIa2 ¼ 0 þ 1 j240 1:42 j90 þ 1 j120 1:42 j90

ð6:256Þ
Ib ¼ 0 þ 1:42 j150 þ 1:42 j210 ¼ 2:44 pu ð6:257Þ
The value of the base current can be calculated as,
15 1000000
Ibase ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 666:17 A ð6:258Þ
3 13 1000
The actual value of the fault current is,

Ib ¼ 2:44 666:17 ¼ 1625:45 A ð6:259Þ
The sequence voltages for phase a can be determined as,

Va0 ¼ Ia0 Z0 ¼ 0 j0 pu ð6:260Þ
Va1 ¼ E Ia1 Z1 ¼ 1 j0 þ j1:42 j0:4 ¼ 0:432 j0 pu ð6:261Þ
Va2 ¼ Ia2 Z2 ¼ j1:42 j0:3 ¼ 0:436 j0 pu ð6:262Þ
The phase voltages of the generator are calculated as,

Va ¼ Va0 þ Va1 þ Va2 ¼ 0 þ 0:432 þ 0:436 ¼ 0:87 j0 pu ð6:263Þ
Vb ¼ Vb0 þ a2 Va1 þ aVa2 ¼ 0 þ 0:432 j240 þ 0:436 j120 ¼j0 pu ð6:264Þ
Vc ¼ Vc0 þ aVa1 þ a2 Va2 ¼ 0 þ 0:432 j120 þ 0:436 j240 ¼j0 pu ð6:265Þ
The line-to-line voltages of the generator are determined as,

Vab ¼ Va Vb ¼ 0:87 j0 j0 ¼ 0:87 j0 pu ð6:266Þ
Vbc ¼ Vb Vc ¼ 0 j0 0 j0 ¼ 0 j0 pu ð6:267Þ
Vca ¼ Vc Va ¼ 0 j0 0:87 j0 ¼ 0:87 j90 pu ð6:268Þ
The value of the line-to-neutral voltages is calculated as,
13
VLn ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 7:51 kV ð6:269Þ
3
The actual line-to-line voltages are calculated as,
Vab ¼ 7:51 0:87 j0 ¼ 6:53 j0 kV ð6:270Þ
Vbc ¼ 7:51 0 j0 ¼ 0 j0 kV ð6:271Þ
Vca ¼ 7:51 0:87 j90 ¼ 6:53 j90 kV ð6:272Þ

The positive sequence, negative sequence, and zero sequence components of the
reactance of a 20 MVA, 13.8 kV synchronous generator are 0.3 pu, 0.2 pu, and 0.1
pu, respectively. The neutral point of the generator is solidly grounded, and the
generator is not supplying current to load. Find the line-to-line voltages of the
generator if the fault occurs between phases b and c.
6.14 Double-Line-to-Ground Fault
The connection diagram of an unloaded synchronous generator is shown in

Fig. 6.46. Consider that a double-line-to-ground fault occurs between phases b and
c. The voltages at phase b and phase c should be equal to zero, and the current in the
phase a is equal to zero [5, 6]. In this case, the boundary conditions are,
Ia ¼ 0 ð6:273Þ
Vb ¼ Vc ¼ 0 ð6:274Þ
According to Eq. (6.105), the symmetrical components of voltage for phase

a can be expressed as,
2 3 2 32 3
Va0 1 1 1 Va
1
4 Va1 5 ¼ 4 1 a a2 54 Vb 5 ð6:275Þ
3
Va2 1 a2 a Vc
6.14 Double-Line-to-Ground Fault 299
Fig. 6.46 Double-line-to-line a

fault on an unloaded generator
Ea
Ia
b
n
Eb Ib
Ec
c
Va Ic
Vb Vc

2 3 2 32 3
Va0 1 1 1 Va
4 Va1 5 ¼ 1 4 1 a a2 54 0 5 ð6:276Þ
3
Va2 1 a2 a 0
Va
Va0 ¼ Va1 ¼ Va2 ¼ ð6:277Þ
3
Initially, the following relation can be written as,
Va0 ¼ Va1 ð6:278Þ
Ia0 Z0 ¼ Ea Ia1 Z1 ð6:279Þ
Ea Ia1 Z1
Ia0 ¼ ð6:280Þ
Z0
Finally, the following relation can be written as,
Va2 ¼ Va1 ð6:281Þ
Ea Ia1 Z1 ¼ Ia2 Z2 ð6:282Þ
Ea Ia1 Z1
Ia2 ¼ ð6:283Þ
Z2
Fig. 6.47 Sequence network

for double-line-to-line fault Ia0 I a0
without a fault impedance zero Z0 Va 0
sequence Va 0
I a1 I a1
positive Va1 Z1
sequence
Ea Va1
Ia2
Ia2
negative
sequence Va 2
Z2 Va 2
The unsymmetrical current for phase a is,
Ia ¼ Ia0 þ Ia1 þ Ia2 ð6:284Þ
The sequence network for double-line-to-line fault without a fault impedance is

shown in Fig. 6.47.
Ea Z1 Ia1 Ea Z1 Ia1
0¼ þ Ia1 ð6:285Þ
Z0 Z2

Z1 Z1 1 1
Ia1 1 þ þ ¼ Ea þ ð6:286Þ
Z0 Z2 Z0 Z2

Ea Z2Z0þZZ2 0
Ia1 ¼ ð6:287Þ
1 þ Z1 Z2Z0þZZ2 1 Z0

Z2 þ Z0
Ea Z0 Z2
Ia1 ¼ ð6:288Þ
Z0 Z2 þ Z1 Z2 þ Z1 Z0
Z0 Z2
Ea ðZ2 þ Z0 Þ
Ia1 ¼ ð6:289Þ
Z0 Z2 þ Z1 Z2 þ Z1 Z0
Ea ðZ2 þ Z0 Þ
Ia1 ¼ ð6:290Þ
Z0 Z2 þ Z1 ðZ2 þ Z0 Þ
Ea
Ia1 ¼ ð6:291Þ
Z1 þ ZZ2 0þZZ2 0
From Eq. (6.291), it is observed that the zero sequence impedance and negative
sequence impedance are connected in parallel, and then it is connected in series
with the positive sequence impedance as shown in Fig. 6.47. By applying current
divider rule to the circuit shown in Fig. 6.47, the negative sequence and positive
sequence currents can be found as,
Z0
Ia2 ¼ Ia1 ð6:292Þ
Z 2 þ Z0
Z2
Ia0 ¼ Ia1 ð6:293Þ
Z 2 þ Z0
Again, consider that the double-line-to-ground fault occurs between phases

b and c through the ground impedance Zf as shown in Fig. 6.48. The voltage
between the fault terminal and the ground is,
Vb ¼ Vc ¼ ðIb þ Ic ÞZf ð6:294Þ
According to Eqs. (6.98) and (6.99), the following equations can be derived,
Vb ¼ Va0 þ a2 Va1 þ aVa2 ð6:295Þ
Vc ¼ Va0 þ aVa1 þ a2 Va2 ð6:296Þ
Fig. 6.48 Double-line-to-line a

fault on an unloaded generator
with a fault impedance
Ea
Ia
b
n
Eb Ib
Ec
c
Va Ic
Vb Vc
Zf
Va0 þ a2 Va1 þ aVa2 ¼ ðIa0 þ a2 Ia1 þ aIa2 þ Ia0 þ aIa1 þ a2 Ia2 ÞZf ð6:297Þ
Va0 þ a2 Va1 þ aVa2 ¼ 2Ia0 Zf þ ða2 þ aÞIa1 Zf þ ða þ a2 ÞIa2 Zf ð6:298Þ
Va0 þ a2 Va1 þ aVa2 ¼ 2Ia0 Zf Ia1 Zf Ia2 Zf ð6:299Þ
Va0 þ ða2 þ aÞVa1 ¼ 2Ia0 Zf ðIa1 þ Ia2 ÞZf ð6:300Þ
Va0 Va1 ¼ 2Ia0 Zf ðIa1 þ Ia2 ÞZf ð6:301Þ
0 ¼ Ia0 þ Ia1 þ Ia2 ð6:302Þ
Ia1 þ Ia2 ¼ Ia0 ð6:303Þ
Va0 Va1 ¼ 3Ia0 Zf ð6:304Þ
The sequence network with the fault impedance is shown in Fig. 6.49.
Example 6.11
MVA, 11 kV three-phase Y-connected synchronous generator are 0.24 pu, 0.19 pu,
and 0.18 pu, respectively. The generator’s neutral point is solidly grounded.
A double-line-to-line fault occurs between phases b and c. Find the currents in each

for double-line-to-line fault Ia0 I a0
with a fault impedance zero Z0 Va 0
sequence Va 0
3Z f
3Z f
I a1 I a1
positive Va1 Z1
sequence
Ea Va1
Ia2
Ia2
negative
sequence Va 2
Z2 Va 2
phase during the subtransient period immediately after the fault occurs, and
line-to-line voltages.
Solution
Consider that the base values are 20 MVA and 11 kV. Then, the per unit generator
voltage is,
11
E¼ ¼ 1 j0 pu ð6:305Þ
11
The value of the positive sequence component of the current is determined as,
E 1
Ia1 ¼ ¼ j0:18 j0:19
¼ j3:01 pu ð6:306Þ
Z 1 þ Z0 þ Z2
Z0 Z2 j0:24 þ jð0:18 þ 0:19Þ
The value of the negative sequence component of the current is calculated as,
Z0 j0:18
Ia2 ¼ Ia1 ¼ j3:01 ¼ j1:46 pu ð6:307Þ
Z2 þ Z0 jð0:19 þ 0:18Þ
The value of the zero sequence component of the current can be determined as,
Z2 j0:19
Ia0 ¼ Ia1 ¼ j3:01 ¼ j1:55 pu ð6:308Þ
Z2 þ Z0 jð0:19 þ 0:18Þ
20 1000
Ib ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 1049:73 A ð6:309Þ
3 11
The per unit values of the phase currents can be calculated as,
Ia ¼ Ia0 þ Ia1 þ Ia2 ¼ j1:55 j3:01 þ j1:46 ¼ 0 pu ð6:310Þ
Ib ¼ Ib0 þ Ib1 þ Ib2 ¼ Ia0 þ a2 Ia1 þ aIa2 ¼ j1:55 3:01 j90 þ 240 þ 1:46 j90 þ 120
¼ 4:52 j149:01 pu
ð6:311Þ
Ic ¼ Ic0 þ Ic1 þ Ic2 ¼ Ia0 þ aIa1 þ a2 Ia2 ¼ j1:55 3:01 j90 þ 120 þ 1:46 j90 þ 240
¼ 4:52 j30:99 pu
ð6:312Þ
The value of the actual fault current during the subtransient period is,
Ib ¼ Ic ¼ 4:52 1049:73 ¼ 4744:78 A ð6:313Þ
The value of the sequence voltages of phase a can be determined as,
Va1 ¼ E Ia1 Z1 ¼ 1 þ j3:01 j0:24 ¼ 0:28 pu ð6:314Þ
In the double-line-to-ground fault, the symmetrical components of voltage are

the same, and it can be written as,
Va0 ¼ Va1 ¼ Va2 ¼ 0:28 pu ð6:315Þ
The values of the phase voltages of the generator can be determined as,
Va ¼ Va0 þ Va1 þ Va2 ¼ 0:28 þ 0:28 þ 0:28 ¼ 0:84 j0 pu ð6:316Þ
Vb ¼ Vb0 þ Vb1 þ Vb2 ¼ Va0 þ a2 Va1 þ aVa2 ¼ 0:28 þ 0:28 j240 þ 0:28 j120
¼ 0 j0 pu
ð6:317Þ
Vc ¼ Vc0 þ Vc1 þ Vc2 ¼ Va0 þ aVa1 þ a2 Va2 ¼ 0:28 þ 0:28 j120 þ 0:28 j240
¼ 0 j0 pu
ð6:318Þ
The per unit line-to-line voltages are determined as,
Vab ¼ Va Vb ¼ 0:84 j0 pu ð6:319Þ
Vbc ¼ Vb Vc ¼ 0 j0 pu ð6:320Þ
Vca ¼ Vc Va ¼ 0:84 j0 ¼ 0:84 j180 pu ð6:321Þ
The value of the phase voltage is determined as,
11
Vp ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 6:35 kV ð6:322Þ
3
The actual line-to-line voltages of the generator can be determined as,
Vab ¼ 0:84 6:35 ¼ 5:33 kV ð6:323Þ
Vbc ¼ 0 6:35 ¼ 0 kV ð6:324Þ

Vca ¼ 0:84 6:35 ¼ 5:33 kV ð6:325Þ

MVA, 16.8 kV, three-phase Y-connected synchronous generator are 0.22 pu, 0.17
pu, and 0.15 pu, respectively. The neutral of the generator is solidly grounded.
A double-line-to-line fault occurs between phases b and c. Calculate the currents in
each phase during the subtransient period immediately after the fault occurs.
Example 6.12
Figure 6.50 shows a single-line diagram of a three-phase power system. The ratings
of the equipment are as follows.
Generator G1 100 MVA, 11 kV, X1 ¼ X2 ¼ 0:25 pu, X0 ¼ 0:05 pu
Transformer T1 100 MVA, 11/66 kV, X1 ¼ X2 ¼ X0 ¼ 0:09 pu
Line X1 ¼ X2 ¼ 15 X, X0 ¼ 30 X
Answer the following questions by considering the power system is initially

unloaded.
(i) Draw the positive sequence, negative sequence, and zero sequence networks.
Also, find the equivalent sequence impedances.
(ii) A single-line-to-ground fault occurs in line a at bus 3. Find the subtransient
fault current.
(iii) A line-to-line fault occurs in lines b and c at bus 3. Calculate the subtransient
fault current.
(iv) A double-line-to-ground fault occurs in lines b and c at bus 3. Determine the
subtransient fault current.
Solution
Consider that the base values are 100 MVA and 11 kV for the low voltage side and
66 kV for the high voltage side of the transformer. Based on the common base, the
new reactance for the generators and transformers can be determined in the fol-
lowing ways.
Fig. 6.50 Single-line Bus 1 Bus 2 Bus 3 Bus 4

diagram for Example 6.12 G2
Line
G1 T1 T2
The new reactance for the generator G1 is,
100
X1 ¼ X2 ¼ 0:25 ¼ 0:25 pu ð6:326Þ
100
100
X0 ¼ 0:05 ¼ 0:05 pu ð6:327Þ
100
The new reactance for the generator G2 is,
100
X1 ¼ X2 ¼ 0:15 ¼ 0:1875 pu ð6:328Þ
80
100
X0 ¼ 0:07 ¼ 0:0875 pu ð6:329Þ
80
The new reactance for the transformer T1 is,
100
X1 ¼ X2 ¼ X0 ¼ 0:09 ¼ 0:09 pu ð6:330Þ
100
The new reactance for the transformer T2 is,
100
X1 ¼ X2 ¼ X0 ¼ 0:09 ¼ 0:1125 pu ð6:331Þ
80
The base voltage for the line can be calculated as,
11 66
Vb ¼ ¼ 11 ¼ 66 kV ð6:332Þ
a 11
The value of the base impedance can be determined as,
Vb2 662
Zb ¼ ¼ ¼ 43:56 X ð6:333Þ
Sb 100
The values of the new line reactance are determined as,
15
X1 ¼ X2 ¼ ¼ 0:3443 pu ð6:334Þ
43:56
30
X0 ¼ ¼ 0:6887 pu ð6:335Þ
43:56
I a1 Ia2
j 0.09 j 0.3443
j 0.09 j 0.3443 j 0.1125 j 0.11

j 0.25 j 0.1875 j 0.25 j 0.1875
E1 E2
Reference Reference
Positive sequence Negative sequence
j 0.6887 I a0
j 0.09 j 0.1125
j 0.25 j 0.1875
Reference
Zero sequence
Fig. 6.51 Sequence networks for Example 6.12
(i) Figure 6.51 shows the sequence networks. The equivalent positive sequence
and negative sequence impedances can be determined as,
jð0:25 þ 0:09 þ 0:3443Þ jð0:1125 þ 0:1875Þ

Z1 ¼ Z2 ¼ ¼ j0:2085 pu ð6:336Þ
jð0:6843 þ 0:3Þ
The value of the equivalent zero sequence impedance can be calculated as,
jð0:09 þ 0:6887Þ jð0:1125Þ

Z0 ¼ ¼ j0:0982 pu ð6:337Þ
jð0:7787 þ 0:1125Þ
(ii) Figure 6.52 shows the sequence network for a single-line-to-ground fault. The
sequence components of the current are determined as,
E 1 j 0
Ia1 ¼ Ia2 ¼ Ia0 ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:94 j90 pu
Z1 þ Z2 þ Z0 j0:2085 þ j0:2085 þ j0:0982
ð6:338Þ
Fig. 6.52 Positive sequence

networks for Example 6.12 Z1 I a1
E = Ef +
Va1
−
Z2 Ia2
+
Va 2
−
Z0 Ia0
+
Va 0
−
The value of the fault current in the phase a can be determined as,
Ia ¼ Ia1 þ Ia2 þ Ia0 ¼ 1:94 j90 þ 1:94 j90 þ 1:94 j90 ¼ 5:82 j90 pu
ð6:339Þ
The value of the base current can be calculated as,
100 1000
Ibase ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 874:77 A ð6:340Þ
3 66
For a single-line-to-ground fault, the actual value of the fault current can be
determined as,
If ðslgÞ ¼ 5:82 874:77 ¼ 5091:16 A ð6:341Þ
Figure 6.53 shows the simulation result by IPSA software, and the value of the
fault current in the busbar 3 is found to be 5119.86 A.
Fig. 6.53 Simulation circuit by IPSA software for Example 6.12

Fig. 6.54 Simulation circuit by PowerWorld software for Example 6.12
Fig. 6.55 Simulation results by PowerWorld software for Example 6.12

for line-to-line fault Z1 I a1 Z2 Ia2
Ef = E + +
Va1 Va 2
− −
The “PowerWorld” software is also used to calculate the fault current as shown
in Fig. 6.54. The values of the sequence reactance of the generators, transformers,
and transmission lines are placed in the respective places. Figures 6.54 and 6.55
shows the simulation result for the single-line-to-ground fault, and its value is found
to be 6.68 pu. The results are found to be 6.76 pu, which is approximately the same
as that of the simulation result.
(iii) Figure 6.56 shows the sequence network for the line-to-line fault. In this
case, the value of the positive sequence current can be determined as,
E 1 j 0
Ia1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 2:398 j90 pu ð6:342Þ
Z1 þ Z2 j0:2085 þ j0:2085
The value of the negative sequence current is determined as,
Ia2 ¼ Ia1 ¼ 2:398 j90 pu = 2:398 j90 pu ð6:343Þ
The value of the zero sequence current is,
Ia0 ¼ 0 j0 pu ð6:344Þ
The value of the fault current in phase b is calculated as,
Ib ¼ Ib0 þ Ib1 þ Ib2 ¼ Ia0 þ a2 Ia1 þ aIa2 ¼ 2:398 j240 90 þ 2:398 j120 þ 90
¼ 4:153 j180 pu
ð6:345Þ
The value of the fault current in phase c can be calculated as,
Ic ¼ Ib ¼ 4:153 j180 ¼ 4:153 j180 180 ¼ 4:153 j0 pu ð6:346Þ
The actual value of the fault current for line-to-line fault can be determined as,
Ifll ¼ 4:153 874:77 ¼ 3632:919 A ð6:347Þ
Figure 6.57 shows the IPSA simulation result for line-to-line fault, and the value
of the fault current is found to be,
If ðllÞIPSA ¼ 3639:33 A ð6:348Þ
Figure 6.58 shows the PowerWorld simulation result for line-to-line fault and
per unit magnitude of the fault current is the same.
Fig. 6.57 IPSA simulation result for the line-to-line fault

Fig. 6.58 PowerWorld simulation result for the line-to-line fault
Z1 I a1 Z2 Ia2 Z0 Ia0
Ef = E + + +
Va1 Va 2 Va 0
− − −
Fig. 6.59 Sequence network for the double-line-to-ground fault
(iii). Figure 6.59 shows the sequence network for the double-line-to-ground fault,
and the value of the positive sequence current can be determined as,
E 1 j 0
Ia1 ¼ Z2 Z0 ¼ 0:0982
¼ 3:633 j90 pu ð6:349Þ
Z1 þ Z2 þ Z0 j0:2085 þ j 0:2085
0:3067
The value of the negative sequence current can be determined as,
Z0 j0:0982
Ia2 ¼ Ia1 ¼ 3:633 j90 ¼ 1:163 j90 pu ð6:350Þ
Z0 þ Z2 j0:3067
Fig. 6.60 IPSA simulation circuit for the double-line-to-ground fault
The value of the zero sequence current can be calculated as,
Z2 j0:2085
Ia0 ¼ Ia1 ¼ 3:633 j90 ¼ 2:469 j90 pu ð6:351Þ
Z0 þ Z2 j0:3067
The value of the fault current in phase b is determined as,
Ib ¼ Ib0 þ Ib1 þ Ib2 ¼ Ia0 þ a2 Ia1 þ aIa2

¼ 2:469 j90 þ 3:633 j90 þ 240 þ 1:163 j90 þ 120 ¼ 5:565 j138:27 pu
ð6:352Þ
The value of the fault current in phase c can be determined as,
Ic ¼ Ic0 þ Ic1 þ Ic2 ¼ Ia0 þ aIa1 þ a2 Ia2

¼ 2:469 j90 þ 3:633 j90 þ 120 þ 1:163 j90 þ 240 ¼ 5:565 j41:73 pu
ð6:353Þ
The actual value of the fault current can be determined as,
If ðdlgÞ ¼ 5:565 874:77 ¼ 4868:095 A ð6:354Þ
Figure 6.60 shows the IPSA simulation result for the double-line-to-ground
fault, and the value of the fault current is found to be,
If ðdlgÞIPSA ¼ 4866:46 A ð6:355Þ
References
1. Duncan Glover J, Overbye T, Sarma M (2017) Power system analysis and design, Sixth edn.
Cengage Learning, USA, pp 1–942
2. Nagsarkar TK, Sukhija MS (2014) Power system analysis, Second Edn. Oxford University
Press, Oxford, pp 1–726
3. Wildi T (2014) Electrical machines, drives and power systems, Sixth edn. Pearson Education
Ltd, USA, pp 1–920
References 313
4. Sadat H (2010) Power system analysis, Third edn. PSA Publisher, USA, pp 1–772
USA, pp 1–934
6. Guile AE, Paterson W (1977) Electrical power systems, 2nd edn. Pergamon Press, Oxford
Exercise Problems
6:1 Calculate the quantities for (i) a8 , (ii) a10 þ a 3; and (iii) a12 þ 3a 2 by
considering a ¼ 1 j120 and a2 ¼ 1 j240 .
6:2 A three-phase system is having the currents of Ia ¼ 10 j30 A; Ib ¼ 15 j
40 A and Ic ¼ 20 j35 A: Calculate the symmetrical components of current
in phases a and b.
6:3 A three-phase system has the phase voltages of Va ¼ 100 j35 V; Vb ¼
200 j45 V and Vc ¼ 280 j55 V: Find the zero sequence, positive sequence
and negative sequence components of the voltage for phase a.
6:4 A three-phase system is having the symmetrical components of the voltage
of Va0 ¼ 75 j45 V; Va1 ¼ 155 j64 V and Va2 ¼ 325 j85 V for phase
a. Find the phase voltages Va , Vb and Vc .
6:5 The unbalanced currents of a three-phase system are Ia ¼ 50 A,
Ib ¼ 30 þ j50 A, Ic ¼ 40 þ j70 A. Calculate the zero, positive and negative
sequence components of the current in phase b.
6:6 A three-phase system is having the symmetrical components of the current of
Ia0 ¼ 4:54 þ j3:5 A Ia1 ¼ 5:34 þ j1:45 A and Ia2 ¼ 1:67 j1:85 A for phase
a. Calculate the unbalanced currents Ia , Ib and Ic if the total neutral current of
this system is zero.
6:7 Figure 6.61 shows a three-phase wye-connected unloaded synchronous
generator. A single line to ground fault occurs in phase a, and the current in
this phase is found to be 1500 A. Calculate the symmetrical components of
current in phase b.
Fig. P6.1 Circuit for a

Problem 6.7
1500 A
c
b
Fig. P6.2 Circuit for 45A a

Problem 6.8
Fig. P6.3 Single-line Bus 1 Bus 2 Bus 3 Bus 4

diagram for Problem 6.12
Line
G1 T2 G2
T1
6:8 A source delivers power to a delta-connected load as shown in Fig. P6.2. The
current in phase a is found to be 45 A and phase b is open circuited.
Calculate the symmetrical components of the currents in all three phases.
6:9 The positive sequence, negative sequence and zero sequence reactance of a
30 MVA, 11 kV three-phase synchronous generator are measured to be 0.5
pu, 0.4 pu and 0.22 pu, respectively. The generator’s neutral is solidly
grounded. A single line-to-ground fault occurs in phase a. Find the fault
current.
6:10 A 15 MVA, 13.8 kV three-phase synchronous generator is having the pos-
itive sequence, negative sequence and zero sequence reactance of 0.3 pu, 0.2
pu and 0.1 pu, respectively. The generator’s neutral is solidly grounded and
line-to-line fault occurs in phases b and c. Calculate the fault current,
sequence voltages for phase a, and phase voltages of the generator.
6:11 A 25 MVA, 13.8 kV three-phase Y-connected synchronous generator is
having the positive sequence, negative sequence and zero sequence reactance
of 0.34 pu, 0.22 pu and 0.15 pu, respectively. The generator’s neutral is
solidly grounded and the double line-to-line fault occurs between phases
b and c. Calculate the currents in each phase during the sub-transient period
immediately after the fault occurs.
6:12 Figure P6.3 shows a single-line diagram of a three-phase power system and
the ratings of the equipment are shown below.
Generators G1 , G2 100 MVA, 20 kV, X1 ¼ X2 ¼ 0:20 pu, X0 ¼ 0:06 pu
Transformers T1 , T2 100 MVA, 20/138 kV, X1 ¼ X2 ¼ X0 ¼ 0:08 pu
Line 100 MVA, X1 ¼ X2 ¼ 0:11 pu, X0 ¼ 0:55 pu
A fault occurs at bus 4. Determine the fault currents in the faulted bus by any
simulation software (IPSA/Powerworld) for the single line-to-ground,
line-to-line, and double line-to-ground faults.
Line
G1 T2 G2
T1
Fig. P6.4 Single-line diagram for Problem 6.13
L1
G1 T2 G2
T1
L2
Bus 5
T3
Bus 6
G3
6:13 A single-line diagram of a three-phase power system is shown in Fig. P6.4.

The ratings of the equipment are shown below.
Generator G2 100 MVA, 20 kV, X1 ¼ X2 ¼ 0:25 pu, X0 ¼ 0:03 pu,
Xn ¼ 0:05 pu
Line 100 MVA, X1 ¼ X2 ¼ 0:15 pu, X0 ¼ 0:65 pu
A single line-to-ground, line-to-line, and double line-to-ground fault occur at

bus 6. Find the fault currents in each case.
6:14 Figure P6.5 shows a single-line diagram of a three-phase power system and
the ratings of the equipment are shown below.
Xn ¼ 0:05 pu
Transformer T1 100 MVA, 11/66 kV, Δ-Y, X1 ¼ X2 ¼ X0 ¼ 0:06 pu
L1
G1 T2 G2
T1
L2 L3
Bus 5
T3
Bus 6
G3
Transformer T2 100 MVA, 20/66 kV, both sides earthed Y-Y,

X1 ¼ X2 ¼ X0 ¼ 0:06 pu
Transformer T3 100 MVA, 20/66 kV, Y-Y, X1 ¼ X2 ¼ X0 ¼ 0:04 pu
Line 1 100 MVA,X1 ¼ X2 ¼ 0:15 pu, X0 ¼ 0:65 pu
Line 2 100 MVA,X1 ¼ X2 ¼ 0:10 pu, X0 ¼ 0:45 pu
Calculate the fault currents in case of single line-to-ground, line-line and

double line-to-ground faults occurring at bus 6.
6:15 A single-line diagram of a three-phase power station is shown in Fig. P6.6.
The ratings of the equipment are shown below.
Xn ¼ 0:05 pu
Transformer T1 100 MVA, 11/66 kV, Δ-Y, X1 ¼ X2 ¼ X0 ¼ 0:06 pu
Transformer T2 100 MVA, 20/66 kV, both sides earthed Y-Y,
X1 ¼ X2 ¼ X0 ¼ 0:06 pu
Transformer T3 100 MVA, 20/66 kV, Y-Y, X1 ¼ X2 ¼ X0 ¼ 0:04 pu
Line 1 100 MVA, X1 ¼ X2 ¼ 0:15 pu, X0 ¼ 0:65 pu
Line 2 100 MVA, X1 ¼ X2 ¼ 0:10 pu, X0 ¼ 0:45 pu
Line 3 100 MVA, X1 ¼ X2 ¼ 0:16 pu, X0 ¼ 0:65 pu
Find the fault currents in each of single line-to-ground, line-line and double
line-to-ground faults occurring at bus 6.
Chapter 7
Load Flow Analysis
7.1 Introduction
Load flow or power flow study is one of the important aspects that is used for power
system planning, operation, maintenance, and control. In the planning stage, load
flow studies are used to determine if and when the specific power system elements
become underloaded and overloaded. In operating studies, load flow studies are
used to ensure that each generator runs at their maximum operating point. Based on
the load flow study, major investment decisions begin.
In load flow studies, power flows from sending end to the receiving end through
transmission lines. The equations in terms of power are known as power flow
equations. These power flow equations are normally nonlinear and must be solved
by some iterative techniques. Load flow studies are performed to determine the
voltage drop on each feeder, voltage magnitude and phase angle at each bus, real
and reactive powers flowing in all branches. The total power losses in the system, as
well as the power losses in each branch, are also calculated by the load flow study.
Also, load flow studies are done before transient stability and contingency studies.
Sometimes, a load flow study shows an overloaded connection or transformer; then,
preventive actions are taken in the real network to stop this situation. In this case, a
large number of load flow analysis is carried out that is called contingency study.
Simulation software such as ETAP, CYME, IPSA, and PowerWorld are often used
for the studies. In this chapter, the basics of load flow study, some numerical
methods are discussed.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3212-2_7
318 7 Load Flow Analysis
7.2 Classification of Buses
An arrangement of conductor that serves as a common connection for the con-

ductors of two or more circuits is known as bus or busbar. In a bus, voltage and
frequency are the same. In a load flow analysis, the four parameters, such as the real
power, reactive power, bus voltage, and phase angle, are considered. According to
these parameters, busses are classified as load bus, generator bus, and slack bus.
A brief description of each bus is given below.
Load bus: The real power (P) and the reactive power (Q) are known in the load
bus. It is often known as PQ bus. The magnitude of the bus voltage (V) and its
phase angle (d) are calculated from the load flow study. The real and reactive
powers supplied to the power system are considered positive, while the real power
and reactive power consumed from the power system are considered negative.
Generator bus: The generator bus is also known as a voltage-controlled or
regulated bus. The voltage-controlled bus of a power system in any bus is that the
magnitude of the voltage can be controlled. The generated voltage (V) and power
(P) are known, and it is often known as the PV bus. The reactive power Q and the
phase angle d are not known and need to be computed.
Slack bus: The voltage magnitude and its phase angle are specified. In the
slack bus, the magnitude and phase angle of the voltage are normally considered
1 j0 pu: This bus is often known as a swing bus or reference bus. The real power
(P) and reactive power (Q) are not known and need to be computed from the load
flow study. The known and unknown parameters of different types of buses are
shown in Table 7.1
7.3 Power Flow in Two-Bus System
A short transmission line is connected between two buses, as shown in Fig. 7.1.
Bus 1 represents the sending end, and bus 2 represents the receiving end [1, 2].
Applying KVL to the circuit in Fig. 7.1 yields,
Vs ¼ Vr þ IðR þ jXL Þ ð7:1Þ
Table 7.1 Known and Types of buses Known Unknown

unknown parameters of buses parameters parameters
Slack bus |V|, d P, Q
Load bus P, Q |V|, d
Generator bus P, |V| Q, d
7.3 Power Flow in Two-Bus System 319
Fig. 7.1 Short transmission Bus 1 Bus 2

line with the two buses R L
I
Vs Vr
The value of the resistance of the transmission line is very small, as compared to
inductive reactance. Therefore, the resistance is negligible and Eq. (7.1) is modified
as,
Vs Vr
I¼ ð7:2Þ
jXL

Vs Vr
Is ¼ I ¼ Ir ¼ ð7:3Þ
jXL
Vs Vr
Is ¼ I ¼ Ir ¼ ð7:4Þ
jXL
Let the receiving end and the sending end voltages are written as,
Vs ¼ Vs jd ð7:5Þ
Vr ¼ Vr j0 ð7:6Þ
ðVs jd Þ ðVr j0 Þ

Is ¼ I ¼ Ir ¼ ð7:7Þ
jXL
Vs jd Vr j0
Is ¼ I ¼ Ir ¼ ð7:8Þ
jXL
Vs j90 d Vr j90
Is ¼ I ¼ Ir ¼ ð7:8Þ
XL
The sending end complex power is defined as,
Ss ¼ Ps þ jQs ¼ Vs Is ð7:9Þ

Vs j90 d Vr j90
Ss ¼ Ps þ jQs ¼ Vs jd ð7:10Þ
XL
Vs2 j90 d þ d Vs Vr jd þ 90

Ss ¼ Ps þ jQs ¼ ð7:11Þ
XL XL
Vs2 Vs Vr
Ss ¼ Ps þ jQs ¼ ðcos 90 þ j sin 90 Þ ½cosð90 þ dÞ þ j sinð90 þ dÞ
XL XL
ð7:12Þ
Vs2 Vs Vr
Ss ¼ Ps þ jQs ¼ ð0 þ j1Þ ð sin d þ j cos dÞ ð7:13Þ
XL XL
2
Vs Vr V Vs Vr
Ss ¼ Ps þ jQs ¼ sin d þ j s cos d ð7:14Þ
XL XL XL
Equating real and imaginary parts of Eq. (7.14) yields,
Vs Vr
Ps ¼ sin d ð7:15Þ
XL
2
Vs Vs Vr
Qs ¼ cos d ð7:16Þ
XL XL
Similarly, the receiving end complex power is expressed as,
Sr ¼ Vr Ir ð7:17Þ
Vs j90 d Vr j90
Sr ¼ Vr ð7:18Þ
XL
Vr Vs V2
Sr ¼ ½cosð90 dÞ þ j sinð90 dÞ r ½cos 90 þ j sin 90 ð7:19Þ
XL XL
Vr Vs V2
Sr ¼ ½sin d þ j cos d r ½0 þ j1 ð7:20Þ
XL XL

Vr Vs Vr Vs V2
Pr þ Qr ¼ sin d þ j cos d r ð7:21Þ
XL XL XL
Again, equating real and imaginary parts of Eq. (7.21) yields,

Fig. 7.2 Phasor diagram for Vs

a two-bus short transmission
line
IX L
δ Vr
φ
I
90
Vr Vs
Pr ¼ sin d ð7:22Þ
XL
Vr Vs V2
Qr ¼ cos d r ð7:23Þ
XL XL
The phasor diagram is drawn by considering negligible resistance and receiving

end voltage as a reference phasor as shown in Fig. 7.2.
The real power at both ends will be maximum when the torque angle (d) is equal
to 90 . The expression of maximum real power at both ends is,
Vr Vs
Psm ¼ Prm ¼ ð7:24Þ
XL
The average reactive power flow through the line is expressed as,
Qs þ Qr
Qav ¼ ð7:25Þ
2
If the torque angle is zero, the expression of sending end reactive power is
modified as,
Vs2 Vs Vr
Qs ¼ 0 ð7:26Þ
XL XL
Vs2
Qs ¼ ð7:27Þ
XL
Again, at d ¼ 0, Eq. (7.16) is modified as,
Vr Vs V2
Qr ¼ 0 r ð7:28Þ
XL XL
Vr2
Qr ¼ ð7:29Þ
XL
1 2
Qav ¼ Vs Vr2 ð7:30Þ
2XL
The line loss of the short transmission line is expressed as,
Pline ¼ I 2 R ð7:31Þ
The general expression of the complex power is,
S ¼ P þ jQ ¼ VI ð7:32Þ
P þ jQ
I ¼ ð7:33Þ
V
P jQ
I¼ ð7:34Þ
V
Multiplying Eqs. (7.33) and (7.34) yields,
P jQ P þ jQ
I I ¼ ð7:35Þ
V V
P2 þ Q2
I2 ¼ ð7:36Þ
V2
P2 þ Q2
Pline ¼ R ð7:37Þ
V2
From Eq. (7.37), it is concluded that both real power and reactive power play an
important role for line loss.
Example 7.1
A short transmission line is having the sending end voltage 95 V and receiving end
voltage 75 V. Calculate the average reactive power of the line if the reactance of the
line is 15 X.
Solution
The average reactive power is calculated as,
1 2 1 2
Qav ¼ Vs Vr2 ¼ 95 752 ¼ 113:33 Var ð7:38Þ
2XL 2 15
A short transmission line is having the sending end voltage 80 V and receiving end
voltage 50 V. Calculate the line reactance if the average reactive power of the line
is 180 Kvar.
7.4 Load Flow Equations for Two-Bus
Consider a transmission line which is connected between bus i and bus j, as shown
d
in Fig. Let the voltage at bus i is Vi ¼ jVi j j i , and the voltage at bus j is
7.3.
Vj ¼ Vj jdj . The voltage and admittance of these two buses can be written as [3],
Vi ¼ jVi j jdi ¼ jVi jðcos di þ j sin di Þ ð7:39Þ

Vj ¼ Vj jdj ¼ Vj ðcos dj þ j sin dj Þ ð7:40Þ
The self and mutual admittances between bus i and bus j are written as,
Yii ¼ jYii j jhii ¼ jYii jðcos hii þ j sin hii Þ ð7:41Þ

Yij ¼ Yij jhij ¼ Yij ðcos hij þ j sin hij Þ ð7:42Þ
Again, consider the three-bus single-line where the currents are injected at bus 1,
bus 2, and bus 3, as shown in Fig. 7.4.
Applying KCL at bus 1, bus 2, and bus 3 of Fig. 7.4 yields,
Y11 V1 þ Y12 V2 þ Y13 V3 ¼ I1 ð7:43Þ
Y21 V1 þ Y22 V2 þ Y23 V3 ¼ I2 ð7:44Þ
Y31 V1 þ Y32 V2 þ Y33 V3 ¼ I3 ð7:45Þ
Fig. 7.3 Two-bus single-line 1

diagram bus i Z ij = bus j
Yij
I
R L
Fig. 7.4 Three-bus Bus 1 Bus 2

single-line diagram Z12
I1 I2
Z 31 Z 23
Bus 3
I3
Equations (7.43), (7.44), and (7.45) can be arranged in the matrix form as,
2 32 3 2 3
Y11 Y12 Y13 V1 I1
4 Y21 Y22 Y23 54 V2 5 ¼ 4 I2 5 ð7:46Þ
Y31 Y32 Y33 V3 I3
In general, Eq. (7.46) can be written as,
X
N
Ii ¼ Yij Vj ð7:47Þ
j¼1
General expression of the complex power is,
S ¼ P þ jQ ¼ VI ð7:48Þ
The complex power at bus i is written as,
Pi þ jQi ¼ Vi Ii ð7:49Þ
Pi jQi ¼ Vi Ii ð7:50Þ
X
N
Pi jQi ¼ ½jVi jðcos di þ j sin di Þ Yij Vj ð7:51Þ
j¼1
Again, substituting Eqs. (7.40) and (7.42) into Eq. (7.51) yields,
Pi jQi ¼ ½jVi jðcos di þ j sin di Þ

X
N

ð7:52Þ
Yij ðcos hij þ j sin hij Þ Vj ðcos dj þ j sin dj Þ
j¼1
7.4 Load Flow Equations for Two-Bus 325
X
N
Pi jQi ¼ jVi jVj Yij ðcos di j sin di Þ cos hij þ dj þ j sin hij þ dj ð7:53Þ
j¼1
X
N
Pi jQi ¼ jVi jVj Yij cos hij þ dj di þ j sin hij þ dj di ð7:54Þ

j¼1
From Eq. (7.54), equating real and imaginary parts yields,
X
N
Pi ¼ jVi jVj Yij cos hij þ dj di ð7:55Þ
j¼1
X
N
Qi ¼ jVi jVj Yij sin hij þ dj di ð7:56Þ
j¼1
Based on Eq. (7.48), for bus 2, the following relation can be modified as,
P2 þ jQ2 ¼ V2 I2 ð7:57Þ
P2 þ jQ2
I2 ¼ ð7:58Þ
V2
P2 jQ2
I2 ¼ ð7:59Þ
V2
Substituting Eq. (7.59) into (7.44) yields,
P2 jQ2
Y21 V1 þ Y22 V2 þ Y23 V3 ¼ ð7:60Þ
V2
P2 jQ2
Y22 V2 ¼ ðY21 V1 þ Y23 V3 Þ ð7:61Þ
V2

1 P2 jQ2
V2 ¼ ðY V þ Y V Þ ð7:62Þ
V2
21 1 23 3
Y22
In general, the expression of voltage at bus i can be written as,

2 3
6 X 7
1 6 6Pi jQi
N 7
7
Vi ¼ 6 Yij Vj 7 ð7:52Þ
Yii 4 Vi 5
j¼1
j 6¼ i
7.5 Load Flow Equations for Three-Bus
Consider the three-bus single-line diagram of a power system where the first
generator (G1) is connected to bus 1, and the second generator (G2) is connected to
bus 2 as shown in Fig. 7.5. Here, the load is connected to bus 3.
The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 7.6. Applying KCL at node 1 yields,
I1 ¼ V1 y10 þ ðV1 V2 Þy12 þ ðV1 V3 Þy13 ð7:53Þ
ðy10 þ y12 þ y13 ÞV1 y12 V2 y13 V3 ¼ I1 ð7:54Þ
Applying KCL at node 2 yields,
I2 ¼ V2 y20 þ ðV2 V3 Þy23 þ ðV2 V1 Þy12 ð7:55Þ
y12 V1 þ ðy20 þ y12 þ y23 ÞV2 y23 V3 ¼ I2 ð7:56Þ
Again, applying KCL at node 3 yields,
V3 y30 ¼ ðV1 V3 Þy31 þ ðV2 V3 Þy23 ð7:57Þ
y13 V1 y23 V2 þ ðy30 þ y31 þ y32 ÞV3 ¼ 0 ð7:58Þ
Equations (7.54), (7.56), and (7.58) can be arranged in the matrix form as,
Fig. 7.5 Single-line diagram Bus 1 Bus 2

of a three-bus system y12
G1 G2
y31 y23
Bus 3
Load
7.5 Load Flow Equations for Three-Bus 327
Fig. 7.6 Equivalent circuit bus 1 bus 2

y12
node 1 node 2
I1 I2
y31 y23
y10 y20
node 3 bus 3
y30
node 0
2 32 3 2 3
y10 þ y12 þ y13 y12 y13 V1 I1
4 y12 y20 þ y12 þ y23 y23 54 V2 5 ¼ 4 I2 5 ð7:59Þ
y13 y23 y30 þ y13 þ y23 V3 0
2 32 3 2 3
Y11 Y12 Y13 V1 I1
4 Y21 Y22 Y23 54 V2 5 ¼ 4 I2 5 ð7:60Þ
Y31 Y32 Y33 V3 0
where, the following relations are,

Y11 ¼ y10 þ y12 þ y13 ð7:61Þ
Y22 ¼ y20 þ y12 þ y23 ð7:62Þ
Y33 ¼ y30 þ y13 þ y23 ð7:63Þ
Y12 ¼ Y21 ¼ y12 ð7:64Þ
Y13 ¼ Y31 ¼ y13 ð7:65Þ
Y23 ¼ Y32 ¼ y23 ð7:66Þ
Equation (7.60) can be expressed in a generalized form as,

Ybus Vbus ¼ I ð7:67Þ
where,
Ybus is the bus admittance matrix of any specific power system,
Vbus is the bus voltage measured from the reference node.
In Eq. (7.59), the diagonal elements are equal to the sum of all elements that are
connected to the different nodes in Fig. 7.6. This element is known as
self-admittance or driving point admittance, and it can be expressed as,
X
n
Yii ¼ yij ð7:68Þ
j¼0
j 6¼ i
The off-diagonal elements are equal to the negative of the admittances, which are
connected between the nodes. This element is known as the mutual or transfer
admittance, and it can be expressed as,
Yij ¼ Yji ¼ yij ð7:69Þ
Example 7.2
The per unit line impedances of a three-bus system is shown in Fig. 7.7. Calculate
the Ybus matrix.
Solution
The corresponding line admittances are calculated as,
1
y12 ¼ ¼ 1:82 j74:20 ð7:70Þ
0:15 þ j0:53
1
y23 ¼ ¼ 1:28 j73:65 ð7:71Þ
0:22 þ j0:75
1
y31 ¼ ¼ 1:36 j70:08 ð7:72Þ
0:25 þ j0:69
The values of self-admittances are calculated as,
Y11 ¼ y12 þ y13 ¼ 1:82 j74:20 þ 1:36 j70:08 ¼ 3:18 j72:43 ð7:73Þ
Y22 ¼ y12 þ y23 ¼ 1:82 j74:20 þ 1:28 j73:65 ¼ 3:10 j73:97 ð7:74Þ
Y33 ¼ y31 þ y23 ¼ 1:36 j70:08 þ 1:28 j73:65 ¼ 2:64 j71:81 ð7:75Þ
Fig. 7.7 Single-line diagram bus 3

for Example 7.2
z31 = 0.25 + j 0.69 z23 = 0.22 + j 0.75
bus 1 bus 2
z12 = 0.15 + j 0.53

7.5 Load Flow Equations for Three-Bus 329
Fig. 7.8 Single-line diagram bus 1 y12 = 3 35

for Practice Problem 7.2 bus 2
y41 = 5 45 y23 = 2 55
bus 4 y34 = 4 25 bus 3
The values of mutual admittances are calculated as,

Y12 ¼ Y21 ¼ y12 ¼ 1:82 j74:20 ð7:76Þ
Y23 ¼ Y32 ¼ y23 ¼ 1:28 j73:65 ð7:77Þ
Y31 ¼ Y13 ¼ y13 ¼ 1:36 j70:08 ð7:78Þ
The bus admittance matrix can be written as,

2 3
Y11 Y12 Y13
Ybus ¼ 4 Y21 Y22 Y23 5
2 Y31 Y32 Y33 3
3:18 j72:43 1:82 j74:20 1:36 j70:08
4
¼ 1:82 j74:20 3:10 j73:97 1:28 j73:65 5 ð7:79Þ
1:36 j70:08 1:28 j73:65 2:64 j71:81

A four-bus single-line diagram is shown in Fig. 7.8. The units of the admittances
are in per unit (pu). Find the Ybus matrix.
7.6 Gauss–Seidel Method
Gauss–Seidel is one of the simplest iterative methods that is widely used to solve
the linear equation in power systems. This method works perfectly when the
diagonal elements are dominating. Consider a three-bus system to derive the
Gauss–Seidel algorithm for power flow equations [4].
2 32 3 2 3
Y11 Y12 Y13 V1 I1
4 Y21 Y22 Y23 54 V2 5 ¼ 4 I2 5 ð7:80Þ
Y31 Y32 Y33 V3 I3
The current equation for bus one (bus 1) can be written as,
Y11 V1 þ Y12 V2 þ Y13 V3 ¼ I1 ð7:81Þ
The power injection at any bus is defined as,
P1 þ jQ1 ¼ V1 I1 ð7:82Þ
P1 jQ1 ¼ I1 V1 ð7:83Þ
P1 jQ1
Y11 V1 þ Y12 V2 þ Y13 V3 ¼ ð7:84Þ
V1
The voltage at bus 1 is calculated as,
P1 jQ1
Y11 V1 ¼ Y12 V2 Y13 V3 ð7:85Þ
V1

1 P1 jQ1
V1 ¼ Y12 V2 Y13 V3 ð7:86Þ
Y11 V1
Using (k + 1)th iteration, the voltage at bus 1 is calculated as,

" #
1 P1 jQ1
V1k þ 1 ¼ Y12 V2 Y13 V3
k k
ð7:87Þ
Y11 ðV1 Þk
The current equation for bus 2 can be written as,
Y21 V1 þ Y22 V2 þ Y23 V3 ¼ I2 ð7:88Þ
The voltage at bus 2 is calculated as,

1 P2 jQ2
V2 ¼ Y V Y V ð7:89Þ
V2
21 1 23 3
Y22

" #
1 P2 jQ2
V2k þ 1 ¼ Y21 V1k þ 1 Y23 V3k ð7:90Þ
Y22 ðV2 Þk
7.6 Gauss–Seidel Method 331
The current equation for bus 3 can be written as,
Y31 V1 þ Y32 V2 þ Y33 V3 ¼ I3 ð7:91Þ

" #
1 P3 jQ3
V3k þ 1 ¼ kþ1 kþ1
Y31 V1 Y32 V2 ð7:92Þ
Y33 ðV3 Þk
In general, the voltage at bus i can be calculated as,

2 3
6 X 7
1 6 6Pi jQi
n 7
k7
Vik þ 1 ¼ 6 Yij Vj 7 ð7:93Þ
Yii 4 ðVi Þ k
5
j¼1
j 6¼ i
Example 7.3
The two linear equations are given by 8V1 þ 3V2 ¼ 12 and 6V1 þ 5V2 ¼ 18.
Calculate the unknown voltages by the Gauss–Seidel method.
Solution
The voltage equations can be rearranged as,
12 3V2
V1 ¼ ð7:94Þ
8
18 6V1
V2 ¼ ð7:95Þ
5
Considering the initial guess value of the V1 is,
V1 ¼ 0 ð7:96Þ
The first iteration values of the voltages are calculated as,
18 0
V21 ¼ ¼ 3:6 ð7:97Þ
5
12 3 3:6
V11 ¼ ¼ 0:24 ð7:98Þ
5
The second iteration values are calculated as,

18 6 0:24
V22 ¼ ¼ 3:312 ð7:99Þ
5
12 3 3:12
V12 ¼ ¼ 0:528 ð7:100Þ
5
The third iteration values are calculated as,
18 6 0:528
V23 ¼ ¼ 2:9664 ð7:101Þ
5
12 3 2:9664
V13 ¼ ¼ 0:62016 ð7:102Þ
5
The fourth iteration values are calculated as,
18 6 0:62016
V24 ¼ ¼ 2:855808 ð7:103Þ
5
12 3 2:855808
V14 ¼ ¼ 0:6865152 ð7:104Þ
5
The fifth iteration values are calculated as,
18 6 0:6865152
V25 ¼ ¼ 2:77618176 ð7:105Þ
5
12 3 2:77618176
V15 ¼ ¼ 0:73429 ð7:106Þ
5
The sixth iteration values are calculated as,

18 6 0:73429
V26 ¼ ¼ 2:718852 ð7:107Þ
5
12 3 2:718852
V16 ¼ ¼ 0:76868 ð7:108Þ
5
The seventh iteration values are calculated as,
18 6 0:7686
V27 ¼ ¼ 2:6776 ð7:109Þ
5
12 3 2:6776
V17 ¼ ¼ 0:7934 ð7:110Þ
5
The eighth iteration values are calculated as,
18 6 0:7934
V28 ¼ ¼ 2:6479 ð7:111Þ
5
12 3 2:6479
V18 ¼ ¼ 0:8112 ð7:112Þ
5
The ninth iteration values are calculated as,
18 6 0:8112
V29 ¼ ¼ 2:6265 ð7:113Þ
5
12 3 2:6265
V19 ¼ ¼ 0:8241 ð7:114Þ
5
The tenth iteration values are calculated as,
18 6 0:8241
V210 ¼ ¼ 2:61108 ð7:115Þ
5
12 3 2:61108
V110 ¼ ¼ 0:8333 ð7:116Þ
5
The eleventh iteration values are calculated as,
18 6 0:8333
V211 ¼ ¼ 2:6 ð7:117Þ
5
12 3 2:6
V111 ¼ ¼ 0:84 ð7:118Þ
5
The twelfth iteration values are calculated as,
18 6 0:84
V212 ¼ ¼ 2:592 ð7:119Þ
5
12 3 2:592
V112 ¼ ¼ 0:844 ð7:120Þ
5
From the eleventh and twelfth iteration values, it is seen that the values of V1 and
V2 are not changing. Therefore, the real solutions are V1 = 0.84 V and V2 = 2.6 V.
The three sets of linear equations are given by 12V1 þ 3V2 þ 4V3 ¼ 10,
2V1 þ 8V2 þ 3V3 ¼ 12, and 4V1 þ 2V2 þ 10V3 ¼ 18. Determine the voltages by the
Gauss–Seidel method.
Example 7.4
A 12.2 MW, 11 kV (line voltage), 2-pole synchronous generator with 9 MW active
generation, 1 Mvar maximum reactive power, and 0.85 power factor is connected
to bus 1. The length of the line is 1 mile, and the per unit impedance of the line is
0:12 þ j0:23. A load of 50 MW and 30 Mvar is connected to bus 2, as shown in
Fig. 7.9. Consider bus 1 is a slack bus and use the Gauss–Seidel method to cal-
culate the voltage at bus 2, slack bus real and reactive powers, line flows, and line
loss.
Solution
The node current equation of Fig. 7.9 is,

Y11 Y12 V1 I
¼ 1 ð7:121Þ
Y21 Y22 V2 I2
The self-admittances are calculated as,
Y11 ¼ Y22 ¼ 1:78 j3:42 ð7:122Þ
The mutual admittances are calculated as,
Y12 ¼ Y21 ¼ y12 ¼ 1:78 þ j3:42 ð7:123Þ
From bus 2, the real power and reactive power are supplied to the load.
Therefore, these powers will be negative as P2 ¼ 0:5 pu and Q2 ¼ 0:3 pu. The
voltage at bus 2 is calculated as,

1 P2 jQ2 1 0:5 þ j0:3
V2 ¼ Y V ¼ ð1:78 þ j3:42ÞV
V2
21 1
V2
1
Y22 1:78 j3:42
ð7:124Þ
0:1512 j148:46
V2 ¼ þ V1 ð7:125Þ
V2
For a slack bus, V1 ¼ 1 j0 , and let the initial guess V20 ¼ 1 j0 . The first
iteration is calculated as,
0:1512 j148:46
V21 ¼ þ 1 ¼ 0:8747 j5:18 ð7:126Þ
1 j 0
Fig. 7.9 Single-line diagram bus 1 bus 2

for Example 7.4 z12 = 0.12 + j 0.23pu
load
G
The second iteration is calculated as,
0:1512 j148:46
V22 ¼ þ 1 ¼ 0:8485 j5:18 ð7:127Þ
0:8747 j5:18
The third iteration is calculated as,
0:1512 j148:46
V23 ¼ þ 1 ¼ 0:8440 j5:37 ð7:128Þ
0:8485 j5:18
The fourth iteration is calculated as,
0:1512 j148:46
V24 ¼ þ 1 ¼ 0:8429 j5:37 ð7:129Þ
0:8440 j5:37
The fifth iteration is calculated as,
0:1512 j148:46
V25 ¼ þ 1 ¼ 0:8427 j5:38 ð7:130Þ
0:8429 j5:37
The sixth iteration is calculated as,
0:1512 j148:46
V26 ¼ þ 1 ¼ 0:8427 j5:38 ð7:131Þ
0:8427 j5:38
The voltage at the fifth and sixth iteration is the same. Therefore, the voltage at
bus 2 is,
V2 ¼ 0:8427 j5:38 pu ð7:132Þ
The slack bus power is calculated as,
P1 jQ1 ¼ V1 I1 ¼ V1 ðV1 y12 V2 y21 Þ ¼ 1½1 ð1:78 j3:42Þ 0:8427
j5:38 ð1:78 j3:42Þ ð7:133Þ
P1 jQ1 ¼ 0:5568 j0:4100 ð7:134Þ
The value of the real power and the reactive power are calculated as,
P1 ¼ 0:5568 pu ¼ 55:68 MW ð7:135Þ
Q1 ¼ 0:4100 pu ¼ 41 Mvar ð7:136Þ

The line currents are calculated as,
I12 ¼ y12 ðV1 V2 Þ ¼ ð1:78 j3:42Þð1 0:8427 j5:38 Þ ¼ 0:6914 j36:36

ð7:137Þ
I21 ¼ I12 ¼ 0:6914 j36:36 ð7:138Þ
The line flows calculated as,

S12 ¼ V1 I12 ¼ 1 0:6914 j36:36 ¼ 0:5567 þ j0:4099 pu ð7:139Þ
S12 ¼ 55:67 MW þ j40:99 Mvar ð7:140Þ

S21 ¼ V2 I21 ¼ 0:8427 j5:38 ð0:6914 j36:36 Þ ¼ 0:4995 j0:2999 pu
ð7:141Þ
S21 ¼ 49:95 MW j29:99 Mvar
The line loss is determined as,
SL12 ¼ S12 þ S21 ¼ 55:67 MW þ j40:99 MVar 49:95 MW j29:99 Mvar

ð7:142Þ
SL12 ¼ 5:72 MW þ j10:96 Mvar ð7:143Þ
A two-bus system along with synchronous generator and load is drawn in the
CYME software. Then the relevant data are entered, and simulation is carried out
using the Gauss–Seidel technique. The CYME simulation results are in Fig. 7.10.
From Fig. 7.10, the voltage at bus 2, line loss, and slack bus real and reactive
powers are calculated as,
V2CYME ¼ 0:843 j5:37 pu ð7:144Þ
SL12CYME ¼ 5:74 MW þ j11 Mvar ð7:145Þ
P1CYME ¼ 55:74 MW ð7:146Þ
Q1CYME ¼ 41 Mvar ð7:147Þ
Again, a two-bus system single-line diagram is drawn by Interactive Power

System Analysis (IPSA) software and is simulated by entering all necessary data.
The simulation results are shown in Fig. 7.11.
Fig. 7.11 IPSA simulation

results for Example 7.4
From Fig. 7.11, the voltage at bus 2, line loss, and slack bus real and reactive
powers are calculated as,
V2IPSA ¼ 0:842 j5:4 pu ð7:148Þ
SL12IPSA ¼ 5:75 MW þ j11:02 Mvar ð7:149Þ
P1IPSA ¼ 55:75 MW ð7:150Þ
Q1IPSA ¼ 41:02 Mvar ð7:151Þ
Example 7.5
A 15 MW, 11 kV (line voltage), 2-pole synchronous generator with 11 MW active
generation, 2 MW maximum reactive power, and 0.90 power factor is connected to
bus 1. The length of the line is 1mile, and the per unit impedance of the lines is
given as shown in Fig. 7.12. The load 1 of 30 MW and 10 Mvar is connected to
bus 2, and the load 2 of 25 MW and 9 Mvar is connected to bus 3. Consider bus 1
is a slack bus and use the Gauss–Seidel method to calculate the voltage at bus 2, bus
3, and slack bus real power and reactive power.
bus 1 bus 2
z12 = 0.12 + j 0.34 pu
Load 1
G
z31 = 0.15 + j 0.65 pu z23 = 0.09 + j 0.46 pu
bus 3
Load 2
Fig. 7.12 Single-line diagram for Example 7.5
Solution
The three-bus system, along with synchronous generator and loads, is drawn in the
CYME software. Then the relevant data are given input and carried out simulation
using the Gauss–Seidel technique. The CYME simulation results are in Fig. 7.13.
From Fig. 7.13, the voltage at bus 2, bus 3, line loss, and slack bus real and
reactive powers are calculated as,
V2CYME ¼ 0:996 j0:29 pu ð7:152Þ
V3CYME ¼ 0:997 j0:19 pu ð7:153Þ
SL12CYME ¼ 0:01 MW þ j0:02 Mvar ð7:144Þ
P1CYME ¼ 55:10 MW ð7:147Þ
Q1CYME ¼ 19:29 Mvar ð7:148Þ

A 20 MVA, 11 kV (line voltage), 2-pole synchronous generator with 14 MW
active generation, 3 Mvar maximum reactive power, and 0.85 power factor is
connected to bus 1. A load of 90 MW and 30 Mvar is connected to bus 2, and the
generator is connected to the slack bus 1. The line impedance is 0:02 þ j0:06 pu on
a 100 MVA base, and the length of the line is 1 mile. A three-phase 11 kV, 4 MVar
shunt capacitor is connected to bus 1 and a three-phase 20 Mvar shunt capacitor is
connected to the bus 2 as shown in Fig. 7.14. Use the Gauss–Seidel method to
determine the voltage at bus 2 and slack bus real and reactive powers.
A 25 MVA hydro generator 11 kV (line voltage) and 0.95 power factor are con-
nected to bus 1. The first load of 250 MW and 135 Mvar is connected to bus 2 and
the second load of 115 MW and 90 Mvar is connected to bus 3 as shown in
Fig. 7.15. Consider that the generator is connected to the slack bus 1. The lines
impedance is in pu on a 100 MVA base, and the length of the line is 1 mile. Use the
Gauss–Seidel method to determine the voltage at bus 2, bus 3, and slack bus real
and reactive powers.
Fig. 7.14 Single-line bus 1 bus 2

j 0.20
diagram for Practice z12 = 0.02 + j 0.06
Problem 7.4
j 0.04
G Load

diagram for Practice z12 = j 0.03
Problem 7.5 Load 1
G
z31 = j 0.125 z23 = j 0.05
bus 3
Load 2
7.7 Newton–Raphson Method
Newton–Raphson (N-R) method is one of the well-known and powerful methods

used for finding solution of a given nonlinear equation. Considering a general
nonlinear equation as [5],
f ðxÞ ¼ 0 ð7:149Þ
Considering a geometry of N-R method for Eq. (7.149) is shown in Fig. 7.16.
Let x0 be the initial guess of the real solution r. Let f 0 ðx0 Þ be the slope of the line
L and it can be determined as,
f ðx0 Þ 0
f 0 ðx0 Þ ¼ ð7:150Þ
x 0 x1
f ðx0 Þ
x0 x1 ¼ ð7:151Þ
f 0 ðx0 Þ
f ðx0 Þ
x1 ¼ x0 ð7:152Þ
f 0 ðx0 Þ
Fig. 7.16 Representation of

y
nonlinear equation with a
tangent line for the N-R y = f ( x)
method
( x0 , f ( x0 )
f '( x0 )
L
x
r x1 x0
7.7 Newton–Raphson Method 341
The second iteration of the real solution is written as,
f ðx1 Þ
x2 ¼ x1 ð7:153Þ
f 0 ðx1 Þ
The third iteration of the real solution is written as,
f ðx2 Þ
x3 ¼ x2 ð7:154Þ
f 0 ðx2 Þ
Similarly, the nth iteration can be written as,
f ðxn1 Þ
xn ¼ xn1 ð7:155Þ
f 0 ðxn1 Þ
Taking Taylor expansion of Eq. (7.149) yields,
1 0 1
f ðxÞ ¼ f ðx0 Þ þ f ðx0 Þðx x0 Þ þ f 00 ðx0 Þðx x0 Þ2 þ . . .. . . ¼ 0 ð7:156Þ
1! 2!
Equation (7.156) is again modified by neglecting al higher terms of ðx x0 Þ as,
1 0
f ðxÞ ¼ f ðx0 Þ þ f ðx0 Þðx x0 Þ ¼ 0 ð7:157Þ
1!
f ðxÞ ¼ f ðx0 Þ þ f 0 ðx0 Þðx x0 Þ ¼ 0 ð7:158Þ
f 0 ðx0 Þðx x0 Þ ¼ f ðx0 Þ ð7:159Þ
f ðx0 Þ
x x0 ¼ ð7:160Þ
f 0 ðx0 Þ
f ðx0 Þ
x ¼ x0 ð7:161Þ
f 0 ðx0 Þ
Therefore, the first and the second iterations can be written as,
f ðx0 Þ
x1 ¼ x0 ð7:162Þ
f 0 ðx0 Þ
f ðx1 Þ
x2 ¼ x1 ð7:163Þ
f 0 ðx1 Þ
In general, the expression for nth iteration can be expressed as,
f ðxn1 Þ
xn ¼ xn1 ð7:164Þ
f 0 ðxn1 Þ
Example 7.6
Calculate the solution of the nonlinear equation f ðxÞ ¼ x sin x þ 5 by the Newton–
Raphson method.
Solution
Let the initial guess of the true solution is,
x0 ¼ 5 ð7:165Þ
The value of x in the first iteration is calculated as,
f ðx0 Þ ¼ 5 sin 5 þ 5 ¼ 0:205 ð7:166Þ
f 0 ðxÞ ¼ x cos x þ sin x ð7:167Þ
f 0 ðx0 Þ ¼ 5 cos 5 þ sin 5 ¼ 0:459 ð7:168Þ
f ðx0 Þ 0:205
x1 ¼ x 0 0
¼5 ¼ 4:5533 ð7:169Þ
f ðx0 Þ 0:459
The value of x in the second iteration is calculated as,
f ðx1 Þ ¼ 4:5533 sin 4:5533 þ 5 ¼ 0:504 ð7:170Þ
f 0 ðx1 Þ ¼ 4:5533 cosð4:5533Þ þ sin 4:5533 ¼ 1:708 ð7:171Þ
f ðx1 Þ 0:504
x2 ¼ x1 0
¼ 4:5533 þ ¼ 4:8483 ð7:172Þ
f ðx1 Þ 1:708
The value of x in the third iteration is calculated as,
f ðx2 Þ ¼ 4:8483 sin 4:8483 þ 5 ¼ 0:1963 ð7:173Þ
f ðx2 Þ 0:1963
x3 ¼ x2 ¼ 4:8483 þ ¼ 5:4363 ð7:175Þ
f 0 ðx2 Þ 0:3338
7.7 Newton–Raphson Method 343
The value of x in the fourth iteration is calculated as,
f ðx3 Þ ¼ 5:4363 sin 5:4363 þ 5 ¼ 0:927 ð7:176Þ
f ðx3 Þ 0:927
x4 ¼ x3 ¼ 5:4363 ¼ 5:1111 ð7:178Þ
f 0 ðx3 Þ 2:8513
The value of x in the fifth iteration is calculated as,
f ðx4 Þ ¼ 5:1111 sin 5:1111 þ 5 ¼ 0:2898 ð7:179Þ
f ðx4 Þ 0:2898
x5 ¼ x4 ¼ 5:1111 ¼ 4:8383 ð7:181Þ
f 0 ðx4 Þ 1:0627
The value of x in the sixth iteration is calculated as,
f ðx5 Þ ¼ 4:8383 sin 4:8383 þ 5 ¼ 0:2 ð7:182Þ
f ðx5 Þ 0:2
x6 ¼ x 5 0
¼ 4:8383 þ ¼ 5:3565 ð7:184Þ
f ðx5 Þ 0:3844
The value of x in the seventh iteration is calculated as,
f ðx6 Þ ¼ 5:3565 sin 5:3565 þ 5 ¼ 0:7167 ð7:185Þ
f ðx6 Þ 0:7167
x7 ¼ x6 0
¼ 5:3565 ¼ 5:0599 ð7:187Þ
f ðx6 Þ 2:4168
The difference between the seventh iteration and the sixth iteration is very less.
Therefore, the true solution is x ¼ 5:06.
Use Newton–Raphson method to determine the solution of the equation
5x2 þ 11x 17 ¼ 0 correct to four decimal places.
7.8 Newton–Raphson Method for Two Nonlinear

Equations
Newton–Raphson (N-R) method is a powerful tool for solving nonlinear equations

as its convergence rate is very high compared to the Gauss–Seidel method.
Considering two nonlinear equations as [5],
P ¼ pðx; yÞ ð7:188Þ
Q ¼ qðx; yÞ ð7:189Þ
Let x0 and y0 be the initial values of the functions pðx; yÞ and qðx; yÞ, respec-
tively. Taking Taylor expansion of Eqs. (7.188) and (7.189) with neglecting all
higher terms yields,

1 @p 1 @p
P ¼ pðx0 ; y0 Þ þ ðx x0 Þ þ ðy y0 Þ ð7:190Þ
1! @x 0 1! @y 0

1 @q 1 @q
Q ¼ qðx0 ; y0 Þ þ ðx x0 Þ þ ðy y0 Þ ð7:191Þ
1! @x 0 1! @y 0
For further simplification, again, considering the following relations as,
Dx0 ¼ x x0 ð7:192Þ
x ¼ x0 þ Dx0 ð7:193Þ
Dy0 ¼ y y0 ð7:194Þ
y ¼ y0 þ Dy0 ð7:195Þ

@p @p
P pðx0 ; y0 Þ ¼ Dx0 þ Dy0 ð7:196Þ
@x 0 @y 0

@q @q
Q qðx0 ; y0 Þ ¼ Dx0 þ Dy0 ð7:197Þ
@x 0 @y 0
Again, for further simplification, considering the following relations,
P pðx0 ; y0 Þ ¼ Dp0 ð7:198Þ
Q qðx0 ; y0 Þ ¼ Dq0 ð7:199Þ

7.8 Newton–Raphson Method for Two Nonlinear Equations 345

@p @p
Dp0 ¼ Dx0 þ Dy0 ð7:200Þ
@x 0 @y 0

@q @q
Dq0 ¼ Dx0 þ Dy0 ð7:201Þ
@x 0 @y 0
2 3
@p @p
Dp0 4 @x0 @y0 5 Dx0
¼ ð7:202Þ
Dq0 @q @q Dy0
@x 0 @y 0
2 3
@p @p
Dp0 @x
@y 5 Dx0
¼ 4 @q ð7:203Þ
Dq0 @q Dy0
@x @y 0

Dp0 Dx0
¼ ½J0 ð7:204Þ
Dq0 Dy0

Dx0 1 Dp0
¼ ½ J0 ð7:205Þ
Dy0 Dq0
where, ½J0 is called the Jacobian matrix.

The better estimation of the solution can be written as,
x1 ¼ x0 þ Dx0 ð7:206Þ
y1 ¼ y0 þ Dy0 ð7:207Þ
The iteration will be continued until to get required solutions.

Example 7.7
Calculate the solution of the two nonlinear equations given by 2x2 þ 3y2 7 ¼ 0
and x2 þ 4y2 10 ¼ 0 by the Newton–Raphson method.
Solution
Let the initial guess of the true solution are,
x0 ¼ y0 ¼ 1 ð7:208Þ
pðx0 ; y0 Þ ¼ 2 12 þ 3 12 ¼ 5 ð7:209Þ
qðx0 ; y0 Þ ¼ 12 þ 4 12 ¼ 5 ð7:210Þ
Dp0 ¼ P pðx0 ; y0 Þ ¼ 7 5 ¼ 2 ð7:211Þ
Dq0 ¼ Q qðx0 ; y0 Þ ¼ 10 5 ¼ 5 ð7:212Þ
The Jacobean matrix can be written as,

" @p @p
#
@x @y 4x 6y
J¼ @q @q ¼ ð7:213Þ
@x @y
2x 8y

4x0 6y0 4 6
J0 ¼ ¼ ð7:214Þ
2x0 8y0 2 8

Dx0 1 Dp0
¼ ½ J0 ð7:215Þ
Dy0 Dq0
1
Dx0 4 6 2 0:4 0:3 2
¼ ¼ ð7:216Þ
Dy0 2 8 5 0:1 0:2 5
Dx0 ¼ 0:4 2 0:3 5 ¼ 0:7 ð7:217Þ
Dy0 ¼ 0:1 2 þ 0:2 5 ¼ 0:8 ð7:218Þ
First updated values are calculated as,
x1 ¼ x0 þ Dx0 ¼ 1 þ 0:7 ¼ 1:7 ð7:219Þ
y1 ¼ y0 þ Dy0 ¼ 1 þ 0:8 ¼ 1:8 ð7:220Þ
Dp1 ¼ P pðx1 ; y1 Þ ¼ 7 ½2ð1:7Þ2 þ 3ð1:8Þ2 ¼ 8:5 ð7:221Þ
Dq1 ¼ Q qðx1 ; y1 Þ ¼ 10 ½ð1:7Þ2 þ 4ð1:8Þ2 ¼ 5:85 ð7:222Þ

4x1 6y1 6:8 10:8
J1 ¼ ¼ ð7:223Þ
2x1 8y1 3:4 14:4
1
Dx1 6:8 10:8 8:5 0:234 0:176 8:5
¼ ¼ ð7:234Þ
Dy1 3:4 14:4 5:85 0:055 0:111 5:85
Dx1 ¼ 0:234ð8:5Þ þ ð0:176Þð5:85Þ ¼ 0:959 ð7:235Þ

7.8 Newton–Raphson Method for Two Nonlinear Equations 347
Dy1 ¼ 0:055ð8:5Þ þ 0:111ð5:85Þ ¼ 0:181 ð7:236Þ
Second updated values are calculated as,
x2 ¼ x1 þ Dx1 ¼ 1:7 0:959 ¼ 0:741 ð7:237Þ
y2 ¼ y1 þ Dy1 ¼ 1:8 0:181 ¼ 1:619 ð7:238Þ
Dp2 ¼ P pðx2 ; y2 Þ ¼ 7 ½2ð0:741Þ2 þ 3ð1:619Þ2 ¼ 1:96 ð7:239Þ
Dq2 ¼ Q qðx2 ; y2 Þ ¼ 10 ½ð0:741Þ2 þ 4ð1:619Þ2 ¼ 1:03 ð7:240Þ

4x2 6y2 2:96 9:71
J2 ¼ ¼ ð7:241Þ
2x2 8y2 1:48 12:95
1
Dx2 2:96 9:71 1:96 0:54 0:40 1:96
¼ ¼ ð7:242Þ
Dy2 1:48 12:95 1:03 0:06 0:12 1:03
Dx2 ¼ 0:54ð1:96Þ þ ð0:40Þð1:03Þ ¼ 0:646 ð7:243Þ
Dy2 ¼ 0:06ð1:96Þ þ 0:12ð1:03Þ ¼ 0:006 ð7:244Þ
Third updated values are calculated as,
x3 ¼ x2 þ Dx2 ¼ 0:741 0:646 ¼ 0:095 ð7:245Þ
y3 ¼ y2 þ Dy2 ¼ 1:619 0:006 ¼ 1:613 ð7:246Þ
The values of the third iteration are close to the second iteration values.
Therefore, the solutions are,
x ¼ 0:095 ð7:247Þ
y ¼ 1:613 ð7:248Þ

The two nonlinear equations are given by 2x2 þ 5y2 8 ¼ 0, and
x2 4y2 7 ¼ 0. Use the Newton–Raphson method to find the solution.
7.9 Newton–Raphson Method for Power Flow Cases
Newton–Raphson (N-R) method can also be applied to calculate the power flow in
different buses, lines, and loads. Consider bus i and bus j as shown in Fig. 7.3. For
these buses, the following relations can be written as [4],
Vi ¼ jVi j jdi ð7:249Þ

Vj ¼ Vj jdj ð7:250Þ

Yij ¼ Yij jhij ð7:251Þ
X
n
Ii ¼ Yij Vj ð7:252Þ
j¼1
The expression of complex power is,
Pi jQi ¼ Vi Ii ð7:253Þ
Substituting Eqs. (7.249) and (7.252) into (7.253) yields,
X
n
Pi jQi ¼ Vi Vj Yij jhij þ dj di ð7:254Þ
j¼1
X
n
Pi jQi ¼ Vi Vj Yij ½cosðhij þ dj di Þ þ j sinðhij þ dj di Þ ð7:255Þ
j¼1
After equating real and imaginary parts of Eq. (7.255) yields,

X
n
Pi ¼ Vi Vj Yij cosðhij þ dj di Þ ð7:256Þ
j¼1
X
n
Qi ¼ Vi Vj Yij sinðhij þ dj di Þ ð7:257Þ
j¼1
Expanding Eqs. (7.256) and (7.257) in Taylor series and neglecting all higher
terms and the set of linear equations can be arranged in matrix form as,
2 3 2 2 @P 3 2 @P 33
DP2 @P2 2 3
@P
2 2
@ jV2 j @ jVn j
2
6 .. 7 66 @d2 @d
6. 77 Dd2
.. 7
n
6. 7 6 6 .. 76 .
.. 7 6 .
6.
6 ..
7 64 .
7 6 @P . 5 4 .. 57
76 ..
7
7
6 7 6 @P @P @P 7 6 7
7 62 @d2 @dn 3 2 @ jV2 j @ jVn j 37 6 Ddn 7
n n n n
6 DPn 7 6 7
6 DQ2 7 ¼ 6 @Q2 @Q2 76 DjV j 7
ð7:258Þ
6. 7 6 @Q2 @Q2
7 6 2 7
6. 7 66 @d2 @dn @ jV j @ jVn j
76 . 7
6.
6.
7 66 .
7 44 .. .. 7 6 2
7 6 .. .. 7 77 4 .. 5
4 .. 5 . 54. . 5 5
@Qn @Qn @Qn @Qn DjVn j
DQn @d2 @dn @ jV2 j @ jVn j
7.9 Newton–Raphson Method for Power Flow Cases 349
Equation (7.258) can be reduced as,

DP J J2 Dd
¼ 1 ð7:259Þ
DQ J3 J4 DjV j
where,
DP and DQ are the mismatch vectors whose values are known,
Dd and DjV j are the correction parameters whose values are known.
The Jacobian submatrix can be defined as,
2 3
@P2
@P
@d2 @dn
2
6. .. 7
J1 ¼ 6 7 @P
4 .. . 5 @d ð7:260Þ
@Pn @Pn
@d2 @dn
2 @P2 @P2
3
@ jV2 j @ jVn j
6. 7
J2 ¼ 6 .. 7 @P ð7:261Þ
4 .. . 5 @ jV j
@Pn @Pn
@ jV2 j @ jVn j
2 3
@Q2
@Q
@d2 @dn
2
6. .. 7
J3 ¼ 6 7 @Q
4 .. . 5 @d ð7:262Þ
@Qn @Qn
@d2 @dn
2 @Q2 @Q2
3
@ jV2 j @ jVn j
6. 7
J4 ¼ 6 .. 7 @Q ð7:263Þ
4 .. . 5 @ jV j
@Qn @Qn
@ jV2 j @ jVn j
The diagonal and off-diagonal elements of Jacobian submatrix consist of the

partial derivatives of P and Q with respect to each of the variables in the Eqs. (7.256)
and (7.257). Equation (7.258) can be reduced for the three-bus system as,
2 3
@P2 @P2 @P2 @P2
6 @d2 @d3 @ jV2 j @ jV3 j 7
2 3 6 72 3
DP2 6 @P3 @P3 @P3 @P3 7
6 7 Dd2
6 DP3 7 6 @d2 @ jV3 j 7 6 7
6 7¼6 @d3 @ jV2 j 76 Dd3 7 ð7:264Þ
4 DQ2 5 6 @Q2 @Q2 @Q2 @Q2 7 4 DjV2 j 5
6 7
DQ2 6 @d2 @ jV3 j 7
6 @d3 @ jV2 j 7 DjV3 j
4 @Q3 @Q3 @Q3 @Q3 5
@d2 @d3 @ jV2 j @ jV3 j
The following procedures need to be considered for N-R method.

• Read the data and form Ybus
• Choose the initial values of jV j0 for all buses and d0 of the voltages of all buses
except the slack bus
• Calculate the total injected real power P0cal and real power mismatch DP0 as
DPi ¼ Pi; specified Pi; calculated ð7:265Þ
• Calculate the total injected reactive power Q0cal and reactive power mismatch
DQ0
DQi ¼ Qi; specified Qi; calculated ð7:266Þ

• Check if DPi \e1 , DQi \e2 , DjVi j ¼ Vik þ 1 Vik e3 . Then, the latest calcu-
lated values of voltages are the real solution
• Estimate the Jacobian matrix and solve for DVi and Dd for all PQ buses, and Dd
all PV buses
• Update voltage and angles at each bus as
dki þ 1 ¼ dki þ Ddki ð7:267Þ

k þ 1 k
V ¼ V þ D V k ð7:268Þ
i i i
Example 7.8
A single-line diagram of the three-bus power system is shown in Fig. 7.17. All the
admittances in the single-line diagram are in per unit values with a base voltage of
11 kV and base 100 MVA. The first generator is connected to the slack bus 1, and
the second generator is considered as a fixed generation.
Solution
The values of self-admittances are calculated as,
Y11 ¼ y12 þ y31 ¼ j30 ¼ 30 j90 ð7:269Þ
Y22 ¼ y12 þ y23 ¼ j26 ¼ 26 j90 ð7:270Þ
Y33 ¼ y31 þ y23 ¼ j36 ¼ 36 j90 ð7:271Þ
The values of the mutual admittances are calculated as,
Y12 ¼ Y21 ¼ y12 ¼ j10 ¼ 10 j90 ð7:272Þ
Y23 ¼ Y32 ¼ y23 ¼ j16 ¼ 16 j90 ð7:273Þ

Fig. 7.17 A single-line bus 1 bus 2

diagram for Example 7.8 V1 = 1 0
z12 = j 0.1
Load
y12 = − j10 120 MW
G1
z31 = j 0.05 50 Mvar
y31 = − j 20 y23 = − j 0.16
z23 = j 0.062
bus 3
V2 = 1.1
G2 300 MW
Y31 ¼ Y13 ¼ y13 ¼ j20 ¼ 20 j90 ð7:274Þ
According to Eqs. (7.256) and (7.257), the expression of real power and reactive
power at bus 2 can be written as,
p2 ¼ jV2 jjV1 jjY21 j cosðh21 þ d1

d2 Þ þ jV2 j2 jY22 j cos h21 þ jV2 jjV3 jjY23 j cosðh23 þ d3 d2 Þ ð7:275Þ
p2 ¼ 1 10V2 cosð90 d2 Þ þ 26V22 cos 90 þ ð1:1Þð16ÞV2 cosð90 þ d3 d2 Þ

ð7:276Þ
p2 ¼ 10V2 cosð90 d2 Þ þ 17:6V2 cosð90 þ d3 d2 Þ ð7:277Þ
q2 ¼ jV2 jjV1 jjY21 j sinðh21 þ d1 d2 Þ jV2 j2 jY22 j sin h21

jV2 jjV3 jjY23 j sinðh23 þ d3 d2 Þ ð7:278Þ
q2 ¼ 10V2 sinð90 d2 Þ 26V22 sinð90 Þ ð1:1Þð16ÞV2 sinð90 þ d3 d2 Þ

ð7:279Þ
q2 ¼ 10V2 sinð90 d2 Þ þ 26V22 17:6V2 sinð90 þ d3 d2 Þ ð7:280Þ
The expression of real power at bus 3 can be written as,
p3 ¼ jV3 jjV1 jjY31 j cosðh31 þ d1 d3 Þ þ jV3 jjV2 jjY32 j cosðh32 þ d2

d3 Þ þ jV3 j2 jY33 j cos h33 ð7:281Þ
p3 ¼ ð1:1Þð1Þð20Þ cosð90 d3 Þ þ ð1:1Þð16ÞV2 cosð90 þ d2

d3 Þ þ 36ð1:2Þ2 cosð90 Þ ð7:282Þ
p3 ¼ 22 cosð90 d3 Þ þ 17:6V2 cosð90 þ d2 d3 Þ ð7:283Þ

The partial derivatives of Eqs. (7.277) and (7.283) with respect to related angle
and voltage are calculated as,
@p2
¼ 10V2 sinð90 d2 Þ þ 17:6V2 sinð90 þ d3 d2 Þ ð7:284Þ
@d2
@p2
¼ 17:6V2 sinð90 þ d3 d2 Þ ð7:285Þ
@d3
@p2
¼ 10 cosð90 d2 Þ þ 17:6V2 cosð90 þ d3 d2 Þ ð7:286Þ
@V2
@p3
¼ 17:6V2 sinð90 þ d2 d3 Þ ð7:287Þ
@d2
@p3
¼ 22 sinð90 d3 Þ þ 17:6V2 sinð90 þ d2 d3 Þ ð7:288Þ
@d3
@p3
¼ 17:6 sinð90 þ d2 d3 Þ ð7:289Þ
@V2
@q2
¼ 10V2 cosð90 d2 Þ þ 17:6V2 cosð90 þ d3 d2 Þ ð7:290Þ
@d2
@q2
¼ 17:6V2 cosð90 þ d3 d2 Þ ð7:291Þ
@d3
@q2
¼ 10 sinð90 d2 Þ þ 52V2 17:6 sinð90 þ d3 d2 Þ ð7:292Þ
@V2
Considering the following initial guesses as,

2 30 2 30
d2 0
4 d3 5 ¼ 4 0 5 ð7:293Þ
V2 1
The initial updated values are calculated as,
p02 ¼ 10 1 cosð90 Þ þ 17:6 1 cosð90 Þ ¼ 0 ð7:294Þ
p03 ¼ 22 cosð90 Þ þ 17:6 1 cosð90 Þ ¼ 0 ð7:295Þ
q02 ¼ 10 1 sinð90 Þ þ 26 12 17:6 1 sinð90 Þ ¼ 1:6 ð7:296Þ

Dp02 ¼ P2 p02 ¼ 1:2 0 ¼ 1:2 ð7:297Þ
Dp03 ¼ P3 p03 ¼ 3 0 ¼ 3 ð7:298Þ
Dq02 ¼ Q2 q02 ¼ 0:5 ð1:6Þ ¼ 1:1 ð7:299Þ
The initial Jacobian matrix is calculated as,

2 @p @p2 @p2 30
2
6 @d2 @d3 @V2 7 2 27:6 17:6
3
6 @p @p3 @p3 7
0
6 3 7 4
J ¼6
0
7 ¼ 17:6 39:6 0 5 ð7:300Þ
6 @d2 @d3 @V2 7
4 @q @q2 @q2 5 0 0 24:4
2
@d2 @d3 @V2
The initial correction parameters are calculated as,

2 30 2 31 2 3 2 3 2 3
Dd2 27:6 17:6 0 1:2 0:0067 0:3838
4 Dd3 5 ¼ 4 17:6 39:6 0 5 4 3 5 ¼ 4 0:0787 5 ¼ 4 4:5091 5
DV2 0 0 24:4 1:1 0:0450 0:0450
ð7:301Þ
The first updated values are calculated as,
d12 ¼ d02 þ Dd02 ¼ 0 þ 0:3838 ¼ 0:3838 ð7:302Þ
d13 ¼ d03 þ Dd03 ¼ 0 þ 4:5091 ¼ 4:5091 ð7:303Þ
V21 ¼ V20 þ DV20 ¼ 1 þ 0:0450 ¼ 1:0450 ð7:304Þ
p12 ¼ 10 1:0450 cosð90 0:3838 Þ þ 17:6

1:0450 cosð90 þ 4:5091 0:3838 Þ
¼ 1:253 ð7:305Þ
p13 ¼ 22 cosð90 5:5091 Þ þ 17:6 1:0450 cosð90 þ 0:3838 4:5091 Þ

¼ 3:0526
ð7:306Þ
q12 ¼ 10 1:0450 sinð90 0:3838 Þ þ 26 1:04502

ð7:307Þ
17:6 1:0450 sinð90 þ 4:5091 0:3838 Þ ¼ 0:4014
The first updated mismatch parameters are calculated as,
Dp12 ¼ P2 p12 ¼ 1:2 ð1:253Þ ¼ 0:053 ð7:308Þ
Dp13 ¼ P3 p13 ¼ 3 3:0526 ¼ 0:0526 ð7:309Þ
Dq22 ¼ Q2 q22 ¼ 0:5 ð0:4014Þ ¼ 0:0986 ð7:310Þ
The first Jacobian matrix is calculated as,

2 @p @p2 @p2 31
2
6 @d2 @d3 @V2 7 2 28:7941 18:3443 1:1991
3
6 @p @p3 @p3 7
6 3 7 4
J ¼6
1
7 ¼ 18:3443 40:2762 1:2661 5 ð7:311Þ
6 @d2 @d3 @V2 7
4 @q @q2 @q2 5 1:253 1:323 26:7858
2
@d2 @d3 @V2
The first correction parameters are calculated as,

2 31 2 31 2 3 2 3
Dd2 28:7941 18:3443 1:1991 0:053 0:0013
4 Dd3 5 ¼ 4 18:3443 40:2762 1:2661 5 4 0:0526 5 ¼ 4 0:0005 5
DV2 2 1:253 3 1:323 26:7858 0:0986 0:0035
0:0744
¼ 4 0:0286 5
0:0035
ð7:312Þ
The second updated values are calculated as,
d22 ¼ d12 þ Dd12 ¼ 0:3838 þ 0:0744 ¼ 0:4582 ð7:313Þ
d23 ¼ d13 þ Dd13 ¼ 4:5091 0:0286 ¼ 4:4805 ð7:314Þ
V22 ¼ V21 þ DV21 ¼ 1:0450 0:0035 ¼ 1:0415 ð7:315Þ
p22 ¼ 10 1:0415 cosð90 0:4582 Þ þ 17:6 1:0415 cosð90 þ 4:4805

0:4582 Þ
¼ 1:2024
ð7:316Þ
p23 ¼ 22 cosð90 4:4805 Þ þ 17:6 1:0415 cosð90 þ 0:4582 4:4805 Þ

¼ 3:0044
ð7:317Þ
q12 ¼ 10 1:0415 sinð90 0:4582 Þ þ 26 1:04152

ð7:318Þ
17:6 1:0415 sinð90 þ 4:4805 0:4582 Þ ¼ 0:4971
The second mismatch parameters are calculated as,
Dp12 ¼ P2 p12 ¼ 1:2 ð1:2024Þ ¼ 0:0024 ð7:319Þ
Dp13 ¼ P3 p13 ¼ 3 3:0044 ¼ 0:0044 ð7:320Þ
Dq22 ¼ Q2 q22 ¼ 0:5 ð0:4971Þ ¼ 0:0029 ð7:321Þ
The second Jacobian matrix is calculated as,

2 @p @p2 @p2 32
2
6 @d2 @d3 @V2 7 2 28:6999 18:2852 1:1545
3
6 @p @p3 @p3 7
6 3 7 4
J ¼6
2
7 ¼ 18:2852 40:218 1:2345 5 ð7:322Þ
6 @d2 @d3 @V2 7
4 @q @q2 @q2 5 1:2024 1:2857 26:6016
2
@d2 @d3 @V2
The second correction parameters are calculated as,

2 32 2 31 2 3
Dd2 28:6999 18:2852 1:1545 0:0024
4 Dd3 5 ¼ 4 18:2852 40:218 1:2345 5 4 0:0044 5
DV2 2 1:2024 3 1:2857 26:6016 0:0029
0:0009
¼ 4 0:0056 5 ð7:323Þ
0:000103
The third updated values are calculated as,
d32 ¼ d22 þ Dd22 ¼ 0:4582 þ 0:0009 ¼ 0:4591 ð7:324Þ
d33 ¼ d23 þ Dd23 ¼ 4:4805 0:0056 ¼ 4:4749 ð7:325Þ
V23 ¼ V22 þ DV22 ¼ 1:0415 0:000103 ¼ 1:0413 ð7:326Þ
The third Jacobian matrix is calculated as,

2 @p @p2 @p2 33
2
6 @d2 @d3 @V2 7 2 3
6 @p 7 28:6945 18:2818 1:1524
6 3 @p3 @p3 7 4
J ¼6
3
7 ¼ 18:2818 40:2148 1:2325 5 ð7:327Þ
6 @d2 @d3 @V2 7
4 @q @q2 @q2 5 1:2 1:2834 26:5911
2
@d2 @d3 @V2
p32 ¼ 10 1:0413 cosð90 0:4591 Þ þ 17:6 1:0413 cosð90 þ 4:4749

0:4591 Þ
¼ 1:2
ð7:328Þ
p33 ¼ 22 cosð90 4:4749 Þ þ 17:6 1:0413 cosð90 þ 0:4591 4:4749 Þ

¼ 2:999
ð7:329Þ
q32 ¼ 10 1:0413 sinð90 0:4591 Þ þ 26 1:04132

ð7:330Þ
17:6 1:0413 sinð90 þ 4:4749 0:4591 Þ ¼ 0:5026
The third mismatch parameters are calculated as,
Dp32 ¼ P2 p32 ¼ 1:2 ð1:2Þ ¼ 0 ð7:331Þ
Dp33 ¼ P3 p33 ¼ 3 2:999 ¼ 0:001 ð7:332Þ
Dq32 ¼ Q2 q22 ¼ 0:5 ð0:5026Þ ¼ 0:0026 ð7:333Þ
The third correction parameters are calculated as,

2 33 2 31 2 3 2 3
Dd2 28:6945 18:2818 1:1524 0 0:0011
4 Dd3 5 ¼ 4 18:2818 40:2148 1:2325 5 4 0:001 5 ¼ 4 0:0017 5
DV2 1:2 1:2834 26:5911 0:0026 0:00009
ð7:334Þ
The fourth updated values are calculated as,
d42 ¼ d32 þ Dd32 ¼ 0:4591 þ 0:0011 ¼ 0:4602 ð7:335Þ
d43 ¼ d33 þ Dd33 ¼ 4:4749 þ 0:0017 ¼ 4:4766 ð7:336Þ
V24 ¼ V23 þ DV23 ¼ 1:0413 þ 0:00009 ¼ 1:0413 ð7:337Þ
p42 ¼ 10 1:0413 cosð90 0:4602 Þ þ 17:6 1:0413 cosð90 þ 4:4766

0:4602 Þ
¼ 1:2
ð7:338Þ
p43 ¼ 22 cosð90 4:4766 Þ þ 17:6 1:0413 cosð90 þ 0:4602 4:4766 Þ

¼ 3:0007
ð7:339Þ
q42 ¼ 10 1:0413 sinð90 0:4602 Þ þ 26 1:04132

ð7:340Þ
17:6 1:0413 sinð90 þ 4:4766 0:4602 Þ ¼ 0:5025
The fourth mismatch parameters are calculated as,
Dp42 ¼ P2 p42 ¼ 1:2 ð1:2Þ ¼ 0 ð7:341Þ
Dp43 ¼ P3 p43 ¼ 3 3:0007 ¼ 0:0007 ð7:342Þ
Dq42 ¼ Q2 q42 ¼ 0:5 ð0:5025Þ ¼ 0:0025 ð7:343Þ
The fourth Jacobian matrix is calculated as,

2 @p @p2 @p2 34
2
6 @d2 @d3 @V2 7 2 28:6945 18:2818 1:1524
3
6 @p @p3 @p3 7
6 3 7 4
J4 ¼ 6 7 ¼ 18:2818 40:2147 1:2327 5 ð7:344Þ
6 @d2 @d3 @V2 7
4 @q @q2 @q2 5 1:2 1:2836 26:5911
2
@d2 @d3 @V2
The fourth correction parameters are calculated as,

2 34 2 31 2 3
Dd2 28:6945 18:2818 1:1524 0
4 Dd3 5 ¼ 4 18:2818 40:2147 1:2327 5 4 0:0007 5
DV2 2 1:2 3 1:2836
2 26:5911
3 0:0025
0:000012 0:0006
¼ 4 0:000026 5 ¼ 4 0:0014 5 ð7:345Þ
0:000094 0:000094
Fifth updated values are calculated as,
d52 ¼ d42 þ Dd42 ¼ 0:4602 0:0006 ¼ 0:4596 ð7:346Þ
d53 ¼ d43 þ Dd43 ¼ 4:4766 0:0014 ¼ 4:4752 ð7:347Þ
V25 ¼ V24 þ DV24 ¼ 1:0413 0:000094 ¼ 1:0412 ð7:348Þ

The value of the voltage and the angle at the bus 2 are calculated as,
V2 ¼ 1:0412 ¼ 1:041 pu ð7:349Þ
d2 ¼ 0:46 ð7:350Þ
The single-line diagrams drawn using CYME and IPSA power system analysis
software. Simulations are carried out after entering necessary data and the simu-
lation results are shown in Figs. 7.18 and 7.19, respectively.
V2CYME ¼ 1:01 pu ð7:351Þ
d2CYME ¼ 0:41 ð7:352Þ
V2IPSA ¼ 1:04 pu ð7:353Þ
d2CYME ¼ 0:47 ð7:354Þ
Fig. 7.18 CYME software simulation results for Example 7.8

Fig. 7.19 IPSA software

simulation results for
Example 7.8

A 20 MVA, 11 kV (line voltage), 2-pole synchronous generator with 9 MW active
generation, 4 Mvar maximum reactive power, and 0.85 power factor is connected to
bus 1. A load of 60 MW and 20 Mvar is connected to bus 2, and the generator is
connected to the slack bus 1. The line impedances (X/mile) and the loads are shown
in Fig. 7.20. A three-phase 67 HP, 0.42 kV, 0.91 pf induction motor is connected at
the bus 2. Consider z12 ¼ 0:024 þ j0:0726 X=mi, z23 ¼ 0:036 þ j0:0961 X=mi,
z13 ¼ 0:01 þ j0:08 X=mi, and the load of 30 MW and 15 Mvar. Use the Newton–
Raphson method with any simulation software to calculate the voltages at the bus 2,
bus 3, and slack bus real and reactive powers.
7.10 Fast Decoupled Load Flow Method
The transmission lines of a power system have a high ratio of reactance to resis-
tance. This ratio is usually greater than 10, i.e., X/R > 10 for transmission lines to
reduce the line loss. Whereas, this ratio is in between 2 and 3 for distribution lines
to reduce the lines voltage drop. In power system, the changes in the real power is

diagram for Practice Problem V1 = 1 0 z12
7.8
G1 3φ IM
z31 z23
bus 3
Load
solely controlled by the changes in the phase angle but not the voltage magnitude.
The changes in the reactive power are fully controlled by the changes in the voltage
magnitude but not on the phase angle. In the transmission lines, the value of the
resistance is very small as compared to the reactance. Therefore, the conductances
are quite small as compared the suscentances (Gij < Bij). The differences in angles
ððhi hj Þ 0; hij 0Þ between the two buses are very small under normal
steady-state condition and it is considered negligible. Rearrange Eq. (7.256) as
[4, 5],
X n
Pi ¼ Vi Vi Yii cosðhii þ di di Þ þ Vi Vj Yij cosðhij þ dj di Þ ð7:355Þ
j¼1
j 6¼ i
X n
Pi ¼ Vi2 Yii cos hii þ Vi Vj Yij cosððdi dj hij ÞÞ ð7:356Þ
j¼1
j 6¼ i
X n
Pi ¼ Vi2 Yii cos hii þ Vi Vj Yij ½cosðdi dj Þ cos hij þ sinðdi dj Þ sin hij
j¼1
j 6¼ i
ð7:357Þ
X n
Pi ¼ Vi2 Yii cos hii þ Vi Vj ½cosðdi dj ÞYij cos hij þ sinðdi dj ÞYij sin hij
j¼1
j 6¼ i
ð7:358Þ
X
n
Pi ¼ Vi2 Gii þ Vi Vj ½Gij cosðdi dj Þ þ Bij sinðdi dj Þ ð7:359Þ
j¼1
j 6¼ i
Differentiating Eq. (7.359) with respect to Vi yields,
@Pi X n
¼ 2Vi Gii þ Vj ½Gij cosðdi dj Þ þ Bij sinðdi dj Þ ð7:360Þ
@Vi
j¼1
j 6¼ i
7.10 Fast Decoupled Load Flow Method 361
Differentiating Eq. (7.359) with respect to Vj yields,
@Pi X n
¼ jVi j½Gij cosðdi dj Þ þ Bij sinðdi dj Þ ð7:361Þ
@Vj
j¼1
j 6¼ i
Setting Gij ¼ 0, cosðdi dj Þ 1, and sinðdi dj Þ 0 in Eqs. (7.360) and

(7.361) yields,
@Pi
¼0 ð7:362Þ
@Vi
@Pi
¼0 ð7:363Þ
@Vj
According to Eqs. (7.261), (7.362), and (7.363), the Jacobian submatrix can be
expressed as,
J2 ¼ 0 ð7:364Þ
Again, Eq. (7.257) can be modified as,
X
n
Qi ¼ Vi Vj Yij sinððdi dj hij ÞÞ ð7:365Þ
j¼1
j 6¼ i
X n
Qi ¼ Vi Vj Yij sinðdi dj hij Þ ð7:366Þ
j¼1
j 6¼ i
X
n
Qi ¼ Vi Vj Yij sinðdi dj Þ cos hij cosðdi dj Þ sin hij ð7:367Þ

j¼1
j 6¼ i
X
n
Qi ¼ Vi Vj Gij sinðdi dj Þ Bij cosðdi dj Þ ð7:368Þ

j¼1
j 6¼ i
Differentiating Eq. (7.368) with respect to di and dj yields,

@Qi X n
¼ Vi Vj Gij cosðdi dj Þ þ Bij sinðdi dj Þ ð7:369Þ

@di
j¼1
j 6¼ i
@Qi X n
¼ Vi Vj Gij cosðdi dj Þ Bij sinðdi dj Þ ð7:370Þ

@dj
j¼1
j 6¼ i
Setting Gij ¼ 0, cosðdi dj Þ 1, and sinðdi dj Þ 0 in Eqs. (7.369) and

(7.370) yields,
@Qi
¼0 ð7:371Þ
@di
@Qi
¼0 ð7:372Þ
@dj
According to Eqs. (7.262), (7.371), and (7.372), the Jacobian submatrix can be
expressed as,
J3 ¼ 0 ð7:373Þ

DP J 0 Dd J11 0 Dd
¼ 1 ¼ ð7:374Þ
DQ 0 J4 DV 0 J22 DV
@P
DP ¼ J1 Dd ¼ J11 Dd ¼ Dd ð7:375Þ
@d
1
@P
Dd ¼ DP ð7:376Þ
@d
@Q
DQ ¼ J4 DV ¼ J22 DV ¼ DV ð7:377Þ
@V
1
@Q
DV ¼ DQ ð7:378Þ
@V
Again, differentiating Eq. (7.256) with respect to di and dj yields,

@Pi X n
¼ Vi Vj Yij sinðhij þ dj di Þ ð7:379Þ
@di
j¼1
j 6¼ i
@Pi X n
¼ Vi Vj Yij sinðhij þ dj di Þ j 6¼ i ð7:380Þ
@dj
j¼1
j 6¼ i
Equation (7.379) can be reduced as,
@Pi X n
¼ Vi Vj Yij sinðhij ðdi dj ÞÞ ð7:381Þ
@di
j¼1
j 6¼ i
@Pi X n
¼ Vi Vj Yij sinðhij ðdi dj ÞÞ jVi Vi Yii j sinðhij ðdi di ÞÞ ð7:382Þ
@di
j¼1
j 6¼ i
@Pi X n
¼ Vi Vj Yij sinðhij di þ dj Þ V 2 jYii j sin hij ð7:383Þ
@di i
j¼1
j 6¼ i
@Pi X n
¼ Vi Vj Yij sinðhij di þ dj Þ V 2 Bij ð7:384Þ
@di i
j¼1
j 6¼ i
Replacing the first term of Eq. (7.384) by Qi yields,
@Pi
¼ Qi Vi2 Bij ð7:385Þ
@di

As Qi
Vi2 Bij and assumed Vi2 ¼ jVi j so that Eq. (7.385) is again simplified
as,
@Pi
¼ jVi jBij ð7:386Þ
@di
Equation (7.380) is again modified as,

@Pi
¼ Vi Vj Yij sinðhij þ dj di Þ j 6¼ i ð7:387Þ
@dj
@Pi
¼ Vi Vj Yij sin hij cosðdj di Þ þ cos hij sinðdj di Þ j 6¼ i ð7:388Þ

@dj
@Pi
¼ Vi Vj Bij cosðdj di Þ þ Gij sinðdj di Þ j 6¼ i ð7:389Þ

@dj

Setting Gij ¼ 0, cosðdi dj Þ 1, sinðdi dj Þ 0, and Vj 1 in Eq. (7.389)
yields,
@Pi
¼ jVi jBij j 6¼ i ð7:390Þ
@dj
Equation (7.257) can be written as,
X n
Qi ¼ Vi Vj Yii sinðhii þ di di Þ Vi Vj Yij sinðhij þ dj di Þ j¼i
j¼1
j 6¼ i
ð7:391Þ
Differentiating Eq. (7.257) with respect to Vi yields,
@Qi X n
¼ 2jVi jjYii j sin hii Vj Yij sinðhij þ dj di Þ j¼i ð7:392Þ
@Vi
j¼1
j 6¼ i
@Qi X n
Vi ¼ 2Vi2 Bii Vi Vj Yij sinðhij þ dj di Þ j¼i ð7:393Þ
@Vi
j¼1
j 6¼ i
@Qi
Vi ¼ 2Vi2 Bii þ Qi j¼i ð7:394Þ
@Vi
@Qi
Vi ¼ 2Vi2 Bii j¼i ð7:395Þ
@Vi
@Qi
¼ 2jVi jBii j¼i ð7:396Þ
@Vi
Again, assuming 2Vi ¼ Vi and Eq. (7.396) is modified as,
@Qi
¼ jVi jBii ð7:397Þ
@Vi
Again, differentiating Eq. (7.257) with respect to Vj yields,
@Qi
¼ Vi Yij sinðhij þ dj di Þ j 6¼ i ð7:398Þ
@Vj
@Qi
¼ Vi Yij sin hij cosðdj di Þ þ cos hij sinðdj di Þ j 6¼ i ð7:399Þ

@Vj
@Qi
¼ jVi j Bij cosðdj di Þ þ Gij sinðdj di Þ j 6¼ i ð7:400Þ

@Vj
Setting Gij ¼ 0, cosðdi dj Þ 1, and sinðdi dj Þ 0 in Eq. (7.400) yields,
@Qi
¼ jVi jBij j 6¼ i ð7:401Þ
@Vj
From Eqs. (7.386), (7.390), (7.397), and (7.401), it is seen that values of @P
@d and
@Q
@V are negatives. Hence, Eqs. (7.376) and (7.378) can be modified as,
1
@P
Dd ¼ DP ð7:402Þ
@d
1
@Q
DV ¼ DQ ð7:403Þ
@V
DP
Dd ¼ ½B1 ð7:404Þ
V
1 DQ
DV ¼ ½B0 ð7:405Þ
V
where B is the susceptance or imaginary part of the Ybus ¼ G þ jB. The elements of
B and B’are the negative parts of the bus admittance matrix. For three-bus system,
the susceptance matrix B can be expressed as,

B22 B23
B¼ ð7:406Þ
B32 B33
If bus 3 is voltage regulated bus, then the value of B0 is,
B0 ¼ ½B22 ð7:407Þ
For the three-bus system, Eqs. (7.404) and (7.405) can be extended as,
" #
DP2
Dd2 1
¼ ½B V2
DP3 ð7:408Þ
Dd3 V3
" #
DQ2
DV2 0 1
¼ ½B V2
DQ3 ð7:409Þ
DV3 V3
Example 7.9
Determine the voltage at bus 2 of the single-line diagram as shown in Fig. 7.17 by
Fast Decoupled Load Flow method.
Solution
From Eqs. (7.269)–(7.274), the susceptance matrix B can be expressed as,

B22 B23 26 16
B¼ ¼ ð7:410Þ
B32 B33 16 36

1 " DP2 # " DP2 #
Dd2 26 16 0:052 0:023
¼ V2
¼ V2
ð7:411Þ
Dd3 16 36 DP3 0:023 0:038 DP3
1:1 1:1
The expressions of the angles are written as,
DP2 DP3 DP2

Dd2 ¼ 0:052 þ 0:023 ¼ 0:052 þ 0:0209DP3 ð7:412Þ
V2 1:1 V2
DP2 DP3 DP2

Dd3 ¼ 0:023 þ 0:038 ¼ 0:023 þ 0:0345DP3 ð7:413Þ
V2 1:1 V2
The bus 3 is a voltage-controlled bus. In this case, only the bus 2 is considered
and other buses are removed. Equation (7.409) can be modified as,
1 DQ2 DQ2 1 Dq2 Dq2

DV2 ¼ ½B0 ¼ ½B22 1 ¼ ¼ 0:0384 ð7:414Þ
V2 V2 26 V2 V2
Let the initial guesses are d02 ¼ 0, d03 ¼ 0, and V20 ¼ 1. Then, the initial updated
values are calculated as,
p02 ¼ 10 1 cosð90 Þ þ 17:6 1 cosð90 Þ ¼ 0 ð7:415Þ
p03 ¼ 22 cosð90 Þ þ 17:6 1 cosð90 Þ ¼ 0 ð7:416Þ
q02 ¼ 10 1 sinð90 Þ þ 26 12 17:6 1 sinð90 Þ ¼ 1:6 ð7:417Þ
Dp02 ¼ P2 p02 ¼ 1:2 0 ¼ 1:2 ð7:418Þ
Dp03 ¼ P3 p03 ¼ 3 0 ¼ 3 ð7:419Þ
Dq02 ¼ Q2 q02 ¼ 0:5 ð1:6Þ ¼ 1:1 ð7:420Þ
DP02 ð1:2Þ
Dd02 ¼ 0:052 0
þ 0:0209DP03 ¼ 0:052 þ 0:0209ð3Þ ¼ 0:0003 ¼ 0:0171
V2 1
ð7:421Þ
DP02 ð1:2Þ
Dd03 ¼ 0:023 0
þ 0:0345DP03 ¼ 0:023 þ 0:0345ð3Þ ¼ 0:0759 ¼ 4:3487
V2 1
ð7:422Þ
Dq02 ð1:1Þ
DV20 ¼ 0:0384 0
¼ 0:0384 ¼ 0:0423 ð7:423Þ
V2 1
The first updated values are calculated as,
d12 ¼ d02 þ Dd02 ¼ 0 þ 0:0171 ¼ 0:0171 ð7:424Þ
d13 ¼ d03 þ Dd03 ¼ 0 þ 4:3487 ¼ 4:3487 ð7:425Þ
V21 ¼ V20 þ DV20 ¼ 1 þ 0:0423 ¼ 1:0423 ð7:426Þ
p12 ¼ 10 1:0423 cosð90 0:0171 Þ þ 17:6 1:0423 cosð90 þ 4:3487

0:0171 Þ
¼ 1:3824
ð7:427Þ
p13 ¼ 22 cosð90 4:3487 Þ þ 17:6 1:0423 cosð90 þ 0:0171 4:3487 Þ

¼ 3:0537
ð7:428Þ
q12 ¼ 10 1:0423 sinð90 0:0171 Þ þ 26 1:04232 17:6

1:0423 sinð90 þ 4:3487 0:0171 Þ ð7:429Þ
q12 ¼ 0:4689 ð7:430Þ
Dp12 ¼ P2 p12 ¼ 1:2 ð1:3824Þ ¼ 0:1824 ð7:431Þ
Dp13 ¼ P3 p13 ¼ 3 3:0537 ¼ 0:0537 ð7:432Þ
Dq22 ¼ Q2 q22 ¼ 0:5 ð0:4689Þ ¼ 0:0311 ð7:433Þ
DP12 ð0:1824Þ
Dd12 ¼ 0:052 þ 0:0209DP13 ¼ 0:052 þ 0:0209ð0:0537Þ ¼ 0:0079
V21 1:0423
¼ 0:4526
ð7:434Þ
DP12 ð0:1824Þ
Dd13 ¼ 0:023 þ 0:0345DP13 ¼ 0:023 þ 0:0345ð0:0537Þ ¼ 0:0021
V21 1:0423
¼ 0:1203
ð7:435Þ
Dq12 ð0:0311Þ
DV21 ¼ 0:0384 ¼ 0:0384 ¼ 0:0011 ð7:436Þ
V21 1:0423
The second updated values are calculated as,
d22 ¼ d12 þ Dd12 ¼ 0:0171 þ 0:4526 ¼ 0:4697 ð7:437Þ
d23 ¼ d13 þ Dd13 ¼ 4:3487 þ 0:1203 ¼ 4:469 ð7:438Þ
V22 ¼ V21 þ DV21 ¼ 1:0423 0:0011 ¼ 1:0412 ð7:439Þ
p22 ¼ 10 1:0412 cosð90 0:4697 Þ

ð7:440Þ
þ 17:6 1:0412 cosð90 þ 4:469 0:4697 Þ ¼ 1:1927
p23 ¼ 22 cosð90 4:469 Þ þ 17:6 1:0412 cosð90 þ 0:4697 4:469 Þ

¼ 2:9923
ð7:441Þ
q22 ¼ 10 1:0412 sinð90 0:4697 Þ þ 26 1:04122 17:6

1:0412 sinð90 þ 4:469 0:4697 Þ ð7:442Þ
q22 ¼ 0:5056 ð7:443Þ
Dp22 ¼ P2 p22 ¼ 1:2 ð1:1927Þ ¼ 0:0073 ð7:444Þ
Dp23 ¼ P3 p23 ¼ 3 2:9913 ¼ 0:0077 ð7:445Þ
Dq22 ¼ Q2 q22 ¼ 0:5 ð0:5056Þ ¼ 0:0056 ð7:446Þ
DP22 ð0:0073Þ
Dd22 ¼ 0:052 þ 0:0209DP23 ¼ 0:052 þ 0:0209ð0:0077Þ
V22 1:0412
¼ 0:0002 ¼ 0:0114 ð7:447Þ
DP22 ð0:0073Þ
Dd23 ¼ 0:023 þ 0:0345DP23 ¼ 0:023 þ 0:0345ð0:0077Þ ¼ 0:0001
V22 1:0412

¼ 0:0057
ð7:448Þ
Dq22 ð0:0056Þ
DV22 ¼ 0:0384 2
¼ 0:0384 ¼ 0:0002 ð7:449Þ
V2 1:0412
The third updated values are calculated as,
d32 ¼ d22 þ Dd22 ¼ 0:4697 0:0114 ¼ 0:4583 ð7:450Þ
d33 ¼ d23 þ Dd23 ¼ 4:469 0:0057 ¼ 4:4633 ð7:451Þ
V23 ¼ V22 þ DV22 ¼ 1:0412 0:0002 ¼ 1:041 ð7:452Þ
p32 ¼ 10 1:041 cosð90 0:4583 Þ þ 17:6 1:041 cosð90 þ 4:4633 0:4583 Þ

¼ 1:1963
ð7:453Þ
p33 ¼ 22 cosð90 4:4633 Þ þ 17:6 1:041 cosð90 þ 0:4583 4:4633 Þ

¼ 2:9916
ð7:454Þ
q32 ¼ 10 1:041 sinð90 0:4583 Þ þ 26 1:0412 17:6

1:041 sinð90 þ 4:4633 0:4583 Þ ð7:455Þ
q32 ¼ 0:5108 ð7:456Þ
Dp32 ¼ P2 p32 ¼ 1:2 ð1:1963Þ ¼ 0:0037 ð7:457Þ
Dp33 ¼ P3 p33 ¼ 3 2:9916 ¼ 0:0084 ð7:458Þ
Dq32 ¼ Q2 q32 ¼ 0:5 ð0:5108Þ ¼ 0:0108 ð7:459Þ
DP32 ð0:0037Þ
Dd32 ¼ 0:052 þ 0:0209DP33 ¼ 0:052 þ 0:0209ð0:0084Þ
V23 1:041 ð7:460Þ

¼ 0:000009 ¼ 0:00005
DP32 ð0:0037Þ
Dd33 ¼ 0:023 þ 0:0345DP33 ¼ 0:023 þ 0:0345ð0:0084Þ ¼ 0:0002
V23 1:041
¼ 0:0114
ð7:461Þ
Dq32 ð0:0108Þ
DV23 ¼ 0:0384 ¼ 0:0384 ¼ 0:0003 ð7:462Þ
V23 1:041
The fourth updated values are calculated as,
d42 ¼ d32 þ Dd32 ¼ 0:4583 0:00005 ¼ 0:4582 ð7:463Þ
d43 ¼ d33 þ Dd33 ¼ 4:4633 0:0114 ¼ 4:4519 ð7:464Þ
V24 ¼ V23 þ DV23 ¼ 1:041 0:0003 ¼ 1:0407 ð7:465Þ
p42 ¼ 10 1:0407 cosð90 0:4582 Þ

ð7:466Þ
þ 17:6 1:0407 cosð90 þ 4:4519 0:4582 Þ ¼ 1:1924
p43 ¼ 22 cosð90 4:4519 Þ þ 17:6 1:0407 cosð90 þ 0:4582 4:4519 Þ

¼ 2:9833
ð7:467Þ
q42 ¼ 10 1:0407 sinð90 0:4582 Þ þ 26 1:04072

ð7:468Þ
17:6 1:0407 sinð90 þ 4:4519 0:4582 Þ ¼ 0:5190
Dp42 ¼ P2 p42 ¼ 1:2 ð1:1924Þ ¼ 0:0076 ð7:469Þ
Dp43 ¼ P3 p43 ¼ 3 2:9833 ¼ 0:0167 ð7:470Þ
Dq42 ¼ Q2 q42 ¼ 0:5 ð0:5190Þ ¼ 0:019 ð7:471Þ
DP42 ð0:0076Þ
Dd42 ¼ 0:052 þ 0:0209DP43 ¼ 0:052 þ 0:0209ð0:0167Þ
V24 1:0407
¼ 0:00003 ¼ 0:0017 ð7:472Þ
DP42 ð0:0076Þ
Dd43 ¼ 0:023 4
þ 0:0345DP43 ¼ 0:023 þ 0:0345ð0:0167Þ ¼ 0:0004
V2 1:0407
¼ 0:0229
ð7:473Þ
Dq42 ð0:019Þ
DV24 ¼ 0:0384 4
¼ 0:0384 ¼ 0:0007 ð7:474Þ
V2 1:0407
The fifth updated values are calculated as,
d52 ¼ d42 þ Dd42 ¼ 0:4582 0:0017 ¼ 0:4565 ð7:475Þ
d53 ¼ d43 þ Dd43 ¼ 4:4519 0:0229 ¼ 4:429 ð7:476Þ
V25 ¼ V24 þ DV24 ¼ 1:0407 0:0007 ¼ 1:04 ð7:477Þ
Therefore, the final solutions are as,
d2 ¼ 0:4565 ð7:478Þ
d3 ¼ 4:429 ð7:479Þ
V2 ¼ 1:04 ð7:480Þ

A 30 MVA, 11 kV (line voltage), 2-pole synchronous generator with 9 MW active
generation, 4 Mvar maximum reactive power, and 0.85 power factor is connected to
bus 1. The length of the line is 1mile, and the per unit impedance of the lines are
given, as shown in Fig. 7.21. The load 1 of 70 MW and 25 Mvar is connected to
bus 2, and the load 2 of 45 MW and 25 Mvar is connected to bus 3. Consider bus 1
Fig. 7.21 Single-line bus 1

diagram for Example 7.9 V1 = 1 0 bus 2
z12 = 0.02 + j 0.09Ω / mi
G1 Load 1
z31 = 0.06 + j 0.09Ω / mi z23 = 0.05 + j 0.08Ω / mi
bus 3 Load 2

diagram for Example 7.10 V1 = 1 0
Load
G
is a slack bus and use the Fast Decoupled Load Flow method to calculate the
voltage at bus 2, bus 3, and slack bus real power and reactive power.
Example 7.10
A 15 MVA, 11 kV (line voltage), 2-pole synchronous generator with 10 MW
active generation, 5 Mvar maximum reactive power, and 0.85 power factor is
connected to bus 1. A load of 50 MW and 25 Mvar, and a three-phase static Var
compensator of 25 Mvar is connected to bus 2, as shown in Fig. 7.22. Consider bus
1 is a slack bus and use the Fast Decoupled Load Flow method to calculate the
voltage at bus 2, and slack bus real power and reactive power. Consider base values
11 kV and 100 MVA. The line impedances are given as,
Line 1 z1 ¼ z0 ¼ 0:084 þ j0:976 X=mi
Line 2 z1 ¼ z0 ¼ 0:0605 þ j0:8687 X=mi,
Solution
After drawing the network with CYME power system software, relevant data are
given as input. Then, simulate the network as shown in Fig. 7.23.
The voltage and angle at bus 2 are,
V2CYME ¼ 0:965 pu ð7:481Þ
d2CYME ¼ 11:35 ð7:482Þ
Slack bus real and reactive powers are,
Pslack ¼ 50:79 MW ð7:483Þ
Qslack ¼ 10:19 Mvar ð7:484Þ

References 373
B2
B1
1.000 (0.00) 0.965 (-11.35)
25.00 MVAR
50.00 MW
1279.5 A
23.94 MW -23.53 MW
4.59 MVAR 0.20 MVAR A B C
50.79 MW A B C
10.19 MVAR
-26.47 MW
26.85 MW
G
A B C
-0.20 MVAR
5.60 MVAR
0.00 MW
A B C
25.00 MVAR
SWING
1439.4 A
SVC
References
1. Duncan JG, Overbye T, Sarma M (2017) Power system analysis and design, 6th edn, Cengage
Learning, USA, pp 1–942
2. Wildi T (2014) Electrical machines, drives and power systems, 6th edn. Pearson Education Ltd,
USA, pp 1–920
3. Nagsarkar TK, Sukhija MS (2014) Power system analysis. Second Edition, Oxford University
Press, pp 1–726
4. Sadat H (2010) Power system analysis, 3rd Edition, PSA Publisher, USA, pp 1–772
5. Wildi T (2006) Electrical machines, drives and power systems, 6th edn, Pearson Education,
USA, pp 1–934
Exercise Problems
7:1 A short transmission line has the sending end and receiving end voltages
80 V and 60 V, respectively. Calculate the line average reactive power if the
line reactance is 6 X.
7:2 A short transmission line has the sending end voltage, receiving end voltages
and average reactive power 80 V, 60 V, 80 Var, respectively. Determine the
value of the reactance.
7:3 The sending end voltage and average reactive power of a short transmission
line are 80 V, and 100 Var. If the line reactance is 10 X, calculate the
receiving end voltage.
7:4 The per unit impedances of a circuit are shown in Fig. P7.1. Determine the
Ybus matrix.
Fig. P7.1 Circuit for 0 + j1

Problem 7.4
0 + j 0.2 0 + j1.3
j2 j5
Fig. P7.2 Circuit for
Problem 7.5
j3 j4
Fig. P7.3 Single-line bus 1 bus 2

z12
Fig. P7.4 Single-line bus 1 z12 bus 2

z31
z23
bus 3
Fig. P7.5 Single-line bus 1 z12 bus 2

z41 z31 z23

bus 3
bus 4
z34
7:5 Fig. P7.2 shows a circuit where the admittances are in per unit admittances.
Calculate the Ybus matrix.
7:6 A two-bus single-line diagram is shown in Fig. P7.3. The per unit impedance
is given by z12 ¼ 0:04 þ j0:08. Calculate the Ybus matrix.
7:7 The per unit impedances are given by z12 ¼ 0:04 þ j0:08, z13 ¼ 0:05 þ j0:10,
z31 ¼ 0:06 þ j0:12. Find the Ybus matrix of the single-line diagram as shown
in Fig. P7.4.
7:8 The per unit impedances are given by z12 ¼ 0:04 þ j0:08, z23 ¼ 0:05 þ j0:10,
z34 ¼ 0:06 þ j0:12, z13 ¼ 0:07 þ j0:15, z41 ¼ 0:08 þ j0:14. Calculate the Ybus
matrix of the single-line diagram as shown in Fig. P7.5.

diagram for Problem 7.11 z12
G Load

diagram for Problem 7.12 z12
G Load
7:9 Two simultaneous equations of voltages are given 5V1 þ 2V2 ¼ 11 and
2V1 þ 6V2 ¼ 15. Consider the initial guesses V1 ð0Þ ¼ 1 and V2 ð0Þ ¼ 1.
Calculate the voltages by using the Gauss–Seidel method.
7:10 A voltage equation is given by V 2 5V þ 2 ¼ 0. Use the Gauss–Seidel
method to solve the equation by considering the initial guess Vð0Þ ¼ 1.
7:11 A load of 125 MW and 55 Mvar is connected to bus 2, and a generator of
15 MVA, 11 kV, 0.85 pf, 2-pole with 8 MW active generation, 4 Mvar
reactive power is connected to bus 1 as shown in Fig. P7.6. A transmission
line is connected between the two buses whose impedance is 0:04 þ j0:08 pu
on a common 100 MVA base and 11 kV base. The transmission line is
charging by 10 Mvar shunt capacitor at each end.
Use the Gauss–Seidel method to calculate the voltage at bus 2, and the slack
bus real and reactive powers.
7:12 A load of 125 MW and 50 Mvar is connected to the bus 2, and a generator of
20MVA, 11 kV, 0.85 pf, 2-pole with 10 MW active generation, 5 Mvar
reactive power is connected to the slack bus 1 as shown in Fig. P7.7. The
transmission line impedance is 0:03 þ j0:08 pu on a common 100 MVA and
11 kV base values. A shunt capacitor of 20 Mvar is connected to the bus 2.
Use the Gauss–Seidel method to calculate the voltage at bus 2, the slack bus
real and reactive powers, line loss, and power supplied by the capacitor.
7:13 Fig. P7.8 shows a three-bus single-line diagram where the impedances are in
per unit on a common 100 MVA and 11 kV base values. The first load of
100 MW and 50 Mvar is connected to bus 2, and the second load 150 MW
and 60Mvar is connected to bus 3. A generator of 25 MVA, 11 kV, 0.85 pf,
2-pole with 15 MW active generation, 10 Mvar reactive power is connected
to the slack bus 1, as shown in Fig. P7.8. Calculate the voltage at bus 2, and
bus 3, and slack bus real and reactive powers using the Gauss–Seidel
method.
Fig. P7.8 Single-line bus 1

diagram for Problem 7.13 V1 = 1 0 bus 2
z12 = 0.02 + j 0.06
G Load 1
z31 = 0.0172 + j 0.043 z23 = 0.04 + j 0.08
bus 3 Load 2
Fig. P7.9 Single-line V1 = 1 0 bus 1 bus 2 Load

3ph-IM
7:14 A voltage function is given by f ðVÞ ¼ eV þ V 2. Use the

Newton-Raphson method to calculate the true solution by using the initial
guess V0 ¼ 1:83.
7:15 A voltage function is given by f ðVÞ ¼ 5V 2 þ 11V 17 ¼ 0. Use the
Newton-Raphson method to calculate the true solution by using the initial
guess V0 ¼ 1.
7:16 Fig. P7.9 shows a two-bus single-line diagram of a transmission line. The
impedance per mile of a line is given by z12 ¼ 0:024 þ j0:0726 X=mi and
B ¼ 4:1 lS/mi. A three-phase 11 kV, 10725HP, 93% pf and a load of
90 MW and 50 Mvar are connected in bus 2. Use the Newton-Raphson
method to find the magnitude of the voltage and angle at bus 2 at any
simulation software.
7:17 A three-bus single-line diagram is shown in Fig. P7.10. A 128MVA,
13.8 kV, 0.85 pf, 2-pole, 15 MW active generation, 5 Mvar reactive gen-
eration steam generator is connected at bus 1. A 20 MVA, 13.8 kV
delta-11 kVwye, Z1 ¼ Z0 ¼ 8:25%, X1 =R1 ¼ X0 =R0 ¼ 22, single-phase
liquid-filled transformer is connected between bus 1 and bus 2. An
11.5 kV shielded hardcore cable is connected between bus 2 and bus 3.
A load of 140 MW and 60 Mvar is connected to bus 3. Calculate the slack
bus power, voltage and angle at bus 3 using the Newton Raphson method
with any simulation software.
Fig. P7.10 Single-line bus 1

diagram for Problem 7.17 V1 = 1 0 Tr bus 2 cable bus 3
Load
G
7:18 A five-bus single-line diagram is shown in Fig. P7.11. The following

equipment is connected as below.
Generator (bus 1): 40 MVA, 13.8 kV, 0.85 pf, 2-pole, 20 MW active gen-
eration, 10 Mvar reactive generation
Tr1 (bus 1–2): single-phase liquid filled, 20MVA, delta (13.8 kV)–wye
(11 kV), Z1 ¼ Z0 ¼ 9%, XR11 ¼ XR00 ¼ 25
Tr2 (bus 2-4): single-phase liquid filled, 35 MVA, delta (11 kV)–wye
(0.42 kV), Z1 ¼ Z0 ¼ 8%, XR11 ¼ XR00 ¼ 15
Line (bus 2-3): Z1 ¼ Z0 ¼ 0:04 þ j1:5 X=mi, B ¼ 0:66 lS/mi
Line (bus 4–5): Z1 ¼ Z0 ¼ 0:036 þ j0:098 X=mi, B ¼ 1:02 lS/mi
Load (bus 5): 85 MW, 45 Mvar
Calculate the slack bus power, voltage and angle at bus 3 and bus 5 using the
Fast Decoupled method with any simulation software.
Chapter 8
Underground Cables
8.1 Introduction
Electrical power is transferred from one place to another either by overhead

transmission or distribution lines or high voltage underground cables. Underground
cables have several advantages such as less prone to mechanical damage, elimi-
nation of lightning strikes as well as flashover, increase in reliability of supply, less
maintenance cost, fewer chances of faults, less voltage drops, and reduction of
visual impact. However, the main drawback of the underground cables is that the
high initial investment compared to overhead transmission lines. Underground
cables are usually used in highly populated areas where overhead transmission lines
are difficult to install. High voltage cables are used in the power station, industries,
and all other electrical systems when the overhead transmission system is not
suitable for use. The primary use of underground cables is in the distribution of
electric power in the populated urban areas at low voltages. These cables are laid in
ducks or may be buried in the cable trance. Recent improvements in the design and
manufacture resulted in an increase in demand for underground cables among the
electric utilities and industrial sectors. In this chapter, construction, classification,
different types of grading, electrical stress, insulation resistance, etc., will be
discussed.
8.2 Construction of Cables
An underground cable consists of three or four conductors, which are surrounded

by different types of insulations, as shown in Fig. 8.1. The main components of an
underground cable are discussed [1, 2] below.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3212-2_8
380 8 Underground Cables
Armouring
Serving
Bedding
Conductor Lead sheath
Binder tape Insulation

Armour Conductor
PVC filler
PVC inner sheath
PVC outer sheath
Fig. 8.1 Eight strands cables and cross section of a three-core copper cable
Conductor: The conductor is made of either copper or aluminum. Copper is

extensively used for cables. However, the conductor made of aluminum with proper
insulation is being used in the overhead transmission line. A cable has one or three
cores depending on the type of service voltage. The conductors are usually stranded
to get better flexibility of the cable. Electrolytic copper and aluminum ensure a
longer life for the conductor.
Insulation: The performance of the cable depends mainly on the insulation,
whereas the layer of the insulation depends typically on voltage tolerances. The
insulating materials provide grease/oil-resistant property, high dielectric strength,
immunity to fire hazards as well as protection from chemicals and microbiological
growths. It also provides no damage due to severe bending during laying and safe to
fluctuations in temperatures. Different types of rubber and polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) are used for cable insulation, which is discussed next.
Vulcanized rubber: Vulcanized rubber has high insulating properties that absorb
moisture. When vulcanized rubber is mixed with sulfur and other materials, it does
not absorb moisture. As a result, it provides better performance.
Polyvinyl chloride: The polymerization process normally obtains this type of
material from the proper mixture of acetylene and plasticizer. The plasticizer is a
liquid material that has a high boiling point. PVC has different grades, and it has
8.2 Construction of Cables 381
high insulation resistance, high dielectric strength, and mechanical strength a wide
range of temperatures.
Cross-linked polyethylene: It is abbreviated as XLPE. Due to good water resis-
tance and excellent electrical properties, it is used as insulation for many power
cables. It has many advantages such as low melting point, high flexibility, light-
weight, can carry large current, minimizes the need for armoring, and excellent
protection (mechanical, electrical, and chemical) properties.
PVC Filler: The empty spaces between the cores are filled with polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) material known as PVC filler. The filler usually is of non-hygroscopic, softer
material, and fire-retardant material than cable insulation.
Binder Tape: Separate binder tape is used in the cores to protect conductors from
penetration of moisture, chemicals, and jacket compounds. It is also used to
maintain cable concentricity and firmness of conductor bundles.
Armoring: Steel wire is used around the binder taped of the cables to provide
additional protection for preventing it from any damage. It is used to protect the
cables from mechanical damage during direct laying in water-filled ducks and
termites attack. Steel tape and steel wire armoring are the two types of armoring that
are usually used in the cables. In steel tape armoring, steel tape is wound around the
cable in two layers with opposite directions, whereas in steel wire armoring, strong
steel wires are used in one or two layers. Cables with aluminum sheath are not
armored.
Bedding: Bedding is provided by jute or hessian tape to protect the metallic sheath
from mechanical damage due to armoring.
PVC Outer Sheath: PVC sheath is the last stage of the cable, which protects from
moisture, gases, and termite in the soil as well as all kinds of external stresses.
Serving: Serving is a kind of protection of armoring from atmospheric conditions.
A layer of fibrous material is provided over the armoring, which is known as
serving.
8.3 Classification of Cable
Cables are classified according to the number of cores, voltage rating, construction,
type, and thickness of insulation and installation types. According to the type and
thickness of insulation, cables are classified as polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl chlo-
ride (PVC), cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE), low smoke zero halogen (LSZH)
insulation materials, and armored instrumentation cables.
Depending on the core, cables are classed as single-core and multi-core
(three-core, four-core), whereas according to the voltage rating, underground cables
are classified as,
• Low voltage cables up to 1 kV

• High tension cables up to 11 kV
• Supper tension cables from 22 kV to 33 kV
• Extra high tension cables from 33 kV to 66 kV
• Extra super tension cables above 132 kV.
8.4 Insulation Resistance of Single-Core Cable
Consider a single-core cable whose length is l, conductor radius is r, and the sheath
radius is R. Again, consider small thickness dx of insulation layer at a distance
x from the center of the conductor as shown in Fig. 8.2.
The circumference area of the cable at a distance x is written as,
A ¼ 2pxl ð8:1Þ
The insulation resistance of considered small layer is,
dx
dRins ¼ q ð8:2Þ
2pxl
The insulation resistance of the whole cable is calculated as,
ZR
Rins ¼ dRins ð8:3Þ
r
Substituting Eq. (8.2) into Eq. (8.3) and integrating yields,
ZR
dx
Rins ¼ q ð8:4Þ
2pxl
r
Fig. 8.2 Cable cross section

Conductor
with a small thickness
R Dielectric
x dx
Sheath
8.4 Insulation Resistance of Single-Core Cable 383
q R
Rins ¼ ln ð8:5Þ
2pl r
The value of the insulation resistance can be calculated from Eq. (8.5) if the
other parameters are given.
Example 8.1
The insulation thickness and radius of a 5 km cable are 8 mm and 14 mm,
respectively. Calculate the insulation resistance of a cable with
q ¼ 4 1010 X m.
Solution
The insulation radius of a cable is calculated as,
R ¼ 8 þ 14 ¼ 22 mm ¼ 0:022 m ð8:6Þ
The insulation resistance of a cable is calculated as,
q R 4 1010 0:022
Rins ¼ ln ¼ ln ¼ 575:48 MX ð8:7Þ
2pl r 2p 5000 0:014
The insulation thickness diameter and the core diameter of 10 km cable are 3 cm
and 7 cm, respectively. Calculate the cable resistivity if the insulation resistance is
500 MX.
8.5 Electric Stress of a Single-Core Cable
Figure 8.3 shows a cross section and stress distribution of a single-core cable.
Consider r is the radius of the conductor and R is the inner radius of the sheath.
Again, consider a small cross section at a distance x from the center of the con-
ductor, whose thickness is dx. If the induced charge on the conductor q, the electric
flux density (D) at a distance x is defined as [3, 4],
q
D¼ C/m2 ð8:8Þ
2px
The electric flux density is related to the electric field as,
D ¼ eE ð8:9Þ
Fig. 8.3 Cable cross section

with stress distribution

q
E¼ V/m ð8:10Þ
2pex
The voltage difference between the conductor and outer sheath can be deter-
mined as,
ZR
V¼ E dx ð8:11Þ
r
ZR
q
V¼ dx ð8:12Þ
2pex
r
q R
V¼ ln ð8:13Þ
2pe r
V q
¼ ð8:14Þ
ln Rr 2pe
V
E¼ ð8:15Þ
x ln Rr
8.5 Electric Stress of a Single-Core Cable 385
From Fig. 8.3, it is seen that the stress distribution over the dielectric is not the
same. The maximum stress occurs at the surface of the conductor. It will decrease
slowly toward the sheath of the cable, whereas the minimum stress occurs at the
outer surface of the sheath. At a distance x ¼ r, the expression of maximum electric
field or stress is calculated as,
V
Emax ¼ ð8:16Þ
r ln Rr
At x ¼ R, the expression of minimum electric field or stress is
V
Emin ¼ ð8:17Þ
R ln Rr
Emax R
¼ ð8:18Þ
Emin r
The maximum stress is usually considered during the design of the high voltage
cables.
8.6 Economical Size of Conductor
It is already seen that the maximum stress occurs at the surface of the conductor. For
reliable and safe operation, the dielectric strength of the cable should be more than the
maximum stress. For designing, working voltage and sheath radius need to be
considered constant up to certain values, whereas the core radius needs to vary.
Therefore, for a given voltage and sheath radius, the most economical size of the
conductor can be determined if the denominator of Eq. (8.16) is minimum. The
minimum value of the denominator can be obtained if differentiation of the
denominator of Eq. (8.16) with respect to r is equal to zero and it can be obtained as,

d R
r ln ¼0 ð8:19Þ
dr r

R 1 R
ln þ r R 2 ¼ 0 ð8:20Þ
r r
r
R
ln 1 ¼ 0 ð8:21Þ
r
R
ln ¼1 ð8:22Þ
r
R
¼ e1 ¼ 2:718 ð8:23Þ
r
From Eq. (8.23), the most economical conductor radius is written as,
R
r¼ ð8:24Þ
2:718
Substituting Eq. (8.22) into Eq. (8.16) as
V
Emax ¼ ð8:25Þ
r
The insulation thickness can be determined as,
tinsu ¼ R r ð8:26Þ
tinsu ¼ 2:718r r ¼ 1:718r ð8:27Þ
Example 8.2
The line-to-neutral voltage, conductor radius, and the sheath radius of a single-core
cable are 35 kV (rms), 0.85 cm, and 2.5 cm, respectively. Calculate the maximum
stress, minimum stress, most economical conductor size, and insulation thickness.
Solution
The value of the maximum stress can be determined as,
V 35
Emax ¼ ¼ ¼ 38:16 kV/cm ð8:28Þ
r ln Rr 0:85 ln 0:85
2:5
The value of minimum stress can be determined as,
V 35
Emin ¼ R¼ 2:5
¼ 12:97 kV/cm ð8:29Þ
R ln r 2:5 ln 0:85
The value of the most economical size of the conductor can be determined as,
R 2:5
r¼ ¼ ¼ 0:92 cm ð8:30Þ
2:718 2:718
8.6 Economical Size of Conductor 387
The value of the insulation thickness can be determined as,
tinsu ¼ 1:718r ¼ 1:718 0:85 ¼ 1:46 cm ð8:31Þ

The core diameter, line-to-neutral voltage, and maximum stress of a single-core
cable are 2.5 cm, 15 kV (rms), and 20 kV/cm, respectively. Calculate the sheath
radius, minimum stress, and the most economical conductor size.
8.7 Grading of Cables
Dielectric strength and its homogeneous distribution in the cable are very important
for safe and reliable operation. The dielectric materials are usually used in the
cables to optimize the difference between the maximum and minimum stresses.
Unequal distributions of stresses may trigger insulation breakdown as well as an
increase in the insulation thickness, which in turn increases the cable size.
Therefore, it is necessary to distribute the stresses uniformly in the dielectric
throughout the cables. The process of achieving uniform stress distribution in the
dielectric of cables is known as grading. There are two methods of cable grading
that are normally used for the optimization of the stresses. These are capacitance
grading and intersheath grading.
8.7.1 Capacitance Grading
Two or more layers of different dielectrics are used in the capacitance grading. The
process of achieving uniformity in the dielectric of cables is known as capacitance
grading. Consider a conductor that is surrounded by the three layers of dielectrics
and the permeabilities e1 , e2 , e3 at the radii r1 , r2 , and R, respectively. The core with
three layers of dielectrics is shown in Fig. 8.4. The stress at any distance x can be
expressed as [5, 6],
Fig. 8.4 Cable core with

three layers of insulation
q
Ex ¼ ð8:32Þ
2pe0 ex x
The stress for insulation layer one which starting from x ¼ r to x ¼ r1 is

expressed as,
q
Ex¼r ¼ ð8:33Þ
2pe0 e1 r
q
Ex¼r1 ¼ ð8:34Þ
2pe0 e1 r1
The stress for insulation layer two, which starting from x ¼ r1 to x ¼ r2 is

expressed as,
q
Ex¼r1 ¼ ð8:35Þ
2pe0 e2 r1
q
Ex¼r2 ¼ ð8:36Þ
2pe0 e2 r2
The stress for insulation layer three which starting from x ¼ r2 to x ¼ r3 is

expressed as,
q
Ex¼r2 ¼ ð8:37Þ
2pe0 e3 r2
q
Ex¼R ¼ ð8:38Þ
2pe0 e3 R
Assuming all operating at the same electric field, equating Eqs. (8.33), (8.35),
and (8.37) yields,
q q q
¼ ¼ ð8:39Þ
2pe0 e1 r 2pe0 e2 r1 2pe0 e3 r2
1 1 1
¼ ¼ ð8:40Þ
e1 r e2 r1 e3 r2
e1 r ¼ e2 r1 ¼ e3 r2 ð8:41Þ
The total voltage between the core and the outer sheath is calculated as,
V ¼ V1 þ V2 þ V3 ð8:42Þ
8.7 Grading of Cables 389
Zr1 Zr2 ZR
V¼ Ex dx þ Ex dx þ Ex dx ð8:43Þ
x¼r x¼r1 x¼r2
Substituting Eq. (8.32) for three layers into Eq. (8.43) yields,
Zr1 Zr2 ZR
q q q
:V ¼ dx þ dx þ dx: ð8:44Þ
2pe0 e1 x 2pe0 e2 x 2pe0 e3 x
x¼r x¼r1 x¼r2
Zr1 Zr2 ZR
q q q
V¼ dx þ dx þ dx ð8:44Þ
2pe0 e1 x 2pe0 e2 x 2pe0 e3 x
x¼r x¼r1 x¼r2

q 1 r1 1 r2 1 R
V¼ ln þ ln þ ln ð8:45Þ
2pe0 e1 r e2 r1 e3 r2

q r r1 r1 r2 r2 R
V¼ ln þ ln þ ln ð8:46Þ
2pe0 re1 r r1 e2 r1 r2 e3 r2

q r1 r2 R
V¼ r ln þ r1 ln þ r2 ln ð8:47Þ
2pe0 re1 r r1 r2

r1 r2 R
V ¼ Em r ln þ r1 ln þ r2 ln ð8:48Þ
r r1 r2

r1 r2 r2 R R r2 R
V ¼ Em r ln þ r ln r ln þ r ln r ln þ r1 ln þ r2 ln ð8:49Þ
r r1 r1 r2 r2 r1 r2

r1 r2 R r2 R
V ¼ Em r ln þ ðr1 rÞ ln þ ðr2 rÞ ln ð8:50Þ
r r1 r2 r1 r2
Basically, r1 and r2 are greater than r. Therefore, the second and the third terms
of Eq. (8.50) can be neglected, and Eq. (8.50) can be modified as,
R
V ¼ Em r ln ð8:51Þ
r
q
Em ¼ ð8:52Þ
2pe0 re1
Fig. 8.5 Capacitance grading

field distribution
The field distributions of the three-layer dielectrics of single-core cable are

shown in Fig. 8.5.
Example 8.3
The permittivities of a three-layer dielectrics capacitance grading are 5, 3, and 2,
respectively. The conductor radius is 1 cm, and the overall sheath radius is 7 cm.
The three-layer dielectrics are operated at 27 kV/cm. Calculate the radii r1 and r2 ,
maximum voltage, and safe working voltage.
Solution
The values of the different radius can be determined as,
e1 r ¼ e2 r1 ¼ e3 r2 ð8:53Þ
5 1 ¼ 3r1 ¼ 2r2 ð8:54Þ
5 ¼ 3r1 ð8:55Þ
r1 ¼ 1:67 cm ð8:56Þ
5 ¼ 2r2 ð8:57Þ
r2 ¼ 2:5 cm ð8:58Þ
The value of the maximum working voltage can be determined as,

r1 r2 R
V ¼ Em r ln þ r1 ln þ r2 ln
r r1 r2

1:67 2:5 7 ð8:59Þ
¼ 27 ln þ 1:67 ln þ 2:5 ln
1 1:67 2:5
¼ 116:6 kV
The rms value of safe working voltage is calculated as,
116:6
Vsafe ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 82:45 kV ð8:60Þ
2

A single-core cable is graded by three-layer dielectrics whose permittivities are 8, 5,
and 4, respectively. The conductor radius is 1.5 cm, and the overall radius is 8 cm.
The three-layer dielectrics are worked at 11 kV/cm. Find the radius r1 and r2 ,
maximum voltage and safe working voltage.
8.7.2 Intersheath Grading
In the intersheath grading, the same insulating material is used throughout the cable.
However, it is divided into a few layers by placing metallic intersheaths. These
intersheaths are connected to the tapings of a transformer. The potential across each
intersheath is maintained at such values that each layer of insulation contributes to
the proper share of the total voltage. This arrangement improves the voltage dis-
tribution in the dielectric of the cable, which in turn obtains a uniform electric field.
The maximum electric field at various intersheaths is the same due to homogenous
material. Consider a cable whose core radius is r and the outer sheath radius is
R. The two metallic intersheaths of radii r1 and r2 are inserted in between the core
and the outer sheath as shown in Fig. 8.6.
Let us consider that V1 is the voltage between the core and the first intersheath,
V2 is the voltage between the first intersheath and the second intersheath, V3 is the
voltage between the second intersheath and the outer sheath. Each sheath can be
considered as a homogeneous single-core cable because of a definite voltage dif-
ference between the inner and outer radii of each sheath. According to Eq. (8.51),
the maximum stress between the core and the first intersheath is expressed as,
V1
Em1 ¼ ð8:61Þ
r ln rr1
Fig. 8.6 Intersheath Mettalic intersheath

tap-changing transformer
R
V1
r2
r1
ε ε ε
V2 (1) (2)
V3 r
The maximum stress between the first intersheath and the second intersheath is
expressed as,
V2
Em2 ¼ ð8:62Þ
r1 ln rr21
The maximum stress between the second intersheath and the outer sheath is
expressed as,
V3
Em3 ¼ ð8:63Þ
r2 ln rR2
The dielectric of the cable is homogeneous. Therefore, the maximum stress in

each layer is the same, and it can be expressed as,
Em1 ¼ Em2 ¼ Em3 ¼ Em ðletÞ ð8:64Þ
V1 V2 V3
Em ¼ r1 ¼ r2 ¼ ð8:65Þ
r ln r r1 ln r1 r2 ln rR2
According to behavioral properties, the cable works as like the three capacitors
in series. Therefore, all potentials including the outer sheath, metallic sheaths, and
the core are in phase, i.e., it can be expressed as,
V ¼ V1 þ V2 þ V3 ð8:66Þ
r1 r2 R
V ¼ Em r ln þ Em r1 ln þ Em r2 ln ð8:67Þ
r r1 r2
Again for designing purposes, considering one sheath in between the core and an
outer sheath, as shown in Fig. 8.7.
In this case, Eq. (8.67) can be modified as,
r1 R
V ¼ Em r ln þ Em r1 ln ð8:68Þ
r r1
V
Em ¼ ð8:69Þ
r ln rr1 þ r1 ln rR1
In this analysis, the core radius (r) and the outer sheath radius (R) are kept fixed,
whereas the intersheath radius (r1) is only considered the variable parameter. Now,
differentiating Eq. (8.69) with respect to r1 and setting the result equal to zero to get
the minimum value for the maximum stress. This can be obtained as,

dEm d r1 R 1
¼V r ln þ r1 ln ¼0 ð8:70Þ
dr1 dr1 r r1

r1 R R r1
r1 2 þ ln þ r ¼0 ð8:71Þ
R r1 r1 r1 r
R r
1 þ ln þ ¼0 ð8:72Þ
r1 r1
Fig. 8.7 Core with one Mettalic intersheath

intersheath
V1 r1
ε ε
(1) (2)
V2 r

er r
1 þ ln þ ¼0 ð8:73Þ
r1 r1
r r
1 þ ln e þ ln þ ¼0 ð8:74Þ
r1 r1
r r
1 þ 1 þ ln þ ¼0 ð8:75Þ
r1 r1
r r
ln ¼ ð8:76Þ
r1 r1
r r
¼ e r1 ð8:77Þ
r1
2 3
r rr1 rr1 rr1
¼ 1þ þ þ þ ð8:78Þ
r1 1! 2! 3!
Neglecting higher terms of Eq. (8.78) yields,
r r
¼ 1 þ r1 ð8:79Þ
r1 1!
r r
þ ¼1 ð8:80Þ
r1 r1
r1 ¼ 2r ð8:81Þ
V
Em ¼ ð8:82Þ
r ln 2rr þ 2r ln 2r
er
V
Em ¼ ð8:83Þ
0:693r þ 0:6137r
V
Em ¼ ð8:84Þ
1:31r
From Eq. (8.84), the value of the maximum stress can be calculated is the
operating voltage and the core radius are known.
Example 8.4
The core and outer sheath radii of a three-phase 22 kV (rms) cable are found 2 cm
and 3.5 cm, respectively. The two metallic intersheaths with radii of 2.5 and 3 cm
are inserted in between the core and an outer sheath. The maximum stress in each
layer is the same, and calculate the voltages on the first sheath and second sheath.
Solution
The maximum value of the voltage is
pffiffiffi
Vm ¼ 2 33 ¼ 31:11 kV ð8:85Þ
Per phase voltage is calculated as,
31:11
Vph ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 17:96 kV ð8:86Þ
3
The maximum stresses can be determined as,
V1 V1
Em1 ¼ r1 ¼ ¼ 2:24V1 ð8:87Þ
r ln r 2 ln 2:5
2
V2 V2
Em2 ¼ r2 ¼ 3
¼ 2:19V2 ð8:88Þ
r1 ln r1 2:5 ln 2:5
V3 V3
Em3 ¼ R ¼ ¼ 2:16V3 ð8:89Þ
r2 ln r2 3 ln 3:5
3
The maximum stress in each layer is the same. Then, this relation can be written
as,
2:24V1 ¼ 2:19V2 ¼ 2:16V3 ð8:90Þ
V2 ¼ 1:02V1 ð8:91Þ
2:24V1 ¼ 2:16V3 ð8:92Þ
V3 ¼ 1:03V1 ð8:93Þ
The total voltage is calculated as,
V1 þ V2 þ V3 ¼ V ð8:94Þ
V1 þ 1:02V1 þ 1:03V1 ¼ 17:96 ð8:95Þ
V1 ¼ 5:89 kV ð8:96Þ
The other values of voltages can be determined as,
V2 ¼ 1:02V1 ¼ 1:02 5:89 ¼ 6 kV ð8:97Þ
V3 ¼ 1:03V1 ¼ 1:03 5:89 ¼ 6:06 kV ð8:98Þ
The voltage at the first sheath can be determined as,
Vs1 ¼ V V1 ¼ 17:96 5:89 ¼ 12:07 kV ð8:99Þ
The voltage at the second sheath can be determined as,
Vs1 ¼ V V1 V2 ¼ 17:96 5:89 6 ¼ 6:07 kV ð8:100Þ

The core and the outer sheath radii of a three-phase 66 kV (rms) cable are 1 cm and
2.2 cm, respectively. The two intersheaths with radii of 1.5 cm and 1.9 cm are
inserted in between the core and the outer sheath. Calculate the voltages on the first
sheath and second sheath. Consider that the maximum stress in each layer is the
same.
8.8 Cables Heating
There are three losses which are responsible for heating of the cables. There are
copper loss, dielectric loss, and intersheath loss. Copper loss mainly depends on the
current passing through the resistance of the conductor. Dielectric loss in the
insulation is due to the leakage current, which is originated by the voltage across the
insulation. Finally, the intersheath loss is due to the circulating currents in loops,
which forms between the sheaths. The copper loss can be expressed as,
Pcu ¼ I 2 Rc ð8:101Þ
where I is the current flows in the cables, and Rc is the resistance of the conductor.
The cable is one kind of capacitor that is formed by the core and the sheath which
represents the two plates of a capacitor. These two plates are separated by dielectrics.
The equivalent circuit for this is represented by the parallel combination of leakage
resistance R and the capacitor C, as shown in Fig. 8.8. The phasor diagram for a cable
8.8 Cables Heating 397
Fig. 8.8 Equivalent circuit of I

a cable
+ Ir Ic
V R C
−
Fig. 8.9 Phasor diagram for I

cable equivalent circuit Ic
δ
φ V
Ir
dielectric is shown in Fig. 8.9. The current leads the voltage by an angle less than 90 .
There is no loss for a perfect dielectric; however, the cable is not a perfect dielectric.
Therefore, there is a loss in the cable due to the dielectric. The loss in the dielectric
due to the leakage current flows in the insulation resistance is,
V2
Plc ¼ ð8:102Þ
R
From Fig. 8.9, the expression of tan d can be written as,
Ir
tan d ¼ ð8:103Þ
Ic
From Fig. 8.8, the current in the leakage resistance (Ir) can be written as,
V
Ir ¼ ð8:104Þ
R
Similarly, the current in the capacitor (Ic) can be written as,
V
Ic ¼ 1
¼ VxC ð8:105Þ
xC

V
tan d ¼ R
ð8:106Þ
VxC
V
¼ VxC tan d ð8:107Þ
R
Multiplying both sides of Eq. (8.107) by the voltage (V) yields,
V2
¼ V 2 xC tan d ð8:108Þ
R
From Eq. (8.108), the final expression of the total dielectric power loss can be
written as,
Pdl ¼ V 2 xC tan d ð8:109Þ
Here, d is the dielectric loss angle, and its value is very small. Therefore, tan d is
considered as d. Equation (8.109) can be modified as,
Pdl ¼ V 2 xCd ð8:110Þ
From Eq. (8.110), it is seen that power loss is proportional to the square of the
voltage, capacitance, and the dielectric loss angle.
From Fig. 8.9, the power factor angle is expressed as,
/ ¼ 90 d ð8:111Þ
cos / ¼ cosð90 dÞ ð8:112Þ
cos / ¼ sin d ð8:113Þ
The dielectric hysteresis loss (Pdh) is the difference between the total dielectric
power loss and the power loss due to leakage resistance, i.e.,
Pdh ¼ Pdl Plc ð8:114Þ

V2 1
Pdh ¼ V xCd
2
¼ V xCd
2
ð8:115Þ
R R
From Eq. (8.115), the values of dielectric hysteresis loss can be determined if
others parameters are known.
Example 8.5
A single-core 50 Hz, 6.4 kV (line-to-neutral) cable is having the insulation resis-
tance of 6 MX. Calculate the power loss due to leakage of current flows in the
insulation, total dielectric loss, and dielectric hysteresis loss. Assume that the
dielectric factor is 0.03, and the value of the capacitance of a cable is 0.84 lF.
8.8 Cables Heating 399
Solution
The power loss due to leakage current flows in the insulation is calculated as,
V2 64002
Plc ¼ ¼ ¼ 6:82 W ð8:116Þ
R 600000
The total dielectric loss can be determined as,
Pdl ¼ V 2 xCd ¼ 64002 2p 50 0:84 106 0:03 ¼ 324:27 W ð8:117Þ
The dielectric hysteresis loss can be calculated as,
Pdh ¼ Pdl Plc ¼ 324:27 6:82 ¼ 317:45 W ð8:118Þ

The power loss due to leakage current in the insulation, the capacitance, and the
insulation resistance of a single-core 50 Hz cable are 8.5 W, 2 lF, and 4.5 MX,
respectively. Find the line-to-neutral voltage, total dielectric loss, and dielectric
hysteresis loss. Consider the dielectric factor is 0.02.
8.9 Capacitance of a Cable
Capacitance usually forms between the core and the outer sheath due to the voltage
difference between the conductor and outer sheath. Let the charge of the capacitor is
q, and the capacitance is C. Figure 8.10 shows a cross section of a single-core cable
whose core radius is r and the outer sheath radius is R.
Fig. 8.10 Single-core cable

with a sheath R
ε
r
According to Eq. (8.15), the expression of voltage difference between the core
and the sheath is
q R
V¼ ln ð8:119Þ
2pe r
2peV
q¼ ð8:120Þ
ln Rr
The capacitance per unit length of a single-core cable is usually defined as,
q
C¼ ð8:121Þ
V

2peV
lnRr
C¼ ð8:122Þ
V
2pe
C¼ ð8:123Þ
ln Rr
But, the permittivity of any medium is written as,
e ¼ e0 er ð8:124Þ
The value of the permittivity for free space is
e0 ¼ 8:85 1012 F/m ð8:125Þ
2p 8:85 1012 er
C¼ ð8:126Þ
ln Rr
5:56 1011 er
C¼ F/m ð8127Þ
ln Rr
0:0556er
C¼ lF/km ð8:128Þ
ln Rr
8.9 Capacitance of a Cable 401
The admittance due to capacitance can be expressed as,
1 1
Y¼ ¼ 1 ð8:129Þ
Zc xC
Y ¼ xC ¼ 2pfC ð8:130Þ
The expression of charging current per phase can be written as,
Ic ¼ 2pf C VLN ð8:131Þ
Example 8.6
A 2.5 km long single-core cable is used to deliver power in the 6.4 kV, 50 Hz
three-phase induction motor in the oil field. The cable core radius is 3 cm, and an
outer sheath radius is 11 cm. Calculate the capacitance and the charging current per
phase. Assume the relative permittivity is 2.
Solution
The value of the capacitance per km can be determined as,
0:0556er 0:0556 2
C¼ ¼ ¼ 0:085 lF/km ð8:132Þ
ln Rr ln 11
3
C ¼ 0:085 2:5 ¼ 0:21 lF ð8:132Þ
The value of the voltage per phase is
11 1000
Vp ¼ VLN ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 6350:85 V ð8:133Þ
3
The value of the charging current per phase can be determined as,
Ic ¼ 2pfCVLN ¼ 2p 50 0:21 106 6350:85 ¼ 0:42 A ð8:134Þ

A 2 km long single-core cable is having the core and outer sheath radii 1 cm and
2 cm, respectively. The relative permittivity of insulating material is 4. Calculate
the capacitance of the cable.
Fig. 8.11 Different types of Sheath

the capacitance of a cable Core to earth
capacitance
Core to core Ccs
capacitance
Ccc Ccc Core
Ccs
Ccc
Ccs
8.10 Capacitance of a Three-Core Cable
Consider a three-core cable, as shown in Fig. 8.11. In a cable, the conductors are
much closer to each other than to the sheath. In a three-core cable, the voltage
energizes three cores, and zero voltage energizes the sheath, which creates elec-
trostatic fields. Due to electrostatic fields around the cable, capacitance forms
between core-to-core and core-to-sheath. The calculation of capacitance is simple if
the distribution of dielectric is the same. However, it is not possible to get a uniform
distribution of dielectrics. Different types of capacitances of a three-core cable are
shown in Fig. 8.12.
Consider Ccc is the core capacitance formed between the core-to-core, Ccs is the
sheath capacitance formed between the core-to-sheath, and Ceq is the equivalent
capacitance.
1
1
Ceq
Ccc Ccs Ccc Ceq
n Ceq
Ccs Ccc Ccs 3 2

3 2
Fig. 8.12 Equivalent capacitance of a cable

8.10 Capacitance of a Three-Core Cable 403
According to Fig. 8.12, the three core-to-core capacitances are formed a delta
circuit, and it can be converted into a wye circuit. The sheath represents the neutral
point, and the core-to-sheath capacitance forms a wye circuit.
The total capacitance between the terminals 1 and 2 for both the delta and the
wye connections is the same, and it can be expressed as,
Ccc Ccc Ccc

C12ðDÞ ¼ Ccc þ ¼ Ccc þ ð8:135Þ
Ccc þ Ccc 2
Ceq Ceq Ceq

C12ðYÞ ¼ ¼ ð8:136Þ
Ceq þ Ceq 2
Equations (8.135) and (8.136) are the same, and it becomes,
Ccc Ceq
Ccc þ ¼ ð8:137Þ
2 2
Ceq ¼ 3Ccc ð8:138Þ
The total capacitance between each conductor to the neutral (sheath represents
the neutral) is expressed as,
Cn ¼ C1n ¼ C2n ¼ C3n ¼ Ccs þ 3Ccc ð8:139Þ
The capacitive reactance can be expressed as,
1
Xn ¼ ð8:140Þ
xðCcs þ 3Ccc Þ
For a given phase voltage,Vph ¼ VLN , the expression of the charging current is
expressed as,
Ic ¼ 2pfVLN ðCcs þ 3Ccc Þ ð8:141Þ
From Eq. (8.141), the value of the charging can be determined if the other
parameters are given.
8.11 Measurement of Capacitance
The dielectric distribution in a cable is not homogeneous. In this situation, mea-

surement of the core-to-core and core-to-sheath capacitances needs to be carried
out. Initially, connect the two cores directly to the sheath, as shown in Fig. 8.13.
Then, measure the capacitance (Cp) between the remaining core and the sheath.
From Fig. 8.13, it is seen that the two core-to-core capacitances are connected in
parallel, and the equivalent capacitance is expressed as,
Fig. 8.13 Two cores of a Sheath

cable connected to sheath
Ccs Cp
Ccc Ccc
2
3
Ccc
Ceq ¼ Ccc þ Ccc ¼ 2Ccc ð8:142Þ
The equivalent capacitance is, therefore, parallel with the core-to-sheath

capacitance, and the expression of total capacitance is written as,
Cp ¼ Ccs þ 2Ccc ð8:143Þ
For the second measurement, three cores are connected in such a way to eliminate
core-to-core capacitances, as shown in Fig. 8.14. From Fig. 8.14, it is observed that
the three core-to-sheath capacitances are connected in parallel with the common point
at the sheath. Therefore, their equivalent capacitance is written as,
Fig. 8.14 Three cores of a Sheath

cable close to each other
Ccs Cq
2
3
Ccs Ccs
8.11 Measurement of Capacitance 405
Cq ¼ Ccs þ Ccs þ Ccs ¼ 3Ccs ð8:144Þ
Cq
Cp ¼ þ 2Ccc ð8:145Þ
3
Cp Cq
Ccc ¼ ð8:146Þ
2 6
Substituting Eqs. (8.144) and (8.146) into the Eq. (8.139) yields,

Cq Cp Cq
Cn ¼ þ3 ð8:147Þ
3 2 6
Cn ¼ 9Cp Cq ð8:148Þ
6
From Eq. (8.148), it is seen that the neutral capacitance can be calculated if the
other parameters are known.
Example 8.7
A 6.4 kV, 50 Hz three-phase system uses 8 km long three-core cable. The
capacitance between three bunched cores and sheath is measured and found 0.94
lF/km. The value of the capacitance is again measured 0.65 lF/km between one
core and the sheath when the other two cores that are connected to the sheath.
Calculate the core-to-sheath capacitance, core-to-core capacitance, line-to-neutral
capacitance, and charging current per phase.
Solution
The value of the core-to-sheath capacitance per km can be determined as,
Cq ¼ 0:94 ¼ 3Ccs ð8:149Þ
Ccs ¼ 0:31 lF/km ð8:150Þ
The actual value of the core-to-sheath capacitance is calculated as,
Ccs ¼ 0:31 8 ¼ 2:48 lF ð8:151Þ
The value of the core-to-core capacitance per km can be determined as,
Cp Cq 0:65 0:94
Ccc ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:17 lF/km ð8:152Þ
2 6 2 6
The actual value of the core-to-core capacitance is calculated as,
Ccc ¼ 0:17 8 ¼ 1:35 lF ð8:153Þ
The value of the line-to-neutral capacitance is calculated as,
Cn ¼ Ccs þ 3Ccc ¼ 2:48 þ 3 1:35 ¼ 6:53 lF ð8:154Þ
The value of the charging current per phase can be determined as,
6400
Ic ¼ 2pfVLN Cn ¼ 2p 50 pffiffiffi 6:53 106 ¼ 7:58 A ð8:155Þ
3

A 10 km long three-core cable is used on the 11 kV, 60 Hz, three-phase system.
The measured capacitance between the three bunched cores and the sheath of a
cable is found to be 0.95 lF/km. The value of the capacitance is again measured
0.40 lF/km between one core and the sheath when the other two cores that are
connected to the sheath. Determine the line-to-neutral capacitance and charging
current per phase.
8.12 Measurement of Insulation Resistance
Electrical equipment and high voltage cables need proper insulation resistance for
safe operation. High voltage cables are insulated using different types of materials
with high electrical resistance to stop the flow of current outside of the conductor or
core. However, the properties of these insulating materials change due to the long
time in operation and environmental effects. These changes reduce the electrical
resistivity of the insulating materials. As a result, increasing leakage currents in the
cable leads to incidents that may seriously affect operator safety as well as increase
the operation cost.
Two types of tests are usually carried out to identify the cable performance,
namely dielectric strength test (withstand test or destructive test) and
non-destructive test [7]. In a destructive test, high voltage and current are applied to
expose weak insulation. However, in a non-destructive test, a megohmmeter is used
to generate lower currents and DC voltage in different magnitudes, which in turn
provides the insulation resistance in kX, MX, GX, and TX.
Fluke Corporation manufactured a high voltage insulation tester F1555 (see
Fig. 8.15) is widely used to measure the insulation resistance of high voltage
cables. This meter can measure the insulation resistance from the test voltages
250 V to 10000 V (50/100 V steps) such as the step patterns are
250 V-500 V-1 kV-2.5 kV-5 kV-10 kV.
8.12 Measurement of Insulation Resistance 407
Fig. 8.15 Insulation tester F1555 courtesy by Fluke Corporation
A few parameters, such as resistance, leakage current, polarization index (PI),

dielectric absorption ratio (DAR), are usually displayed. According to IEEE
43-2013 Standard, the polarization index and DAR are defined in the following
ways.
Polarization Index (PI): After voltage application, two readings are taken at 1 min
and 10 min. The ratio of the insulation resistance measured at 10 min to the
insulation resistance measured at 1 min is known as the polarization index.
IR10min
PI ¼ ð8:156Þ
IR1min
Table 8.1 PI values PI value Insulation condition

corresponding insulation
conditions \1 Bad insulation
1–2 Questionable
2–4 Good
[4 Excellent
where
IR1min is the insulation resistance reading after the application of voltage for
1 min,
IR10min is the insulation resistance reading after the application of voltage for
10 min.
The PI values with corresponding insulation conditions are shown in Table 8.1.
Dielectric Absorption Ratio (DAR): There are some insulation materials in which
the absorption current decreases sharply. In this situation, measurements after 30
and 60 s are more than enough to qualify the insulation of the material.
Mathematically, DAR is defined as,
IR60s
DAR ¼ ð8:157Þ
IR30s
The DAR values with corresponding insulation conditions are shown in

Table 8.2.
In addition to PI and DAR, the dielectric discharge (DD) test is also carried out in
a high voltage cable. The DD test is an insulation diagnostic test that identifies the
cable aging, voids, and deterioration of insulation. This test was originally devel-
oped by EDF, France’s Power Utility Company. Initially, the high voltage cable
needs to charge for 30 min for full absorption of the insulating material. Then, the
test voltage V (volts) is disconnected, and after one minute, the discharge current
(mA) and the capacitance C (Farads) need to be measured. Mathematically, DD can
be expressed as,
I1min
DD ¼ ð8:158Þ
V C
The DD values with corresponding insulation conditions are shown in Table 8.3.
Table 8.2 DAR values DAR value Insulation condition

conditions \1 Poor
1–1.4 Acceptable
1.4–1.6 Excellent
References 409
Table 8.3 DD values DD value Insulation condition

conditions [7 Bad
4–7 Poor
2–4 Questionable
\2 Good
0 Homogeneous
References
1. Duncan Glover J, Overbye T, Sarma M (2017) Power system analysis and design, 6th edn.
Cengage Learning, USA, pp 1–942
2. Nagsarkar TK, Sukhija MS (2014) Power system analysis, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press,
Oxford, pp 1–726
3. Wildi T (2014) Electrical machines, drives and power systems, 6th edn. Pearson Education Ltd,
USA, pp 1–920
4. Sadat H (2010) Power system analysis, 3rd edn. PSA Publisher, USA, pp 1–772
USA, pp 1–934
6. El-Hawary ME (1995) Electrical power systems, Revised Edition. Willey-IEEE Press, USA,
pp 1–808
7. IEEE 43–2013 (2013) IEEE recommended practice for testing insulation resistance of electric
machinery. In: IEEE power and energy society. USA, pp 1–37
Exercise Problems
8:1 The insulation thickness and radius of a 5 km cable are 9 mm and 16 mm,
respectively. Calculate the insulation resistance of a cable with
q ¼ 3 1010 X m.
8:2 The insulation thickness diameter and the core diameter of 10 km cable are
4 cm and 9 cm, respectively. Find the cable resistivity if the insulation
resistance is 350 MX.
8:3 A single-core cable is energized by a phase voltage of 11 kV (rms). The
conductor radius and the sheath radius are given as 0.6 cm and 1.9 cm,
respectively. Calculate the maximum stress, minimum stress, insulation
thickness, and most economical conductor size.
8:4 The core and sheath diameters of a 33 kV (rms) single-core cable are 2.2 cm
and 6.4 cm, respectively. Find the maximum stress, minimum stress, and
most economical conductor size.
8:5 A single-core cable is having the maximum and minimum stresses are
33 kV/cm and 8 kV/cm, respectively. If the radius of the core is 1.1 cm,
calculate the insulation thickness and operating voltage.
8:6 The minimum stress of an 11 kV (rms) single-core cable is 10 kV/cm. The
sheath radius of the cable is found to be 3 cm. Determine the core radius and
the most economical conductor size.
8:7 A cable used capacitance grading by three dielectrics whose permittivities are
5, 3, and 2.5, respectively. The conductor radius and the overall radius are
found to be 0.9 cm and 5.5 cm, respectively. Consider three dielectrics are
worked at the 20 kV/cm. Calculate the radii r1 and r2, maximum voltage, and
safe working voltage.
8:8 The core and sheath radii of a single-core cable are found to 1.5 cm and
6 cm, respectively. The cable is graded by two dielectrics whose permit-
tivities are given 4 and 3. The maximum stresses of these two dielectrics are
35 and 25 kV/cm. Calculate the inner radial thickness, outer radial thickness,
and safe working voltage.
8:9 The core and outer sheath radii of a three-phase 11 kV (rms) cable are 1 cm
and 3.5 cm, respectively. The 1.5 cm and 2.5 cm radii of intersheaths are
inserted in between the core and an outer sheath. If the maximum stress in each
layer is the same, find the voltages on the first sheath and the second sheath.
8:10 A single-core 50 Hz, 11 kV (line-to-neutral) cable is having the insulation
resistance and the capacitance 3 MX and 1.2 lF, respectively. Calculate the
power loss due to leakage current flows in the insulation, total dielectric loss,
and dielectric hysteresis loss. Consider the dielectric factor is 0.03.
8:11 The insulation resistance of a single-core 50 Hz, 11 kV (line-to-line) cable is
4.4 MX. The total dielectric loss of the cable is found to be 1.2 kW. Find the
power loss due to leakage current flows in the insulation, capacitance of the
cable, and dielectric hysteresis loss. Assume that the dielectric factor is 0.05.
8:12 The core and sheath radii of a 3 km long single-core 11 kV, 60 Hz,
three-phase system cable are 3 cm and 8 cm, respectively. Calculate the
capacitance and charging current per phase. Assume that the relative per-
mittivity is 4.
8:13 The core radius and charging current of a 1.5 km long 11 kV, 60 Hz,
three-phase system single-core cable are given as 1.2 cm and 0.95 A,
respectively. The relative permittivity of insulating material is given as 3.
Calculate the capacitance and sheath radius.
8:14 A 1.5 km long three-core cable is used in the 0.44 kV, 50 Hz, three-phase
system. The per kilometer capacitance measured between three bunched
cores and sheath is 0.68 lF. The value of the capacitance is again measured
0.12 lF/km between one core and the sheath when the other two cores that
are connected to the sheath. Find the core-to-sheath capacitance, core-to-core
capacitance, line-to-neutral capacitance, and charging current per phase.
8:15 The 11 kV, 50 Hz three-phase voltage is connected to an industry by the
5 km long three-core cable. The measured capacitance between the three
bunched cores and sheath is found to be 0.88 lF/km. Two cores are placed
on the sheath, and the measured capacitance between the third core and
sheath is found to be 0.50 lF/km. Calculate the core-to-sheath capacitance,
core-to-core capacitance, and line-to-neutral capacitance.
Chapter 9
Power System Stability Analysis
9.1 Introduction
The high demand for electrical power is becoming apparent due to increasing
population, commercial buildings, and the industrial sector. As a result, the size and
the interconnected networks are increasing to meet this high demand. Power utility
companies are giving more importance for maximum power transfer from gener-
ating station to the consumer terminals through large interconnected networks.
Sometimes, it is difficult to transfer maximum power with the presence of many
synchronous machines along with large interconnected networks due to different
forms of disturbances. These disturbances are classified into two categories, namely
small disturbance (perturbation) and large disturbance (perturbation). Random
changes in the load that occur in the system continuously are an example of small
perturbation. A power system may be subjected to large perturbations such as the
occurrence of faults on the line, loss of large generating units, loss of major
transmission facilities, and loss of large loads. Any disturbances in the power
system hamper the power system stability. The stability means that any system will
remain in stable condition after disturbance. The stability of the power system is
defined as the ability of the system to remain in the state of equilibrium or syn-
chronism after disturbances occur on the system. Depending on nature and the
magnitude, stability studies are classified into three categories, namely transient
stability, steady stability, and dynamic stability.
Transient stability is the ability of a system to respond to a large disturbance
within a short duration. Transient stability is normally occurred due to line
switching, sudden changes of load, and power transfer. The system response to this
disturbance is normally counted within 1 s. In practice, transient stability is
determined by computer calculations, whereas manual calculation is only possible
in simple cases.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3212-2_9
412 9 Power System Stability Analysis
Steady-state stability is the ability of the system to regain or remain in syn-

chronism when subject to slow and small disturbances.
Dynamic stability is the ability of the system to respond to small disturbances.
Due to these small disturbances, oscillations are produced on the system. The
system is said to be dynamically stable due to smaller amplitudes of the oscillation
and does not acquire more than a certain amplitude and die out quickly. If these
oscillations continuously grow in amplitude, the system is dynamically unstable.
These types of disturbances normally occur due to an interaction between control
systems. The duration of dynamic stability is from 5 to 10 s, and sometimes up to
30 s. The dynamic stability of a given power system can be improved through the
use of power system stabilizers.
Single machine to an infinite bus, swing equation, equal area criterion, and
different types of stability analysis, etc. will be discussed in this chapter.
9.2 Pattern of Stability Curves
The pattern of the different types of stability curves depends on the nature of the
faults and its duration in the power system. In steady-state stability, the syn-
chronous generator regains synchronism after a small disturbance, as shown in
Fig. 9.1.
In transient stability, the generator speeds up for a short duration after losing
synchronism, as shown in Fig. 9.2.
The dynamic stability is the sustained rotor angle oscillations of a synchronous
generator caused by a fault, as shown in Fig. 9.3.
Fig. 9.1 Steady-state δ

stability curve
Fig. 9.2 Transient stability δ

curve
t
9.3 Synchronous Machine Dynamics 413
Fig. 9.3 Dynamic stability δ

curve
9.3 Synchronous Machine Dynamics
A synchronous machine or alternator delivers instantaneous power (p = P + pi).

The expression of power with a sinusoidal current can be expressed as,
p ¼ i2 R ¼ RI 2 sin2 xt ¼ I 2 Rð1 cos 2xtÞ ¼ P þ pi ð9:1Þ
Here, the expression of active power due to fundamental voltage and current is,
V2
P ¼ I2R ¼ ð9:2Þ
R
The intrinsic power (pi) is expressed as,
pi ¼ P cos 2xt ð9:3Þ
In steady-state, this intrinsic power cannot be supplied by the prime mover.

Generally, it is supported by the kinetic energy (KE = Jx2/2) stored in the rotating
masses. Here, J is the total momentum (alternator rotor plus prime mover) of inertia
and its unit is kg m2. The kinetic energy of a synchronous machine in Mega-Joules
can be written as,
1
K E ¼ Jx2sm 106 MJ ð9:4Þ
2
where ɷsm is the synchronous speed in rad/s.

The relationship between the electrical and mechanical angles can be written as,
P
he ¼ hm ð9:5Þ
2
According to Eq. (9.5), the synchronous speed in electrical radians is expressed

as,
P
xs ¼ xsm ð9:5Þ
2
2
xsm ¼ xs ð9:6Þ
P

2
1 2
KE ¼ J xs 106 MJ ð9:7Þ
2 P
2 !
1 2 6
K E ¼ J xs 10 xs MJ ð9:8Þ
2 P
1
K E ¼ Mxs MJ ð9:9Þ
2
The moment of inertia (M) in MJ-s/electrical radians is,

2
2
M¼J xs 106 ð9:10Þ
P
The inertia constant (H) is defined as the ratio of the kinetic energy of a rotor of a
synchronous machine to the rating (S) of a machine (in MVA), and it can be
expressed as,
KE
H¼ ð9:11Þ
S
1 Mxs
H¼ ð9:12Þ
2 S
1
SH ¼ K E ¼ Mxs MJ ð9:13Þ
2
2SH SH
M¼ ¼ MJ s/elec rad ð9:14Þ
xs pfs
2SH SH
M¼ ¼ MJ s/elec deg ð9:15Þ
xs 180fs
9.4 Single Machine with Infinite Bus 415
9.4 Single Machine with Infinite Bus
Figure 9.4 shows a single-line diagram where the generator is connected to an

infinite bus through a lossless transmission line. An infinite bus is an ideal voltage
source that maintains constant values of voltage magnitude, frequency, and phase
angle. Here, d is the angle of the machine with respect to the infinite bus. This angle
is known as torque or load angle. The torque angle or load angle is defined as the
angular displacement in electrical degrees from the synchronously rotating refer-
ence axis. The generator delivers active power to the infinite bus through trans-
mission lines. The synchronous machine is represented by a voltage source E jd

behind the direct axis reactance Xd0 . The equivalent circuit of a synchronous
machine is shown in Fig. 9.5.
The voltage at the generator terminal can be written as,
Vs ¼ E j d ð9:16Þ
The voltage at the infinite bus is,
Vr ¼ V j0 ð9:17Þ
The current in the circuit in Fig. 9.5 can be written as [1, 2],
Vs Vr Vs Vr
Is ¼ 0 ¼ ð9:18Þ
jXd þ jXTL jX
E j d V j 0
Is ¼ ð9:19Þ
jX
Fig. 9.4 Synchronous Vs Vr

machine with an infinite bus X
Fig. 9.5 Equivalent circuit of Xd ' X TL

a machine to an infinite bus
Ia
{
+ +
X
Eδ V0
− −
The conjugate value of the current is,
E jd V j0
Is ¼ ð9:20Þ
X j90
The single-phase sending end real power and reactive power can be derived as,
S ¼ Ps þ jQs ¼ Vs Is ð9:21Þ
E jd V j0
S ¼ Ps þ jQs ¼ E jd ð9:22Þ
X j90
E2 EV
Ps þ jQs ¼ j90 j90 þ d ð9:23Þ
X X
E2 EV
Ps þ jQs ¼ ðcos 90 þ j sin 90 Þ ðcosð90 þ dÞ þ j sinð90 þ dÞÞ ð9:24Þ
X X
E 2 EV EV
Ps þ jQs ¼ j þ sin d j cos d ð9:25Þ
X X X
Equating the real and imaginary parts of Eq. (9.25) yields,
EV
Ps ¼ sin d ð9:26Þ
X
E 2 EV
Qs ¼ cos d ð9:27Þ
X X
For lossless transmission lines, the sending power is equal to the receiving end
power. In case of three-phase system, this power can be written as,
EV
Pe ¼ Ps ¼ Pr ¼ 3 sin d ð9:28Þ
X
At d ¼ 90 , Pe ¼ Pmax , Eq. (9.28) becomes,
EV
Pmax ¼ 3 ð9:29Þ
X

Pe ¼ Pmax sin d ð9:30Þ
At d ¼ d0 , Pe ¼ P0 , Eq. (9.30) becomes,
P0 ¼ Pmax sin d0 ð9:31Þ
P0
sin d0 ¼ ð9:32Þ
Pmax

1 P0
d0 ¼ sin ð9:33Þ
Pmax
The output power of a synchronous machine depends on the torque produced by

the mechanical turbine and generator angular speed. In this case, the electrical
power output of a synschronous machine can be written as,
Pe ¼ T xs ð9:34Þ
Pe
T¼ ð9:35Þ
xs
Pmax
T¼ sin d ¼ Tmax sin d ð9:36Þ
xs
where the expression of maximum torque is,
Pmax
Tmax ¼ ð9:37Þ
xs
EV
Tmax ¼ 3 ð9:38Þ
Xxs
The variations of power and torque at different torque angles are shown in
Fig. 9.6. From Eqs. (9.30) to (9.36), it is seen that the power and torque vary
sinusoidally with a power or torque angle. Torque and power will increase until the
value of the torque angle at 90 . If the prime-mover input to the generator increases
further, the power output will decrease and will be zero at the torque angle 180 . As
a result, the excess power goes into accelerating the generator, thereby increasing its
speed and causing it to pull out of synchronism. Hence, the steady-state stability
limit is reached when d ¼ 90 . For normal steady-state operating conditions, the
value of the power angle or torque angle is usually less than 90 .
Fig. 9.6 Variation of power P T

and torque with a torque angle
Pmax
Tmax
δ
0 90 180
Example 9.1
The terminal voltage of a three-phase wye connected synchronous generator is
33 kV. The generator is connected to an infinite bus through a transmission line.
The reactance of the generator and transmission line are 1.5 X and 0.6 X,
respectively. The generator delivers the power of 60 MW to the infinite bus, and the
infinite bus voltage is found to be 11 kV. Calculate the torque angle, transmission
line current, and three-phase reactive power consumed by the transmission line.
Solution
Per phase synchronous generator voltage is,
33
Ef ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 19052:55 V ð9:39Þ
3
The per phase voltage at the infinite bus is calculated as,
11
Vib ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 6350:85 V ð9:40Þ
3
The value of the torque angle can be determined as,

11ffiffi p
p 33ffiffi
60 ¼ 3 3 3
sin d ð9:41Þ
ð0:6 þ 1:5Þ
d ¼ 20:31 ð9:42Þ
The value of the current in the transmission line can be calculated as,
19052:55 j20:31 6350:85 j0

IL ¼ ¼ 6640:38 j60:14 A ð9:43Þ
2 j90
The value of the three-phase reactive power consumed can be calculated as,
Q ¼ 3IL2 XL ¼ 3 6640:382 0:6 ¼ 79:37 Mvar ð9:44Þ

A three-phase synchronous generator is having the terminal voltage 22 kV, and it is
connected to an infinite bus through a transmission line. The reactance of the
generator and transmission line are 0.9 X and 2.2 X, respectively. The torque angle
is found to be 35 , and the bus voltage at the infinite bus is found to be 6.6 kV. Find
the three-phase real power delivers to the infinite bus and the transmission line
current.
9.5 Swing Equation
The swing equation is very important to study the stability analysis of a power
system. Under steady-state conditions, the rotor of the synchronous generator
rotates smoothly. However, the rotor will accelerate or decelerate with respect to the
rotating air gap of the generator and start oscillation based on the disturbance. The
equation representing this rotor oscillation is known as the swing equation.
Consider a three-phase synchronous machine is connected with a prime mover. The
prime mover with the torque of Tm drives a three-phase synchronous generator,
which develops an electromagnetic torque Te as shown in Fig. 9.7. According to
Newton’s second law, the rotor motion can be expressed as [2],
Jam þ Tf &d þ Te ¼ Tm ð9:45Þ
Equation (9.45) can be modified by neglecting the friction and damping torque
ðTf &d Þ as,
Jam ¼ Tm Te ¼ Ta ð9:46Þ
Fig. 9.7 Generator with the

turbine Pe
Turbine Te
Pm Generator
G
Tm ωm
where
J is the combined moment of inertia of the generator and prime mover in kg m2,
Ta is the accelerating torque in N m,
Tm is the mechanical torque in N m,
Te is the electromagnetic torque in N m,
am is the rotor angular acceleration in rad/s2 .
The rotor angular acceleration is defined as the time rate of change of angular
speed, and it can be expressed as,
dxm
am ¼ ð9:47Þ
dt
However, the rotor angular velocity (ɷm) is defined as the time rate of change of
angular displacement (hm), and it can be expressed as,
dhm
xm ¼ ð9:48Þ
dt

d dhm d 2 hm
am ¼ ¼ 2 ð9:49Þ
dt dt dt
d 2 hm
J ¼ Tm Te ¼ Ta ð9:50Þ
dt2
where
hm is the rotor angular position with respect to fixed axis in rad,
xm is the rotor angular velocity in rad/s.
The main interest for stability study is the rotor speed with respect to the fixed
reference axis on the stator as shown in Fig. 9.8. The rotor angular position with
reference to the stator axis is shown in Fig. 9.9, and the rotor angular position with
respect to a reference axis which rotates at synchronous speed is given by,
hm ¼ xsm t þ dm ð9:51Þ
where the following parameters are,

xsm is the synchronous angular velocity of the rotor in rad/s,
dm is the rotor angular position with respect to synchronously rotating reference
axis in rad.
9.5 Swing Equation 421
Fig. 9.8 Rotor with the θm

reference axis δm θref
stator
φar
φf
φr
cond. rotor cond.
Fig. 9.9 Rotor angular Rotor axis

position to the reference axis
Reference axis rotating
at synchronous speed
δm
ω sm t Fixed reference axis on
θm stator
Differentiating Eq. (9.51) with respect to the time yields,
dhm ddm
¼ xsm þ ð9:52Þ
dt dt
Again differentiating Eq. (9.52) with respect to time yields,
d 2 hm d 2 dm
¼ 2 ð9:53Þ
dt2 dt
d 2 dm
J ¼ Tm Te ¼ Ta ð9:54Þ
dt2
Multiplying Eq. (9.54) by xm yields,
d 2 dm
Jxm ¼ xm Tm xm Te ð9:55Þ
dt2
In general, the power is equal to torque times the angular velocity. Therefore,
Eq. (9.55) is again modified as,
d 2 dm
Jxm ¼ Pm Pe ð9:56Þ
dt2
The angular momentum (M) is equal to the moment of inertia (J) times angular
synchronous velocity ðxm ¼ xs Þ. Therefore, Eq. (9.56) can be modified as,
d 2 dm
M ¼ Pm Pe ð9:57Þ
dt2
The angular momentum (M) is constant before the stability of a synchronous

machine is disturbed or lost. In this region, the xm is constant, and it can be
represented by xsm . Equation (9.14) can be modified as,
2HS
M¼ ð9:58Þ
xsm
Mxsm
S¼ ð9:59Þ
2H
2HS d 2 dm
¼ Pm Pe ð9:60Þ
xsm dt2
Equation (9.57) is known as swing equation. It is more convenient to express the

swing equation in terms of electrical power angle rather mechanical power angle.
Let the number of poles of a synchronous generator is P. The relationship between
the electrical power angle d and the mechanical power angle dm is,
P
d¼ dm ð9:61Þ
2
According to Eq. (9.61), the electrical radian frequency is expressed as,
P
x¼ xm ð9:62Þ
2
Similarly, the synchronous electrical radian frequency is expressed as,
P
xs ¼ xsm ð9:63Þ
2
2HSP
M¼ ð9:64Þ
2xs
M HS
¼ ð9:65Þ
P xs
2M 2HS
¼ ð9:65Þ
P xs
2M d 2 d
¼ Pm Pe ð9:66Þ
P dt2
Power system analysis is usually done based on the power unit values.
Therefore, dividing Eq. (9.66) by the base power Sb yields,
2M 1 d 2 d Pm Pe
¼ ð9:67Þ
P Sb dt2 Sb Sb
2M 1 d 2 d
¼ PmðpuÞ PeðpuÞ ð9:68Þ
P Sb dt2
2M 2H d 2 d
P Mxsm dt2
2 2H d 2 d
P xsm dt2
2 2H P d 2 d
P 1 2xs dt2
2H d 2 d
xs dt2
Again, expressing xs in terms of frequency and the subscript pu is omitted from

Eq. (9.72) to express the general swing equation as,
2H d 2 d
¼ Pm Pe ð9:73Þ
2pf0 dt2
H d2d
¼ Pm Pe ð9:74Þ
pf0 dt2
In Eq. (9.74), d represents the load angle of the generator internal emf in radians,
and it dominates the amount of power that can be transferred. If the load angle
express in electrical degrees, then Eq. (9.74) is further modified as,
H d2 d
¼ Pm Pe ð9:75Þ
180f0 dt2
Alternative form of Swing equation: Equation (9.52) can be written as,
dhm ddm
xm ¼ ¼ xsm þ ð9:76Þ
dt dt
Equation (9.45) can be further modified by introducing damping coefficient Dd

(Nms) for mechanical rotational loss due to friction and windage as,
dxm
J þ Dd xm ¼ Tm Te ð9:77Þ
dt

d ddm ddm
J xsm þ þ Dd xsm þ ¼ T m Te ð9:78Þ
dt dt dt
d 2 dm ddm
J þ Dd ¼ Tm Te ð9:79Þ
dt2 dt
Multiplying both sides of Eq. (9.79) by ɷsm yields,
d 2 dm ddm
Jxsm 2
þ xsm Dd ¼ xsm ðTm Te Þ ð9:80Þ
dt dt

d 2 dm ddm Pm Pe
Jxsm 2 þ xsm Dd ¼ xsm ð9:81Þ
dt dt xm xm
During a small disturbance, the speed of a synchronous machine is normally

close to synchronous speed so that xm xsm and Eq. (9.81) becomes,
d 2 dm ddm
Jxsm 2
þ xsm Dd ¼ Pm Pe ð9:82Þ
dt dt
Again, substituting Mm ¼ Jxsm is the angular momentum of the rotor at syn-

chronous speed and Dm ¼ xsm Dd is the damping coefficient in Eq. (9.81) as,
d 2 dm ddm
Mm 2
þ Dm ¼ Pm Pe ð9:83Þ
dt dt
Equation (9.83) is the fundamental swing equation derived from the rotor
dynamics.
Example 9.2
A 4-pole, 60 Hz, 30 MVA synchronous generator is having the inertia constant
8 MJ/MVA. The input power and output power of the generator are found to be
25 MW and 18 MW, respectively. Calculate the kinetic energy stored in the rotor at
synchronous speed, accelerating power, acceleration, and torque angle at 10 cycles.
Solution
The value of the kinetic energy stored in the rotor is calculated as,
KE ¼ 30 8 ¼ 240 MJ ð9:84Þ
The value of the accelerating power is calculated as,
Pa ¼ Pm Pe ¼ 25 18 ¼ 7 MW ð9:85Þ
The value of the acceleration can be determined as,
2HSb HSb 8 30
M¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:27 ð9:86Þ
xsm pf p 60
Substituting necessary values in Eq. (9.66) yields,
2 1:27 d 2 d
¼7 ð9:87Þ
4 dt2
d2 d
¼ 11:02 rad/s2 ð9:88Þ
dt2
The value of the torque angle at 10 cycles can be determined as,
10
t¼ ¼ 0:166 s ð9:89Þ
60
Multiply both sides of Eq. (9.80) by 2 dd

dt yields,
dd d 2 d dd
2 2 ¼ 11:02 2 ð9:90Þ
dt dt dt
Integrating Eq. (9.90) yields,

Z Z
dd d 2 d dd
2 dt ¼ 22:04 dt ð9:91Þ
dt dt2 dt
2
dd
¼ 22:04d þ C ð9:92Þ
dt
At t ¼ 0, dd
dt ¼ 0 and C ¼ 0
2
dd
¼ 22:04d ð9:93Þ
dt
dd
¼ 4:69d0:5 ð9:94Þ
dt

Z Z
d0:5 dd ¼ 4:69 dt ð9:95Þ
d0:5 þ 1
¼ 4:69t ð9:96Þ
0:5 þ 1
d0:5 ¼ 2:34t ð9:97Þ
d ¼ ð2:34tÞ2 ¼ ð2:34 0:166Þ2 ¼ 0:15 rad ð9:98Þ

The stored energy in the rotor of a 4-pole, 50 Hz, 25 MVA synchronous generator
is found to be 180 MJ. The input power and output power of the generator are
written as 35 MW and 28 MW, respectively. Calculate the inertia constant,
accelerating power, and acceleration.
9.6 Steady-State Stability Analysis 427
9.6 Steady-State Stability Analysis
The steady-state stability of a system triggers a small disturbance. However, the

synchronous generator will not lose its synchronism due to a small disturbance. In
this condition, mechanical power input ðPm Þ equals the electrical power output ðPe Þ
of the generator. To study the steady-state stability analysis, consider a single
synchronous machine is connected to an infinite bus. Substituting Eq. (9.30) into
the swing Eq. (9.74) yields [3],
H d2 d
¼ Pm Pmax sin d ð9:99Þ
pf0 dt2
Due to a small disturbance, there is a small deviation Dd in the torque angle from
the initial torque angle d0 . In this condition, the expression of torque angle is
expressed as,
d ¼ d0 þ Dd ð9:100Þ
H d 2 ðd0 þ DdÞ
¼ Pm Pmax sinðd0 þ DdÞ ð9:101Þ
pf0 dt2
H d 2 d0 H d 2 Dd0
þ ¼ Pm Pmax ðsin d0 cos Dd þ cos d0 sin DdÞ ð9:102Þ
pf0 dt2 pf0 dt2
The value of the rotor deviation angle ðDdÞ is very small. Therefore, sin Dd ffi
Dd and cos Dd ffi 1. Equation (9.102) can be modified as,
H d 2 d0 H d 2 Dd0
þ ¼ Pm Pmax ðsin d0 þ Dd cos d0 Þ ð9:103Þ
pf0 dt2 pf0 dt2
At d ¼ d0 , the swing equation can be expressed as,
H d 2 d0
¼ Pm Pmax sin d0 ð9:104Þ
pf0 dt2
H d 2 Dd0
þ Pm Pmax sin d0 ¼ Pm Pmax ðsin d0 þ Dd cos d0 Þ ð9:105Þ
pf0 dt2
H d 2 Dd0
þ ðPmax cos d0 ÞDd ¼ 0 ð9:106Þ
pf0 dt2
The term Pmax cos d0 in Eq. (9.106) is the slope of the power angle curve at an
angle d0 . This term is known as the synchronizing power coefficient (Sp).
H d 2 Dd0
þ Sp Dd ¼ 0 ð9:107Þ
pf0 dt2
where the synchronizing power coefficient is expressed as,
Sp ¼ Pmax cos d0 ð9:108Þ
d 2 Dd0 pf0 Sp
þ Dd ¼ 0 ð9:109Þ
dt2 H
The roots of Eq. (9.109) are calculated as,
pf0
s2 ¼ Sp ð9:110Þ
H
The system will lose stability for the negative values of synchronizing power.
However, for the positive synchronizing power coefficient, the angular frequency of
the undamped oscillations is written as,
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2pf0
xn ¼ Sp ð9:111Þ
2H
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
xs
xn ¼ Sp ð9:112Þ
2H
The frequency of oscillation is expressed as,

1 xs
fn ¼ Sp ð9:113Þ
2p 2H
The rotor of a synchronous machine will accelerate or decelerate with respect to

synchronously rotating air-gap mmf due to a small disturbance. As a result, an
induction motor action will resume between them, and torque will establish on the
rotor to reduce the difference between the rotor and air-gap mmf angular velocities.
This torque is known as damping torque. According to Eqs. (9.83) and (9.107) can
be modified as,
H d 2 Dd0 dDd0
þ Dm þ Sp Dd ¼ 0 ð9:114Þ
pf0 dt 2 dt
d 2 Dd0 pf0 dDd0 pf0

2
þ Dm þ Sp Dd ¼ 0 ð9:115Þ
dt H dt H
Again substituting dimensionless damping ratio, n, and natural frequency of

oscillation, ɷn, in Eq. (9.115) yields,
d 2 Dd0 dDd0
2
þ 2nxn þ x2n Dd ¼ 0 ð9:116Þ
dt dt
where the following parameters are written as,

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Dm pf0
n¼ ð9:117Þ
2 H Sp
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pf0
xn ¼ Sp ð9:118Þ
H
The characteristics equation is,
s2 þ 2nxn s þ x2n ¼ 0 ð9:119Þ
For normal operating condition, n\1 and the roots are in complex and it can be
expressed as,
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
S1;2 ¼ nxn jxn 1 n2 ¼ nxn jxd ð9:120Þ
where the damped natural frequency ðxd Þ is,

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
xd ¼ xn 1 n2 ð9:121Þ
After some state variable manipulations, the solution of Eq. (9.119) can be
written as,
ðs þ 2nxn ÞDd0
DdðsÞ ¼ ð9:122Þ
s2 þ 2nxn s þ x2n
x2n Dd0
DxðsÞ ¼ ð9:123Þ
s2 þ 2nxn s þ x2n
Taking inverse Laplace transform of Eqs. (9.122) and (9.123) yields,
Dd0
Dd ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi enxn t sinðxd t þ hÞ ð9:124Þ
1 n2
xn Dd0
Dx ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi enxn t sin xd t ð9:125Þ
1 n2
The rotor angle relative to the synchronously revolving field is expressed as,
Dd0
d ¼ d0 þ Dd ¼ d0 þ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi enxn t sinðxd t þ hÞ ð9:126Þ
1 n2
The rotor angular frequency is expressed as,
Dd0
d ¼ x0 þ Dx ¼ x0 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi enxn t sin xd t ð9:127Þ
1 n2
From Eqs. (9.117) and (9.118), it is seen that the natural frequency and the
damping ratio will decrease with increasing the inertia constant. As a result, settling
time will be longer.
Example 9.3
A synchronous machine is having the inertia constant 6 MJ/MVA. The machine is
connected to an infinite bus through a transmission line as shown in Fig. 9.10. The
generator delivers a real power of 0.9 per unit at a 0.9 power factor lagging to the
infinite bus. A small disturbance occurs in the system, and the deviation of the
torque angle is found to be 9 . Calculate the per unit apparent power, line current,
generated voltage, synchronizing power coefficient, undamped angular frequency
of oscillation, and period of oscillation.
Solution
The reactance between the generator and infinite bus is calculated as,
X ¼ jð0:24 þ 0:12 þ 0:34Þ ¼ j0:70 ð9:128Þ
Fig. 9.10 Single-line B1 B2 B3

0.12 pu
diagram for Example 9.3 V3 = 1
G
0.34 pu
0.24 pu Line
The value of the apparent power is calculated as,
0:9
S¼ jcos1 0:9 ¼ 1 j25:84 ð9:129Þ
0:9
S 1 j25:84
IL ¼ ¼ ¼ 1 j25:84 pu ð9:130Þ
V2 1:0 j0
The value of the generated voltage is calculated as,
Eg ¼ V2 þ IL X ¼ 1 þ 0:70 j90 1 j25:84 ¼ 1:45 j25:76 pu ð9:131Þ
The value of the synchronizing power coefficient is calculated as,
1:45 1
Sp ¼ Pmax cos d0 ¼ cosð25:76 9 Þ ¼ 1:98 ð9:132Þ
0:70
The value of an undamped angular frequency is calculated as,

rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
xs p 50
xn ¼ Sp ¼ 1:98 ¼ 7:2 rad/s ð9:133Þ
2H 6
The frequency of oscillation is determined as,
7:2
fn ¼ ¼ 1:14 Hz ð9:134Þ
2p
The period of oscillation is calculated as,
1 1
T¼ ¼ ¼ 0:88 s ð9:135Þ
fn 1:14

A 50 Hz synchronous machine is having the inertia constant of 8 MJ/MVA and the
excitation voltage Ef ¼ 1:5 j20 pu. The generator is connected to an infinite bus
through a transmission line, and the infinity bus voltage is Vib ¼ 1 j0 pu. The total
reactance between the generator and the infinite bus is found to be 0.23 pu. Find the
synchronizing power coefficient, undamped angular frequency of oscillation, fre-
quency of oscillation, and period of oscillation.
9.7 Swing Equation for Multimachine
In the case of multimachine, the swing equation needs to be generalized on a

common base system. Let the machine base MVA is Smachine and the system base
MVA is Ssystem. Multiplying both sides of Eq. (9.73) by Smachine/Ssystem yields [4],
Smachine Hmachine d 2 d1 Smachine

¼ ðPm Pe Þ ð9:136Þ
Ssystem pf0 dt2 Ssystem
Hsystem d 2 d1
¼ Pm Pe pu on a system base ð9:137Þ
pf0 dt2
where the expression of system inertia constant is,
Smachine
Hsystem ¼ Hmachine ð9:138Þ
Ssystem
9.8 Swing Equations of Coherent Machines
Depends on the high demand of energy by the consumer, sometimes more than one
machine is connected in the power station to generate more voltage. The machines
when swing together it is known as coherent machines. The swing equation for
coherent machine can be combined together to form a single-machine swing
equation. The swing equations of machine one and machine on a common base
system are expressed as [5],
H 1 d 2 d1
¼ Pm1 Pe1 ð9:139Þ
pf0 dt2
H 2 d 2 d2
¼ Pm2 Pe2 ð9:140Þ
pf0 dt2

d 2 d1 d 2 d2 Pm1 Pe1 Pm2 Pe2
2 ¼ pf0 ð9:141Þ
dt2 dt H1 H2

d 2 ðd1 d2 Þ Pm1 Pe1 Pm2 Pe2
¼ pf 0 ð9:142Þ
dt2 H1 H2
9.8 Swing Equations of Coherent Machines 433

2 d 2 d12 Pm1 Pe1 Pm2 Pe2
¼ ð9:143Þ
2pf0 dt2 H1 H2

2 d 2 d12 Pm1 Pe1 Pm2 Pe2
¼ ð9:144Þ
xs dt2 H1 H2
where, the rotor angle for the two machines is,

d12 ¼ d1 d2 ð9:145Þ
H1 H2
Multiplying Eq. (9.144) by the term H1 þ H2 yields,

2 H1 H2 d 2 d12 H1 H2 Pm1 Pe1 Pm2 Pe2
¼ ð9:145Þ
xs H1 þ H2 dt2 H1 þ H2 H1 H2

2 H1 H2 d 2 d12 H2 Pm1 H1 Pm2 H2 Pe1 H1 Pe1
¼ ð9:146Þ
xs H1 þ H2 dt2 H1 þ H2 H1 þ H2
2 d 2 d12
H12 ¼ Pm12 Pe12 ð9:147Þ
xs dt2
where the equivalent parameters are represented as,
H1 H2
H12 ¼ ð9:148Þ
H1 þ H2
H2 Pm1 H1 Pm2
Pm12 ¼ ð9:149Þ
H1 þ H2
H2 Pe1 H1 Pe1
Pe12 ¼ ð9:150Þ
H1 þ H2
Again, the machine one is considered as synchronous generator and the machine
two is considered as synchronous motor, the following equations can be written as,
Pm1 ¼ Pm2 ¼ Pm ð9:151Þ
Pe1 ¼ Pe2 ¼ Pe ð9:152Þ
Substituting Eqs. (9.151) and (9.152) into Eqs. (9.147), (9.149), and (9.150)
yields,
2 d 2 d12
H12 ¼ Pm Pe ð9:153Þ
xs dt2
H2 Pm1 H1 Pm2
Pm ¼ ð9:154Þ
H1 þ H2
H2 Pe1 H1 Pe1
Pe ¼ ð9:155Þ
H1 þ H2
Again adding Eqs. (9.139) and (9.140) yields,
H 1 d 2 d1 H2 d 2 d2
þ ¼ Pm1 Pe1 þ Pm2 Pe2 ð9:156Þ
pf0 dt 2 pf0 dt2
Since the rotors of the machines are in unison so that the following relation can
be written as,
d1 ¼ d2 ¼ d ð9:157Þ

H1 H2 d 2 d
þ ¼ Pm Pe ð9:158Þ
pf0 pf0 dt2
Heq d 2 d
¼ Pm Pe ð9:159Þ
pf0 dt2
where the following equivalent parameters are expressed as,
S1machine S2machine
Heq ¼ H1machine þ H2machine ð9:160Þ
Ssystem Ssystem
Pm ¼ Pm1 þ Pm2 ð9:161Þ
Pe ¼ Pe1 þ Pe2 ð9:162Þ
Example 9.4
Two generators are connected in parallel to a busbar. The necessary data for the
generators are given below.
Generator 1 300 MVA, 0.8 power factor, 11 kV, 3000 rpm, H1 = 6 MJ/MVA
Generator 2 500 MVA, 0.8 power factor, 11 kV, 1800 rpm, H2 = 4 MJ/MVA.
Calculate the equivalent inertia constant and combined total kinetic energy, and
rotor acceleration if the input power of generator 1 is 380 MW. Consider a common
base of 100 MVA.
9.8 Swing Equations of Coherent Machines 435
Solution
The equivalent inertia constant is calculated as,
H1 S1 H2 S2 6 300 4 500
Heq ¼ þ ¼ þ ¼ 38 MJ/MVA ð9:163Þ
Sb Sb 100 100
The value of the combined energy is calculated as,
E ¼ Sb Heq ¼ 100 38 ¼ 3800 MJ ð9:164Þ
The following parameter is calculated as,

SH 6 300 1
M¼ ¼ ¼ ð9:165Þ
pf 180 50 5
The value of the rotor acceleration is calculated by using Eq. (9.159) as,
1 d2 d
¼ 380 375 ð9:166Þ
5 dt2
d2 d
¼ 25 elec:deg/s2 ð9:167Þ
dt2

Two generators are connected in parallel to a busbar. The necessary data for the
generators are given below.
Generator 1 60 MVA, 0.9 power factor, 11 kV, H1 = 7 MJ/MVA
Generator 2 50 MVA, 0.9 power factor, 11 kV, H2 = 5 MJ/MVA
Calculate the equivalent inertia constant and combined energy total kinetic
energy, and rotor acceleration if the input power of generator 2 is 65 MW. Consider
a common base of 80 MVA.
9.9 Equal Area Criterion
The accelerating power of the swing equation contains the sine term. Therefore, the
solution of a swing equation will be a nonlinear differential equation. The solution
of a nonlinear equation is not simple or direct. A direct method named as equal area
criterion is used to determine the stability of the system. This method is based on
the graphical representation of stored energy in the rotating machine. It is often
known as a graphical method for stability analysis. This method is only suitable for
one machine to an infinite bus. For an unstable system, the torque angle ðdÞ
increases indefinitely with time. Whereas for a stable system, torque angle ðdÞ
undergoes oscillations, and after some time, it will die out. Equation (9.74) can be
rearranged as [2],
d 2 d pf0
dt2 H
Multiplying Eq. (9.168) by 2 dd

dt yields,
dd d 2 d 2pf0 dd
2 ¼ ðPm Pe Þ ð9:169Þ
dt dt2 H dt
" #
d dd 2 2pf0 dd
dt dt H dt
" #
dd 2 2pf0
d ¼ ðPm Pe Þdd ð9:171Þ
dt H
Integrating Eq. (9.171) from d0 to d yields,
2 Zd
dd 2pf0
¼ ðPm Pe Þdd ð9:172Þ
dt H
d0
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u Zd
u
dd u2pf0
¼ t ðPm Pe Þdd ð9:173Þ
dt H
d0
Equation (9.173) represents the speed of the machine with respect to the syn-
chronously rotating reference axis. The machine rotor angles are plotted for both
stable and unstable conditions as shown in Fig. 9.11. In an unstable condition, the
rotor angles increase with time. However, in a stable condition, it oscillates and dies
Fig. 9.11 Variation of rotor δ

angles with time dδ
=0 unstable
dt
stable
t
9.9 Equal Area Criterion 437
out due to damping. Under the stable condition, the rate of change of the rotor angle
will be zero at some instants.
dt ¼ 0 and Eq. (9.173) becomes,
For stable condition of a system setting dd
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u Zd
u
dd u2pf0
¼t ðPm Pe Þdd ¼ 0 ð9:174Þ
dt H
d0
Zd
2pf0
ðPm Pe Þdd ¼ 0 ð9:175Þ
H
d0
Zd
ðPm Pe Þdd ¼ 0 ð9:176Þ
d0
From Eq. (9.176), it is seen that the positive (accelerating) area under the graph
is equal to the negative (decelerating) area for stability of a system. This condition
is known as the equal area criterion.
From Fig. 9.12, it is seen that the point a corresponding d0 represents the
steady-state operating point or equilibrium point. At this point, the mechanical input
power to the machine is equal to the electrical output power, i.e., Pm0 = Pe0.
Consider a sudden increase in the input power of the machine as represented by the
line Pm1. As a result, the accelerating power of the machine will increase, which
increases the power angle. Therefore, the rotor will move forward toward the point
c. Due to increasing energy in the rotor, the power and the rotor angle will con-
tinuously increase to reach the point c. As a result, the mechanical input power to
the rotor will decrease, and the rotor will decelerate at synchronous speed until to
reach the torque angle d2 or point b that represents the steady-state operating point.
For stability of a system, an equal area criterion requires the following condition,
Fig. 9.12 Power curve for an Pe

equal area criterion
Pmax e
Pm1 b c A2
A1 d Pe = Pmax sin δ
Pm 0 a
δ
δ0 δ1 δ 2 δ max
Area A1 ¼ Area A2 ð9:177Þ
Zd1 Zd2
ðPm Pmax sin dÞdd ¼ ðPmax sin d Pm Þdd ð9:178Þ
d0 d1
Pm ðd1 d0 Þ þ Pmax jcos djdd10 ¼ Pmax jcos djdd21 Pm ðd2 d1 Þ ð9:179Þ
Pm ðd1 d0 þ d2 d1 Þ þ Pmax ðcos d1 cos d0 Þ ¼ Pmax ðcos d1 cos d2 Þ ð9:180Þ
Pm ðd2 d0 Þ ¼ Pmax ðcos d0 cos d2 Þ ð9:181Þ
Substituting the expression Pm ¼ Pmax sin d1 into Eq. (9.181) yields,
Pmax ðd2 d0 Þ sin d1 ¼ Pmax ðcos d0 cos d2 Þ ð9:182Þ
ðd2 d0 Þ sin d1 ¼ cos d0 cos d2 ð9:183Þ
ðd2 d0 Þ sin d1 þ cos d2 ¼ cos d0 ð9:184Þ
From Eq. (9.184), it is seen that the angle d2 can be calculated if the angles d0
and d1 are known.
9.10 Critical Clearing Angle and Time
The torque angle of a synchronous machine usually increases due to a disturbance

in the system. Therefore, the system will be unstable if the torque angle increases
indefinitely with respect to time as mentioned before in Fig. 9.11. Therefore, there
is a critical value of the torque angle for clearing the fault to keep the system remain
stable and satisfy the equal area criterion. This value of the torque angle is known as
the critical clearing angle, and it is represented by the dc .
Consider one machine connected to an infinite bus as shown in Fig. 9.13 to find
a critical clearing angle and time. This power system operates at a steady-state point
a as shown in Fig. 9.14. Considering a three-phase fault occurs at bus B2. As a
result, terminal voltage, as well as electrical power output, will be zero at bus 2, and
Fig. 9.13 One machine to an

G B1 B2 B3
infinite bus with a fault Pm
Pe
Line
F
9.10 Critical Clearing Angle and Time 439
Fig. 9.14 Power curve with Pe

clearing time and angle
e
d
A2 Pe = Pmax sin δ
a
Pm
A1
b c
δ
δ 0 δ c δ1
the state point drops to b. The accelerating area A1 will increase, while the point
moves from b to c. After the fault is cleared by the time known as the critical
clearing time tc corresponding dc , the system will become healthy and transmit
normal power and reach the d. Afterward, the rotor will decelerate at synchronous
speed, and the decelerating area A2 will increase, while the point moves from d to
e. For a stability system, to find the critical clearing angle, both the areas must be
the same (A1 = A2).
The accelerating area can be calculated as,
Zdc
A1 ¼ Pm dd ¼Pm ðdc d0 Þ ð9:185Þ
d0
The decelerating area can be calculated as,
Zdmax
A2 ¼ ðPmax sin d Pm Þ dd ð9:186Þ
dc
A2 ¼ Pmax ðcos dmax cos dc Þ Pm ðdmax dc Þ ð9:187Þ
A2 ¼ Pmax ðcos dc cos dmax Þ Pm ðdmax dc Þ ð9:188Þ
Equating Eqs. (9.185) and (9.188) yields,
Pm ðdc d0 Þ ¼ Pmax ðcos dc cos dmax Þ Pm ðdmax dc Þ ð9:189Þ
The limit of stability occurs when the maximum torque angle is at the inter-
section of Pm line as shown in Fig. 9.15. From Fig. 9.15, the following angle can be
determined as,
Fig. 9.15 Power curve with Pe

critical clearing time
Pmax
Pe = Pmax sin δ
A2
Pm
A1
δ
δ0 δc δ max
dmax ¼ p d0 ð9:190Þ
Pm ðdc d0 Þ ¼ Pmax ðcos dc cosðp d0 ÞÞ Pm ðp d0 dc Þ ð9:191Þ
Pm ðdc d0 Þ ¼ Pmax ðcos dc þ cos d0 Þ Pm ðp d0 dc Þ ð9:192Þ
Pm ðdc d0 þ p d0 dc Þ ¼ Pmax ðcos dc þ cos d0 Þ ð9:193Þ
Pm ðp 2d0 Þ ¼ Pmax ðcos dc þ cos d0 Þ ð9:194Þ
Substituting the expression Pm ¼ Pmax sin d0 into Eq. (9.194) yields,
Pmax ðp 2d0 Þ sin d0 ¼ Pmax ðcos dcr þ cos d0 Þ ð9:195Þ
ðp 2d0 Þ sin d0 ¼ ðcos dcr þ cos d0 Þ ð9:196Þ
cos dcr ¼ ðp 2d0 Þ sin d0 cos d0 ð9:197Þ
dcr ¼ cos1 ½ðp 2d0 Þ sin d0 cos d0

ð9:198Þ
From Eq. (9.198), it is seen that the critical angle can be determined if the initial
torque angle is known.
The electrical power output Pe is zero at the fault condition. In this case, the
swing equation in (9.74) can be rewritten as,
H d2 d
¼ Pm 0 ð9:199Þ
pf0 dt2
d 2 d pf0
¼ Pm ð9:200Þ
dt2 H
Integrating Eq. (9.200) from 0 to t yields,
Zt
dd pf0
¼ Pm dt ð9:201Þ
dt H
0
dd pf0
¼ Pm t ð9:202Þ
dt H
Again, integrating Eq. (9.202) yields,
pf0
d¼ Pm t2 þ C ð9:203Þ
2H
Setting the boundary condition at t ¼ 0, d ¼ d0 in Eq. (9.203) yields,
C ¼ d0 ð9:204Þ
pf0
d¼ Pm t2 þ d0 ð9:205Þ
2H
For a critical clearing angle dcr , the expression of critical clearing time can be
written as,
pf0
dcr ¼ 2
Pm tcr þ d0 ð9:206Þ
2H
2H
2
tcr ¼ ðdcr d0 Þ ð9:207Þ
pf0 Pm
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2H
tcr ¼ ðdcr d0 Þ ð9:208Þ
pf0 Pm
Example 9.5
A synchronous machine with an inertia constant of 5 MJ/MVA is connected to an
infinite bus as shown in Fig. 9.16. The generator delivers real power and reactive
power to the infinite bus which are 0.75 pu and 0.95, respectively. A three-phase

0.10 pu
diagram for Example 9.5 0.41pu V3 = 1
0.13pu
G 0.41pu
F
fault occurs on the system at point F and subsequently cleared by the circuit breaker
operation. Under prefault condition of the lines, calculate the generator transient
voltage, power angle equation, initial torque angle, maximum torque angle, critical
clearing angle, and critical clearing time. During fault (impedance 0.11 pu), cal-
culate the fault clearing angle and time.
Solution
S 0:75 j0:95
IL ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:21 j51:71 pu ð9:209Þ
V 1
The total reactance between the generator and the infinite bus is calculated as,
0:41
X ¼ jð0:13 þ 0:10 þ Þ ¼ j0:44 ð9:210Þ
2
The value of the generator transient voltage is calculated as,
Eg ¼ Vib þ jXIL ¼ 1 þ 1:21 j51:71 0:44 j90 ¼ 1:46 j13:09 pu ð9:211Þ
The power equation is calculated as,
1:46 1
Pe ¼ Pmax sin d ¼ sin d ¼ 3:32 sin d ð9:212Þ
0:44
From Eq. (9.212), the value of the initial torque angle can be determined as,
Pe ¼ 3:32 sin d0 ¼ 0:75 ð9:213Þ
d0 ¼ 13:06 ¼ 0:23 rad ð9:214Þ
From Eq. (9.190), the value of the maximum torque angle can be determined as,
dmax ¼ 180 d0 ¼ 180 13:06 ¼ 166:94 ð9:215Þ
From Eq. (9.198), the value of the critical clearing angle can be determined as,
dcr ¼ cos1 ½ðp 2 0:23Þ sin 13:06 cos 13:06

¼ 111:6 ¼ 1:95 rad
ð9:216Þ
From Eq. (9.208), the value of the critical clearing time can be determined as,
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
25
tc ¼ ð1:95 0:23Þ ¼ 0:38 s ð9:217Þ
p 50 0:75
Fig. 9.17 Reactance diagram 0.41

during fault for Example 9.5 0.10
0.41
0.13 F
Eg Vib
0.01
During the fault, the circuit is drawn as shown in Fig. 9.17. The reactances need
to be rearranged. The reactances 0.13 pu and 0.10 pu are in series, and its equiv-
alent reactance is calculated as,
X11 ¼ 0:13 þ 10 ¼ 0:23 pu ð9:218Þ
The reactances 0.41 pu and 0.41 pu are in parallel, and the equivalent reactance
is calculated as,
0:41
X12 ¼ ¼ 0:20 pu ð9:219Þ
2
The reactances 0.23 pu, 0.20 pu and the reactances due to fault create the wye
circuit and then converted to delta circuit as shown in Fig. 9.18.
The values of the reactances are calculated as,
0:23 0:20 þ 0:20 0:11 þ 0:11 0:23

X1 ¼ ¼ 0:85 pu ð9:220Þ
0:11
0:23 0:20 þ 0:20 0:11 þ 0:11 23
X2 ¼ ¼ 0:47 pu ð9:221Þ
0:20
0:23 0:20 þ 0:20 0:11 þ 0:11 23
X3 ¼ ¼ 0:41 pu ð9:222Þ
0:23
Fig. 9.18 Single-line X1

diagram for Example 9.5
X2 X3 Vib
Eg
The power equation is calculated as,
1:46 1
Pe ¼ Pmax sin d ¼ sin d ¼ 1:72 sin d ð9:223Þ
0:85
From Eq. (9.223), the value of the initial torque angle can be determined as,
Pe ¼ 1:72 sin d0 ¼ 0:75 ð9:224Þ
d0 ¼ 25:85 ¼ 0:45 rad ð9:225Þ
From Eq. (9.190), the value of the maximum torque angle can be determined as,
dmax ¼ 180 d0 ¼ 180 25:85 ¼ 154:15 ð9:226Þ
From Eq. (9.198), the value of the critical clearing angle can be determined as,
dcr ¼ cos1 ½ðp 2 0:45Þ sin 25:85 cos 25:85

¼ 85:56 ¼ 1:49 rad
ð9:227Þ
From Eq. (9.208), the value of the critical clearing time can be determined as,
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
25
tc ¼ ð1:49 0:45Þ ¼ 0:3 s ð9:228Þ
p 50 0:75

A 50 Hz generator with a 7 MJ/MVA inertia constant is connected to an infinite
bus through a single transmission line as shown in Fig. 9.19. The real power
delivers to the infinite bus is found to be 0.65 pu. A temporary three-phase fault
occurs on the line, at busbar 6. Calculate the fault clearing angle and fault clearing
time at prefault and during fault conditions.
B1 B2 B3 B4
0.10 pu 0.10 pu
0.13pu
0.15 pu
G B8
Vib = 1 0 pu
E f = 1.13pu 0.15 pu
0.10 pu B5 B6 B7 0.10 pu
0.15 pu 0.15 pu

9.11 Step-by-Step Solution of Swing Equation 445
9.11 Step-by-Step Solution of Swing Equation
The swing equation is a nonlinear equation, and its normal solution is difficult.
There is a simple and conventional method to solve the swing equation which is
known as step-by-step method. In this method, the accelerating power Pa and the
rotor angular velocity are assumed to be constant from the middle of the preceding
interval to the middle of the interval being considered. The accelerating power at 0+
can be determined as,
Pað0 þ Þ ¼ Pm Peð0 þ Þ ð9:229Þ
The swing equation can be modified as,
dd2 pf0
¼ að0 þ Þ ¼ Pað0 þ Þ ð9:230Þ
dt2 H
From Fig. 9.20, the change in rotor angular velocity can be written as,
Dx0 ¼ að0 þ Þ Dt ð9:231Þ
For the first interval, the change in angular velocity is expressed as,
Dx1 ¼ að0 þ Þ Dt ð9:232Þ
The angular velocity in the first interval is expressed as,
x1 ¼ x0 þ Dx1 ð9:233Þ
x1 ¼ x0 þ að0 þ Þ Dt ð9:234Þ
Similarly, for the first interval, the change in power angle is expressed as,
Dd1 ¼ Dx1 Dt ð9:235Þ
For the first interval, the power angle is expressed as,
d1 ¼ d0 þ Dd1 ð9:236Þ
d1 ¼ d0 þ Dx1 Dt ð9:237Þ
Fig. 9.20 Assumed and Pa Assumed

actual solution of swing
equation
Pa (n −2) Actual
Pa (n −1)
Pa (n )
t
( n −2) ( n −1) ( n)
ω' Assumed
ω' 1
(n− )
2 Actual
ω ' 3
(n− )
2
3 t
(n − ) (n − 1 )
2 2
δ Δt
Δt
Δ δ ( n)
Δ δ ( n−1)
t
( n −2) ( n −1) ( n)
d1 ¼ d0 þ að0 þ Þ ðDtÞ2 ð9:238Þ
Considering that the discontinuity occurs at the middle of the interval, then the
accelerating power is expressed as,
Pa ¼ Pm output during the fault ð9:239Þ
Finally, considered that the fault is cleared due to circuit breaker operation, and
the accelerating power is expressed as,
9.11 Step-by-Step Solution of Swing Equation 447
Pa ¼ Pm output power after the fault cleared ð9:240Þ
The different equations for the (n − 1)th interval can be written as,
Paðn1Þ ¼ Pm Peðn1Þ ð9:241Þ
Ef Vinf
Peðn1Þ ¼ sin dðn1Þ ð9:242Þ
X
pf0
aðn1Þ ¼ Paðn1Þ ð9:243Þ
H
According to Eq. (9.231), the following relation can be written as,
Dx0ðn1Þ ¼ aðn1Þ Dt ð9:244Þ

2
According to Eqs. (9.234) and (9.235), the following relations can be written as,
x0 n1 ¼ x0 n3 þ Dx0 n1 ¼ x0 n3 þ aðn1Þ Dt ð9:245Þ

ð 2Þ ð 2Þ ð 2Þ ð 2Þ
DdðnÞ ¼ x0ðn1Þ Dt ð9:246Þ

2
The rotor angle d change during (n − 1)th interval is,
Ddðn1Þ ¼ dðn1Þ dðn2Þ ¼ Dtx0ðn3Þ ð9:247Þ

2

Ddn ¼ x0ðn3Þ þ aðn1Þ Dt Dt ð9:248Þ
2
DdðnÞ ¼ x0ðn3Þ Dt þ aðn1Þ ðDtÞ2 ð9:249Þ

2
DdðnÞ ¼ Ddðn1Þ þ aðn1Þ ðDtÞ2 ð9:250Þ
pf0
DdðnÞ ¼ Ddðn1Þ þ Paðn1Þ ðDtÞ2 ð9:251Þ
H
dðnÞ ¼ dðn1Þ þ DdðnÞ ð9:252Þ
From Eq. (9.252), it is seen that the rotor angle can be determined if other
parameters are known.
9.12 Alternate Solution of Swing Equation
The well-known swing equation is related to a synchronous generator’s rotor swing

angle d to its accelerating power Pa. In one machine to an infinite bus (OMIB)
system, the power output of the single machine connected to an infinite bus at any
instant of time is Pe ¼ Pmax sin d when the resistances in the network are considered
negligible and Pmax is the maximum power output of the machine. In classical
modeling, Pmax is the product of constant internal voltage behind transient reactance
of the machine and the infinite bus voltage divided by the net series reactance
between the machine and the infinite bus. Therefore, the maximum power Pmax is
constant so long the said reactance does not change. Since for a given fault location
in the system, the reactance before the fault is different from that after removing the
fault Pmax will have two constant values P1 and P2 , respectively for 0 t tr
(during fault, i.e., in between fault occurrence time t ¼ 0 and fault removal time
t ¼ tr ) and for t tr (i.e., after the fault is removed). In other words, the maximum
value of the machine output power, i.e., Pmax can be represented as a two-valued
step function as shown in Fig. 9.21. From Fig. 9.21, an expression for Pmax can be
derived as [2, 5–7],
Pmax ¼ P1 UðtÞ þ DUðt tr Þ ð9:253Þ
where,
UðtÞ is the unit step function starting at t ¼ 0,
Uðt tr Þ is the unit step function starting at t ¼ tr ,
D is the difference between P2 and P1 .
Fig. 9.21 Maximum power Pmax

output during and after faults
P2
Δ
P1
t
0 tr
9.12 Alternate Solution of Swing Equation 449
The rotor swing angle, d, which has been defined relative to a reference axis
rotating at the synchronous angular velocity, xs , can be related to the actual x as
d ¼ ðx xs Þt ¼ x0 t ð9:254Þ
where x0 ¼ dd 0 0
dt ¼ 2pf is a measure of the frequency ðf Þ of rotor oscillation relative
to the synchronously rotating reference axis. Combining Eqs. (9.253) and (9.254)
and the machines output power Pe can be expressed as,
Pe ¼ P1 sin x0 tUðtÞ þ D sin x0 tUðt tr Þ ð9:255Þ
Equations (9.57), (9.253), (9.254) and (9.255) can now be combined into a
model of a closed-loop system for the machine as in Fig. 9.22 in which the ref-
erence input is Pm, the controlled variable is d, the error signal is Pa, and the
feedback signal is Pe. It should be noted that Pe could be represented as a function
of a variable y when the quantity sin d, i.e., sin x0 t of Eq. (9.153) is denoted by
y. The transfer functions of various blocks in Fig. 9.22 have been obtained by
taking Laplace transform of Eqs. (9.57), (9.254), (9.255) and y ¼ sin x0 t with zero
initial conditions. The equations are,
Ms2 dðsÞ ¼ Pa ðsÞ ¼ Pm ðsÞ Pe ðsÞ ð9:256Þ
x0
dðsÞ ¼ ð9:257Þ
s2
P1 x0 Detr s ðx0 cos x0 tr þ s sin x0 tr Þ
Pe ðsÞ ¼ þ ð9:258Þ
s2 þ x02 s2 þ x02
x0
YðsÞ ¼ ð9:259Þ
s2 þ x02
In taking Laplace transforms, the rotor oscillation angular velocity x0 has been
considered as remaining constant at an average value. The closed-loop transfer
+ Pa ( s ) 1 δ ( s)
Pm ( s )
G ( s) = M
− s2
Pe ( s )
Δ Y (s) s2
H 2 ( s ) = P1 + e − tr s ( H1 ( s ) =
ω' s + ω '2
2
ω ' cos ω ' tr + s sin ω ' tr )
Fig. 9.22 Swing equation into a feedback system model

function of the feedback system of Fig. 9.22 corresponding to a synchronous

machine is,
dðsÞ GðsÞ
¼ ð9:260Þ
Pm ðsÞ 1 þ GðsÞH1 ðsÞH2 ðsÞ
Substituting the expressions for GðsÞ, H1 ðsÞ, H2 ðsÞ into Eq. (9.260) yields,
dðsÞ ð1=MÞðs2 þ x02 Þ

¼ 2 2 ð9:261Þ
Pm ðsÞ s ½s þ k1 þ k2 etr s þ k3 setr s
where the following expressions are,
P1
k1 ¼ x02 þ ð9:262Þ
M
1
k2 ¼ D cos x0 tr ð9:263Þ
M
D sin x0 tr
k3 ¼ ð9:264Þ
x0 M
9.12.1 Dominant Root
From Eq. (9.261), the characteristic equation can be written as,
s2 þ k1 þ k2 etr s þ k3 setr s ¼ 0 ð9:265Þ
Equation (9.265) can be rewritten as follows,
f ðsÞ ¼ f1 ðsÞ f2 ðsÞ ¼ 0 ð9:266Þ
where the following functions are,
f1 ðsÞ ¼ s2 þ k1 ð9:267Þ

k3
f2 ðsÞ ¼ k2 etr s 1 s ð9:268Þ
k2
A root of (9.266) is the point of intersection of the functions f1 ðsÞ and f2 ðsÞ. This
point has been termed the “dominant” root. Figure 9.23 sketches the forms of the
function f1 ðsÞ and f2 ðsÞ. It can be seen that function f1 ðsÞ is greater than f2 ðsÞ, i.e.,
f ðsÞ ¼ f1 ðsÞ f2 ðsÞ is positive for all values of s on the right of and up to a point
s = −k2/k3. At s = −k2/k3, the function f2(s) is zero and beyond this point f2(s) starts
increasing, so that f2(s) intersects f1(s) at a point having its real part equal to sroot .
f ( s)
f1 ( s ) f1 ( s ) = s 2 + k1
k1
f 2 ( s)
k2 k 2 e − tr s
s=0 s
sroot − k2
k2 −1
s=− k3
k3 f 2 ( s ) = k2 e −tr s ( −1 − s)
k2
Fig. 9.23 Sketches of functions f1(s) and f2(s)
This point is the desired dominant root to be searched for. Beyond this point sroot ,
f2(s) is greater than f1(s), i.e., the function f(s) is negative. Therefore, a search for the
real axis bounds of the region containing the dominant root can be made starting
from the point s = −k2/k3 and continued by increasing the absolute value of s until
the function f(s) becomes negative.
9.12.2 Extension for a Multimachine System
Equation (9.57) holds good for ith ði ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . . nÞ machine in a system with

n number of machines if i is used as a subscript to each of d, M, Pa , Pm , and Pe . The
electrical power output Pei is written as,
X
n
Pei ¼ Ei2 Gii þ Ei Ej Yij cos hij di dj ð9:269Þ

j¼1;j6¼i
where Ei and Ej are magnitudes (assumed constant in the classical model) of the
internal EMFs behind transient reactances at ith and jth machine nodes respectively
such that Ei ¼ Ei \di and Ej ¼ Ej \dj , Yij jhij ¼ Gij þ jBij is the transfer admit-
tance between ith and jth machine nodes, and Gij is the real part, i.e., conductance
of the driving point admittance at ith machine node. The quantities Gij and Yij are
obtained from the admittance matrix of the whole system reduced to only the
internal nodes of the machine, i.e., to n n size. Equation (9.167) gives the
electrical power output in any network condition, i.e., prefault, during, and after
faults provided the conductance and admittance terms are taken from the corre-
sponding matrix reduced at the machine internal nodes. In addition, it follows that
from (9.269) that hij ¼ di dj results in maximum power output, which for the ith
machine is Pmaxi as,
X
n
Pmaxi ¼ Ei2 Gii þ Ei Ej Yij ð9:270Þ
j¼1;j6¼i
Now, if an OMIB system with a single machine connected to an infinite bus is

such that the machine’s inertia constant and mechanical power input are the same as
those of the ith unit of the multimachine system. But its rotor swing angle is dri ,
while the internal EMF behind its transient reactance, the infinite bus voltage, and
the reactance between the machine and the infinite bus are of such magnitudes that
with the resistances neglected machines electrical power output is Pmaxi sin dri and
equal to Pei given in Eq. (9.269) when Pmaxi is equal to that in the Eq. (9.270).
Then, this particular OMIB system can be considered as equivalent to the ith
machine of the multimachine system. In this way, each machine of the original
multimachine system is replaceable by an equivalent OMIB system which can be
represented by Eq. (9.57), and by the feedback model of Fig. 9.22 changing the
notations d, M, Pa , Pm , Pe , and Pmax, respectively, by dri , Mi , Pai , Pmi , Pei , and
Pmaxi. Also, the notation “D” in the feedback model will then be Di ¼ P2i P1i
when P2i and P1i are the maximum electrical power outputs of the ith unit of the
multimachine system, i.e., Pmaxi in the after and the during fault conditions,
respectively, both being obtained from Eq. (9.168) but using the reduced admit-
tance matrix for the corresponding condition. The real axis limits of the narrowest
possible range in s-plane containing the dominant root of the characteristic equation
f(s) = 0 of each feedback model is searched in the same way as mentioned in
Sect. 9.12.1, starting from the point s = −k2/k3. It is an advantage that for a given tr
and a chosen average value x′ for rotor oscillation angular velocities of all the
machines, the starting point is the same for each machine as may be seen substi-
tuting Di and Mi respectively for D and M in Eqs. (9.263) and (9.264).
Example 9.6
Figure 9.24 shows a single-line diagram where two generators are connected with a
grid source through transformers (delta-earthed wye) and transmission lines. Some
data are shown in Tables 9.1, 9.2, and 9.3. A three-phase occurs on line 4–5 near
bus 4 at 10 cycles and is cleared at 16 cycles.
Transformer T1 10 MVA, three-phase shell, 11 kV (delta)/33 kV (wye),
Z1 = Z0 = 8.25%, X1/R1 = X0/R0 = 15
Z1 = Z0 = 8.25%, X1/R1 = X0/R0 = 15
Grid source 100 MVA, 33 kV, Z1 = 0.95 + j9.96 pu, Z0 = 0.05 + j1.006 pu
Calculate the transient stability by CYME software.

diagram for Example 9.6 T1
Line
Line Line
G1 Δ− Grid source
B5
Y (earthed)
T2
Δ
B2
G2
Table 9.1 Machine data

Gen. Rating Active and reactive H (MJ/
generations MVA)
1 15 MVA, 11 kV, 2P, 90% pf, round 10 MW, 3 Mvar 11.2
rotor type 5
2 30 MVA, 11 kV, 2P, 90% pf, round 20 MW, 4 Mvar 8
rotor type 5
Table 9.2 Load data Load

Bus no. Real power (MW) Reactive power (Mvar)
4 100 44
5 50 16
Table 9.3 Line data Bus no. R (X/mi) X (X/mi) B (lS/mi)

3–4 0.12 2.56 6.34
3–5 0.07 3.12 7.06
4–5 0.64 2.25 8.05
Solution
The circuit for simulation is drawn by CYME software and put all necessary data of
the equipment. The circuit under simulation is shown in Fig. 9.25, where the
three-phase fault is considered on line 4–5 near bus 4.
A three-phase fault is considered at bus 4 at 10 cycles, and it is cleared at 16
cycles. The simulation is carried out for 300 cycles, and the respective parameters
are drawn with respect to simulation time as shown in Figs. 9.26, 9.27, and 9.28.
Fig. 9.25 CYME simulation circuit for Example 9.6
Fig. 9.26 Machines rotor angles versus time for Example 9.6
Fig. 9.27 Different bus angles versus time for Example 9.6
Fig. 9.28 Machines electrical and mechanical powers versus time for Example 9.6
References
1. Glover JD, Overbye T, Sarma M (2017) Power system analysis and design, 6th edn. Cengage
Learning, USA, pp 1–942
2. Salam MA (2009) Fundamentals of power systems. Narosa Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., India,
pp 1–408
pp 1–726
4. Wildi T (2014) Electrical machines, drives and power systems, 6th edn. Pearson Education
Ltd., USA, pp 1–920
5. Sadat H (2010) Power system analysis, 3rd edn. PSA Publisher, USA, pp 1–772
USA, pp 1–934
7. El-Hawary ME (1995) Electrical power systems, Revised edn. Willey-IEEE Press, USA,
pp 1–808
Exercise Problems
9:1 The terminal voltage of a three-phase wye connected synchronous generator

is found to be 16 kV. The generator is connected to an infinite bus through a
transmission line. The reactance of the generator and transmission line is
given by 1.4 X and 1.0 X, respectively. The generator delivers the power of
85 MW to the infinite bus, and the infinite bus voltage is found to be 13 kV.
Calculate the torque angle, transmission line current, and three-phase reactive
power consumed by the transmission line.
9:2 A three-phase synchronous generator is having the terminal voltage 11 kV,
and it is connected to an infinite bus through a transmission line. The
reactance of the generator and transmission line are 0.12 X and 2.54,
respectively. The torque angle is found to be 35 , and the bus voltage at the
infinite bus is found to be 6.4 kV. Calculate the three-phase real power
delivers to the infinite bus and the transmission line current.
9:3 The input and output powers of a 50 Hz, 80 MVA, 8 MJ/MVA, 11 kV,
synchronous machine are found to be 20 MW and 12 MW, respectively.
Determine the kinetic energy stored in the rotor at synchronous speed,
accelerating power, acceleration, and torque angle at 15 cycles.
9:4 The stored energy in the rotor of a 4-pole, 50 Hz, 25 MVA synchronous
machine is found to be 175 MJ. Whereas the input and the output powers of
the machines are given as 25 MW and 21 MW, respectively. Calculate the
inertia constant, accelerating power, and acceleration.
9:5 The inertia constant of a synchronous machine is 5 MJ/MVA, and it is
connected to an infinite bus through a transmission line as shown in
Fig. P9.1. The generator delivers a real power of 0.7 per unit at a 0.95 power
factor lagging to the infinite bus. Find the per unit apparent power, line
current, generated voltage, synchronizing power coefficient, undamped
angular frequency of oscillation, and period of oscillation.
Fig. P9.1 Single-line B1 B2 B3

diagram for Problem 9.5 0.10 pu V3 = 1
G
0.24 pu
0.12 pu
Line
9:6 The inertia constant of A 50 Hz synchronous machine is 5 MJ/MVA and the

excitation voltage is Ef ¼ 1:1 j15 pu. The generator is connected to an
infinite bus through a transmission line, and the infinity bus voltage is
Vib ¼ 1 j0 pu. The total reactance between the generator and the infinite bus
is found to be 0.42 pu. Determine the synchronizing power coefficient,
undamped angular frequency of oscillation, and period of oscillation.
9:7 A substation supplies 120 kV through the transmission lines to a load ter-
minal. The voltage at the load terminals is found 11 kV, and the total
reactance is given as 0.24 pu. Calculate the maximum power transferred to
the load.
9:8 Two generators are connected in parallel to a busbar. The necessary data for
the generators are given below.
Generator 1 100 MVA, 0.85 power factor, 13.8 kV, 3000 rpm, H1 = 7 MJ/
MVA
Generator 2 150 MVA, 0.85 power factor, 13.8 kV, 3000 rpm, H2 = 5 MJ/
MVA
Find the equivalent inertia constant, total kinetic energy, and rotor acceler-
ation if the input power of generator 1 is 90 MW. Consider a common base
of 100 MVA.
9:9 Two generators are connected in parallel to a busbar. The necessary data for
the generators are given below.
Generator 1 160 MVA, 0.95 power factor, 11.75 kV, H1 = 8 MJ/MVA
Generator 2 150 MVA, 0.95 power factor, 11.75 kV, H2 = 6 MJ/MVA
Calculate the equivalent inertia constant, and the total combined energy
kinetic energy, and rotor acceleration if the input power of generator 2 is
180 MW. Consider a common base of 100 MVA.
9:10 A synchronous machine with inertia constant of 6 MJ/MVA is connected to
an infinite bus as shown in Fig. P9.2. The generator delivers real power and
reactive power to the infinite bus are 0.65 pu and 0.85, respectively.

diagram for Problem 9.10 0.13pu 0.26 pu V3 = 1
0.10 pu
G 0.26 pu
F
B1 B2 B3 B4
0.10 pu 0.10 pu
0.15 pu
0.13pu
G B7
Vib = 1 0 pu
E f = 1.13pu 0.15 pu
0.10 pu B5 B6 0.10 pu
0.13pu

diagram for Problem 9.12 T1
G1 Δ− Grid source
B5
Y (earthed)
T2
Δ
B2
G2
A three-phase fault occurs on the system at point F and subsequently cleared

by the circuit breaker operation. Under prefault condition of the lines, cal-
culate the generated voltage, initial torque angle, maximum torque angle,
critical clearing angle, and critical clearing time. During fault (impedance
0.09 pu), calculate the fault clearing angle and time.
9:11 A 50 Hz generator with a 6 MJ/MVA inertia constant is connected to an
infinite bus through a single transmission line as shown in Fig. P9.3. The real
power delivers to the infinite bus is found to be 0.84 pu. A temporary
three-phase fault occurs on the line, at busbar 6. Find the fault clearing angle
and fault clearing time at pre-fault.
9:12 Fig. P9.4 shows a single-line diagram where two generators are connected
with a grid source through transformers (delta-earthed wye) and transmission
lines. Some data are shown in Tables P9.1, P9.2, and P9.3. A three-phase
occurs on line 3-4 near bus 4 at 12 cycles and is cleared at 16 cycles.
Z1 = Z0 = 10%, X1/R1 = X0/R0 = 25
Z1 = Z0 = 12%, X1/R1 = X0/R0 = 30
Table P9.1 Machine data

Gen. Rating Active and reactive H (MJ/
generations MVA)
rotor type 5
rotor type 5
Table P9.2 Load data Load

4 100 44
5 50 16
Table P9.3 Line data Bus no. R (X/mi) X (X/mi) B (lS/mi)

3–4 0.12 2.56 6.34
3–5 0.07 3.12 7.06
4–5 0.64 2.25 8.05
4–5 0.34 2.2 7.67

diagram for Problem 9.13 T1
Line
G Line Line
Δ− Grid source
B5
Δ−
T2
B2
Grid source 100 MVA, 33 kV, Z1 = 0.83 + j10.5 pu, Z0 = 0.07 + j1.2
pu

9:13 Fig. P9.5 shows a single-line diagram where two generators are connected
with a grid source through transformers (delta-earthed wye) and transmission
lines. Some data are shown in Tables P9.4, P9.5, and P9.6. A three-phase
occurs on line 3-4 near bus 4 at 12 cycles and is cleared at 16 cycles.
Table P9.4 Machine data

Gen./ Rating Active and reactive H (MJ/
motor generations MVA)
G 25 MVA, 11 kV, 2P, 85% pf, round rotor 10 MW, 3 Mvar 10
type 5
M Three-phase, 1200 kW, 6.4 kV, 1800 rpm, – –
85% pf, 90% efficiency
Table P9.5 Load data Load

4 120 50
5 76 30
Table P9.6 Line data Bus no. R (X/mi) X (X/mi) B (lS/mi)

3–4 0.12 2.56 6.34
3–5 0.07 3.12 7.06
4–5 0.34 2.2 7.67

Z1 = Z0 = 11%, X1/R1 = X0/R0 = 22
Transformer T2 45 MVA, three-phase shell, 22 kV (delta)/0.48 kV (wye),
Z1 = Z0 = 13%, X1/R1 = X0/R0 = 28
Grid source 100 MVA, 22 kV, Z1 = 0.93 + j10.2 pu, Z0 = 0.08 + j1.25
pu

Chapter 10
Power System Harmonics
10.1 Introduction
The concept of power system harmonics is not a new phenomenon. In 1916,

scientist Steinmetz studied and published the effect of harmonics in three-phase
power systems. At the time, the main focus was given on third harmonic currents
caused by saturated iron in electrical machines such as transformers and machines.
Steinmetz introduced the first delta connections for blocking third harmonic
currents.
Oscillation of voltage and current waveforms that follow the mathematical form
of a sine or cosine function is known as a clean waveform or undistorted waveform.
Voltage waveform distortions are typically created by generators, while current
distortion results from loads. These distortions of voltage or current occur in the
form of oscillations, which occur more frequently than 50 or 60 Hz and are called
harmonics, as shown in Fig. 10.1.
Harmonics affect the quality of AC system delivery to home and other facilities
and reduce the performance of electronics equipment that uses the AC system.
Harmonics increase energy costs and reduce the lifespan of the electronics hardware
system. It can overheat a conductor that can trigger fires. A sine wave or clean wave
is a periodic wave that follows symmetrical and repeating patterns. The distorted
periodic waveform is defined as the combination of a fundamental wave and one or
more harmonic waves. A perfect sinusoid with a constant frequency and amplitude
is known as perfect power quality. Less than perfect power quality occurs when a
voltage waveform is distorted by transients or harmonics, changes in amplitude, or
deviations in frequency. Frequencies that are not integer multiples of fundamental
power system frequency are called interharmonics.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3212-2_10
462 10 Power System Harmonics
Fig. 10.1 Harmonic patterns

Fundamental
pure sine wave
Plus
3rd harmonic
Equals
Harmonically
distorted
waveform
10.2 Generation of Harmonics
The loads are classified as linear load and nonlinear load. The linear load is defined
as a load which draws current from the supply that is proportional to the supply
voltage. The nonlinear load is defined as a load that its impedance changes with the
supply voltage. Due to this changing impedance, the current draw by the nonlinear
load is also nonlinear, i.e., non-sinusoidal in nature.
Power semiconductor devices are used during power conversion from AC to
DC, DC to DC, DC to AC, and AC to AC. During this power conversion, semi-
conductor devices constitute the largest nonlinear loads connected to the electric
power systems. In the industry, these converters are used for adjustable speed (or
variable frequency) drives, uninterruptable power supplies, switch-mode power
supplies and draw nonlinear currents. As a result, the supply voltage is distorted at
the point of common coupling (PCC).
Harmonics come from commercial and residential single-phase supplies such as
fluorescent lighting, adjustable speed drivers for AVAC, and elevators and indus-
trial loads.
Nonlinear industrial loads are generally grouped into three categories. There are
three-phase power converters, arcing devices (arc furnaces, arc welder), and sat-
urable devices (transformer, motor).
10.3 Single-Phase Circuit with Linear Load 463
10.3 Single-Phase Circuit with Linear Load
Consider a single-phase circuit where sinusoidal voltage supplies current to a linear

load as shown in Fig. 10.2. In this circuit, the expressions for voltage and current
can be written as,
pffiffiffi
vðtÞ ¼ 2V sin xt ð10:1Þ
pffiffiffi
iðtÞ ¼ 2I sinðxt /Þ ð10:2Þ
Instantaneous power is defined as the product of instantaneous voltage and

current, and it is expressed as,
pðtÞ ¼ vðtÞiðtÞ ð10:3Þ
pðtÞ ¼ 2VI sin xt sinðxt /Þ ð10:4Þ
pðtÞ ¼ VI cos / VI cosð2xt /Þ ð10:5Þ
pðtÞ ¼ VI cos / VI cos 2xt cos / VI sin 2xt sin / ð10:6Þ
pðtÞ ¼ VI cos /ð1 cos 2xtÞ VI sin / sin 2xt ¼ pa þ pq ð10:7Þ
pa ¼ VI cos /ð1 cos 2xtÞ ð10:8Þ
pq ¼ VI sin / sin 2xt ð10:9Þ
The average active power is the average of instantaneous power during time
period t0 to T þ t0 . Then, the following equation for active power can be written as,
Z T þ t0
1
P¼ pðtÞ dt ¼ VI cos / ð10:10Þ
T t0
Fig. 10.2 A circuit with a

load i (t )
v(t )
Load
The reactive power can be written as,
Q , VI sin / ð10:11Þ
pðtÞ ¼ Pð1 cos 2xtÞ Q sin 2xt ð10:12Þ
Example 10.1
A linear load of impedance ZL ¼ 4 þ 12 X is connected in series with a voltage
pffiffiffi
source of vðtÞ ¼ 2ð220 sin xtÞ. Determine the instantaneous active power,
instantaneous reactive power, average power, reactive power, apparent power, and
power factor.
Solution
The current in the circuit is,
pffiffiffi
vðtÞ 2ð220 sin xtÞ
iðtÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ 24:6 sinðxt 71:56 ÞA ð10:13Þ
ZL 4 þ j12
According to Eq. (10.8), the instantaneous reactive power is calculated as,

pffiffiffi
pa ¼ 2 220 24:6 cos 71:56 ð1 cos 2 314tÞ ð10:15Þ
pa ¼ 2420:96ð1 cos 628tÞ W ð10:16Þ
According to Eq. (10.9), the instantaneous reactive power is,

pffiffiffi
pq ¼ VI sin / sin 2xt ¼ 2 220 24:6 sin 71:56 sin 628t ð10:17Þ
pq ¼ 7260:75 sin 628t Var ð10:18Þ
Average power is calculated as,
P ¼ 2420:96 W ð10:19Þ
The reactive power is determined as,
Q ¼ 7260:75 Var ð10:20Þ
The apparent power is calculated as,

pffiffiffi
S¼ 2 220 24:6 ¼ 7653:72VA ð10:21Þ
10.3 Single-Phase Circuit with Linear Load 465
The power factor is calculated as,
pf ¼ cos 71:56 ¼ 0:31 ð10:22Þ

pffiffiffi
A voltage source vðtÞ ¼ 2ð240 sin xtÞ V is connected in series with a linear load
whose impedance is ZL ¼ 3 þ 8 X. Calculate the total instantaneous power,
instantaneous active power, instantaneous reactive power, average power, reactive
power, and apparent power.
10.4 Single-Phase with Nonlinear Load
Distorted current waveform usually creates heat in the power delivery equipment
resolving a nonlinear waveform into a sinusoidal component and is called harmonic
analysis. Harmonic analysis will determine heating effect due to nonlinear current
flowing to circuit breakers and transformers. Consider the nonlinear load and the
expressions for the voltage and current are [1, 2]
pffiffiffi
vðtÞ ¼ 2V sin xt ð10:23Þ
pffiffiffi X
1
iðtÞ ¼ 2 In sinðnxt /n Þ ð10:24Þ
n¼1

pffiffiffi pffiffiffi X
1
pðtÞ ¼ 2V sin xt 2 In sinðnxt /n Þ ð10:25Þ
n¼1
X
1
pðtÞ ¼ V In 2 sin xt sinðnxt /n Þ ð10:26Þ
n¼1
X
1
pðtÞ ¼ V In 2 sin xt sinð2nxt /n nxtÞ ð10:27Þ
n¼1
X
1
pðtÞ ¼ V In ½cos /n cosð2nxt /n Þ ð10:28Þ
n¼1
X
1
pðtÞ ¼ VI1 2 sin xt sinðxt /1 Þ þ In 2 sin xt sinðnxt /n Þ ð10:29Þ
n¼2
X
1
pðtÞ ¼ VI1 2 sin xt sinðxt /1 Þ þ V In ½cos /n cosð2nxt /n Þ ð10:30Þ
n¼2
pðtÞ ¼ VI1 cos /1 VI1 cosð2xt /1 Þ

X1
ð10:31Þ
þ VIn ½cos /n cos 2nxt cos /n sin /n sin 2nxt
n¼2
pðtÞ ¼ VI1 cos /1 VI1 cosð2xt /1 Þ VI1 sin /1 sin 2xt

X1
ð10:32Þ
þ VIn ½cos /n cos 2nxt cos /n sin /n sin 2nxt
n¼2
From Eq. (10.32), the average active power (P) and reactive power (Q) can be
written as,
P ¼ P1 ¼ VI1 cos /1 ð10:33Þ
Q ¼ Q1 ¼ VI1 sin /1 ð10:34Þ
Squared Eqs. (10.33) and (10.34) and adding yields,
P21 þ Q21 ¼ ðVI1 cos /1 Þ2 þ ðVI1 sin /1 Þ2 ð10:35Þ

P21 þ Q21 ¼ ðVI1 Þ2 sin /21 þ cos /21 ð10:36Þ
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
VI1 ¼ P21 þ Q21 ð10:37Þ
The apparent power (S) can be written as,
S ¼ VI ð10:38Þ
Squared Eq. (10.38) yields,
S2 ¼ V 2 I 2 ð10:39Þ
The current (I) can be expressed as,

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
I¼ I12 þ I22 þ I32 þ I42 þ ð10:40Þ
10.4 Single-Phase with Nonlinear Load 467
S2 ¼ V 2 ðI12 þ I22 þ I32 þ I42 þ Þ ð10:41Þ
S2 ¼ V 2 I12 þ V 2 ðI22 þ I32 þ I42 þ Þ ð10:42Þ
The first part of Eq. (10.42) can be modified as,
S2 ¼ ðVI1 cos /1 Þ2 þ ðVI1 sin /1 Þ2 þ V 2 ðI22 þ I32 þ I42 þ Þ ð10:43Þ
S2 ¼ P2 þ Q2 þ H 2 ð10:44Þ
H 2 ¼ V 2 ðI22 þ I32 þ I42 þ Þ ð10:45Þ
where H is the harmonic power and its unit is volt-ampere (VA). It depends on the
harmonic currents whereas P and Q depend on the fundamental component of the
current.
To extend the knowledge on harmonics, fundamental power factor and distortion
factor need to be defined. Fundamental power factor is defined as the cosine angle
between the fundamental voltage and fundamental current, and it can be expressed
as,
fpf ¼ cosð/V1 /I1 Þ ¼ cos /1 ð10:46Þ
The ratio of fundamental apparent power to the total apparent power is known as
distortion factor (DF), and it can be expressed as,
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
P21 þ Q21
DF ¼ ð10:47Þ
VI

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ðVI1 cos /1 Þ2 þ ðVI1 sin /1 Þ2
DF ¼ ð10:48Þ
VI
VI1
DF ¼ ð10:49Þ
VI
I1
DF ¼ ¼ cos b ð10:50Þ
I
The ratio of average active power to the total apparent power is known as power
factor, and it can be expressed as,
P
pf ¼ ð10:51Þ
S
VI1 cos /1
pf ¼ ð10:52Þ
VI
I1
pf ¼ cos /1 ð10:53Þ
I
pf ¼ cos b cos /1 ð10:54Þ
From Eq. (10.54), it is seen that the power factor is reduced by a factor of cos b
due to the presence of harmonics in the load current.
Example 10.2
The fundamental, second, third harmonic components of the current of a 120 V, 0.9
pf electrical system are found to be 1A, 2A, and 3A, respectively. Calculate the H,
P, Q, and distribution factor (DF).
Solution
The value of the current (I) is calculated as,
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
I¼ I12 þ I22 þ I32 þ I42 þ ¼ 12 þ 22 þ 32 ¼ 3:74 A ð10:55Þ
The average active power (P) is calculated as,
P ¼ P1 ¼ VI1 cos /1 ¼ 120 1 0:9 ¼ 108 W ð10:56Þ
The average reactive power (Q) is calculated as,
Q ¼ Q1 ¼ VI1 sin /1 ¼ 120 1 sinðcos1 0:9Þ ¼ 52:31 W ð10:57Þ
The harmonic power (H) is calculated as,

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
H¼V ðI22 þ I32 þ I42 þ Þ ¼ 120 ð22 þ 32 Þ ¼ 432:67 W ð10:58Þ
10.4 Single-Phase with Nonlinear Load 469
The distribution factor (DF) is calculated as,
I1 1
DF ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:27 ð10:59Þ
I 3:74
The distribution factor of a 110 V, 0.85 pf electrical system is found to be 0.35. The
fundamental and second harmonic components of the current are 2A and 4A,
respectively. Calculate the third harmonic component of the current, P, Q, and H.
10.5 Non-sinusoidal Voltage and Nonlinear Load
Consider a non-sinusoidal voltage is connected to nonlinear loads. In this case, the

voltage and the current can be expressed as [2],
X
1 pffiffiffi
vðtÞ ¼ Vdc þ 2Vn sinðnxt /vn Þ ð10:60Þ
n¼1
X
1 pffiffiffi
iðtÞ ¼ Idc þ 2In sinðnxt /in Þ ð10:61Þ
n¼1
Instantaneous power is defined as the power received at any instance of time at

its terminals, and it is expressed as the product of instantaneous voltage and current.
From Eqs. (10.60) and (10.61), the instantaneous power p(t) can be expressed
as,
" #" #
X1 pffiffiffi X1 pffiffiffi
pðtÞ ¼ Vdc þ 2Vn sinðnxt /vn Þ Idc þ 2In sinðnxt /in Þ
n¼1 n¼1
ð10:62Þ
X
1 pffiffiffi X
1 pffiffiffi
pðtÞ ¼ Vdc Idc þ Idc 2Vn sinðnxt /vn Þ þ Vdc 2In sinðnxt /in Þ
n¼1 n¼1
X
1 pffiffiffi X
1 pffiffiffi
þ 2In sinðnxt /in Þ 2Vn sinðnxt /vn Þ
n¼1 n¼1
ð10:63Þ
The fourth term of instantaneous power is expressed as,
X
1
piv ðtÞ ¼ Vn In ½cosð/in /iv Þ cosð2nxt /in /vn Þ ð10:64Þ
n¼1
X
1
piv ðtÞ ¼ Vn In ½cosð/in /iv Þ cosð2nxt ð/in /iv Þ 2/vn Þ ð10:65Þ
n¼1
The phase angle between nth harmonic current and voltage is defined as,
/n ¼ /in /vn ð10:66Þ
X
1
piv ðtÞ ¼ Vn In ½cos /n cosð2nxt 2/vn /n Þ ð10:67Þ
n¼1
Equation (10.67) can be expanded as,
X
1
piv ðtÞ ¼ Vn In ½cos /n cosð2nxt 2/vn Þ cos /n sinð2nxt 2/vn Þ sin /n
n¼1
ð10:68Þ
10.6 Non-sinusoidal Voltage and Nonlinear Loads Active

Power
The active power is usually consumed by an active element of a circuit. The active
power is always positive. From Eqs. (10.63) and (10.68), the expression for active
power is written as [2, 3],
X
1
pactive ðtÞ ¼ Vdc Idc þ Vn In cos /n ½1 cosð2nxt 2/vn Þ ð10:69Þ
n¼1
The average active power is defined as,

Z T
1
P¼ pðtÞ dt ð10:70Þ
T 0

Z " #
1 T X
1
P¼ Vdc Idc þ Vn In cos /n ½1 cosð2nxt 2/vn Þ dt ð10:71Þ
T 0 n¼1
10.6 Non-sinusoidal Voltage and Nonlinear Loads Active Power 471
The average power of cosð2nxt 2/vn Þ is zero; Eq. (10.71) can be modified as,
X
1
P ¼ Vdc Idc þ Vn In cos /n ð10:72Þ
n¼1
Expanding Eq. (10.72) yields,
P ¼ Vdc Idc þ V1 I1 cos /1 þ V2 I2 cos /2 þ V3 I3 cos /3 þ ð10:73Þ
P ¼ Pdc þ P1 þ PH ð10:74Þ
where,
Pdc ¼ Vdc Idc is the average active power due to DC components,
P1 ¼ V1 I1 cos /1 is the average fundamental active power,

P
PH ¼ V2 I2 cos /2 þ V3 I3 cos /3 þ ¼ Vh Ih cos /h is the average har-
h6¼1
monic active power.

Reactive Power
The maximum pulsating power over one cycle is known as reactive power. It can be
positive or negative depending on the phase angle between the voltage and the
current. The reactive power is positive when the coil consumes it. It is negative
when is usually consumed by an active element of a circuit. The reactive power is
represented by Q, and its unit of reactive power is Var, which stands for
volt-ampere reactive. The reactive power can be written as [2, 3],
X
1
Q¼ Vn In sin /n ð10:75Þ
n¼1
Expanding Eq. (10.75) yields,
Q ¼ V1 I1 sin /1 þ V2 I2 sin /2 þ V3 I3 sin /3 þ ð10:76Þ
Q ¼ Q1 þ QH ð10:77Þ
where
Q1 ¼ V1 I1 sin /1 is the fundamental reactive power,

P
QH ¼ V2 I2 sin /2 þ V3 I3 sin /3 þ ¼ Vh Ih sin /h is the harmonic reac-
h6¼1
tive power.
Example 10.3
The single-phase current and voltage expressions of an electrical system are given
pffiffiffi pffiffiffi pffiffiffi
as, vðtÞ ¼ 80 þ 2 110 sin xt þ 2 65 sinð2xt 25 Þ þ 2 35 sinð3xt 50 Þ
pffiffiffi p ffiffi
ffi pffiffiffi
and iðtÞ ¼ 10 þ 2 15 sinðxt 25 Þ þ 2 9 sinð2xt 50 Þ þ 2 4 sinð3xt 75 Þ.
Determine the average active power due to dc component, average fundamental and
harmonic active and reactive powers.
Solution
The value of the average active power due to the dc component is calculated as,
Pdc ¼ Vdc Idc ¼ 80 10 ¼ 800W ð10:78Þ
The value of the average active and reactive power due to the fundamental
components are calculated as,
P1 ¼ V1 I1 cos /1 ¼ 110 15 cosð0 25 Þ ¼ 1:5 kW ð10:79Þ
Q1 ¼ V1 I1 sin /1 ¼ 110 15 sinð0 25 Þ ¼ 697:32W ð10:80Þ
The value of the harmonic active and reactive powers is calculated as,
PH ¼ V2 I2 cos /2 þ V3 I3 cos /3
¼ 65 9 cosð25 50 Þ þ 35 4 cosð50 75 Þ ¼ 657:07W ð10:81Þ
QH ¼ V2 I2 sin /2 þ V3 I3 sin /3
¼ 65 9 sinð25 50 Þ þ 35 4 sinð50 75 Þ ¼ 306:4W ð10:82Þ

as, vðtÞ ¼ 40 þ 2 120 sin xt þ 2 85 sinð2xt 30 Þ þ 2 40 sinð3xt 60 Þ
and iðtÞ ¼ 20 þ 2 25 sinðxt 30 Þ þ 2 12 sinð2xt 60 Þ þ 2 7 sin
ð3xt 90 Þ. Calculate the average active power due to dc component, average
fundamental and harmonic active and reactive powers.
10.8 Non-sinusoidal Voltage and Nonlinear Loads Apparent Power 473

Apparent Power
The product of root mean square (rms) voltage and rms current is known as
apparent power. Apparent power is represented by S and its unit is volt-ampere
(VA). The rms values of voltage and current for nonlinear loads can be written as
[2, 4, 5],
V ¼ Vdc
2
þ V12 þ V22 þ V32 þ ð10:83Þ
I ¼ Idc
2
þ I12 þ I22 þ I32 þ ð10:84Þ
The apparent power is expressed as,

S ¼ VI ð10:85Þ

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiqffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
S¼ Vdc2 þ V2 þ V2 þ V2 þ
1 2 3
2 þ I2 þ I2 þ I2 þ
Idc 1 2 3 ð10:86Þ
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiqffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
S¼ Vdc2 þ V2 þ V2
1 H
2 þ I2 þ I2
Idc 1 H ð10:87Þ
where the expressions for harmonic voltage and current are written as,
X
VH2 ¼ V22 þ V32 þ ¼ Vh2 ð10:88Þ
h6¼1
X
IH2 ¼ I22 þ I32 þ ¼ Ih2 ð10:89Þ
h6¼1
Squared Eq. (10.87) yields,

2 2
S2 ¼ Vdc þ V12 þ VH2 Idc þ I12 þ IH2 ð10:90Þ
S2 ¼ Vdc
2 2
Idc þ V12 Idc
2
þ VH2 Idc
2
þ Vdc
2 2
I1 þ V12 I12 þ VH2 I12 þ Vdc
2 2
IH þ V12 IH2 þ VH2 IH2
ð10:91Þ
S2 ¼ Vdc
2 2
Idc þ V12 I12 þ VH2 IH2 þ Vdc
2 2
ðI1 þ IH2 Þ þ Idc
2
ðV12 þ VH2 Þ þ V12 IH2 þ VH2 I12
ð10:92Þ
S2 ¼ S2dc þ S21 þ S2H þ S2D ð10:93Þ

where the expressions for the apparent powers due to dc, fundamental, harmonic,
and distortion components are written as,
S2dc ¼ Vdc
2 2
Idc ð10:94Þ
S21 ¼ V12 I12 ð10:95Þ
S2H ¼ VH2 IH2 ð10:96Þ
S2D ¼ Vdc
2 2
2
ðV12 þ VH2 Þ þ V12 IH2 þ VH2 I12 ð10:97Þ
Equation (10.93) again can be modified by introducing apparent power due to

non-fundamental term (SN) as,
S2 ¼ S21 þ S2N ð10:98Þ
S2N ¼ Vdc
2 2
Idc þ VH2 IH2 þ Vdc
2 2
2
ðV12 þ VH2 Þ þ V12 IH2 þ VH2 I12 ð10:99Þ
In power system, the effect of dc component is usually considered negligible.

Then, the terms associated with dc component are considered zero, and the final
expression for non-fundamental apparent power is,
S2N ¼ VH2 IH2 þ V12 IH2 þ VH2 I12 ð10:100Þ
S2N ¼ S2H þ D2I þ D2V ð10:101Þ

SN ¼ S2H þ D2I þ D2V ð10:102Þ
where the expression for the apparent power due to distortion of voltage (DV) is
expressed as,
DV ¼ VH I1 ð10:103Þ
Apparent power due to voltage distortion or simply voltage distortion power is

equal to the product of the total harmonic voltage and fundamental component of
the current.
X
D V ¼ I1 Vh2 ðVarÞ ð10:104Þ
h6¼1
Similarly, the apparent power due to current distortion or simply current dis-
tortion power is equal to the product of the total harmonic current and fundamental
component of the voltage.
D I ¼ V 1 IH ð10:105Þ

X
DI ¼ V1 Ih2 ðVarÞ ð10:106Þ
h6¼1
Apparent power due to harmonic or simply harmonic apparent power is

expressed as,
SH ¼ V H I H ð10:107Þ
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
X X ffi
SH ¼ Vh2 Ih2 ð10:108Þ
h6¼1 h6¼1
The total harmonic distortion due to voltage and current is defined as the ratio of
harmonic voltage or current to the fundamental component of voltage or current.
These can be expressed as,
P 2ffi
Vh
VH h6¼1
THDV ¼ ¼ ð10:109Þ
V1 V1
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
P 2
Ih
IH h6¼1
THDI ¼ ¼ ð10:110Þ
I1 I1
From Eqs. (10.109) and (10.110), harmonic voltage and current can be
expressed as,
VH ¼ THDV V1 ð10:111Þ
IH ¼ I1 THDI ð10:112Þ
Substituting Eq. (10.111) into Eq. (10.103) and Eq. (10.112) into Eq. (10.105)
yields,
DV ¼ THDV V1 I1 ð10:113Þ
DI ¼ V1 I1 THDI ð10:114Þ
SH ¼ THDV V1 I1 THDI ð10:115Þ
Equations (10.113), (10.114) and (10.115) can be modified by putting the

expression of fundamental apparent power (S1 = V1I1) as,
DV ¼ THDV S1 ð10:116Þ
DI ¼ S1 THDI ð10:117Þ
SH ¼ THDV S1 THDI ð10:118Þ
From Eq. (10.116), the apparent power due to voltage is defined as the product
of fundamental apparent power and the total harmonic distortion due to voltage.
Similarly, from Eq. (10.117), the apparent power due to current is defined as the
product of fundamental apparent power and the total harmonic distortion due to
current. Whereas from Eq. (10.118), the apparent power due to harmonic is
equivalent to the product of the total harmonic distortion due to current and voltage
and the fundamental apparent power.
S2N ¼ ðTHDV S1 THDI Þ2 þ ðTHDV S1 Þ2 þ ðTHDI S1 Þ2 ð10:119Þ
In a power system, the total harmonic distortion due to current dominates more
than the voltage. Therefore, the effect of THDV on the calculation of
non-fundamental apparent power is neglected. In this case, Eq. (10.119) can be
modified by neglecting the first and second terms as,
S2N ðTHDI S1 Þ2 ð10:120Þ
SN THDI S1 ð10:121Þ
From Eq. (10.121), the non-fundamental apparent power is defined as the pro-
duct of the total harmonic distortion due to the current and the apparent power due
to the fundamental component. Non-fundamental apparent power will increase due
to increasing the total harmonic distortion due to current. Therefore, the loss will be
increased during the transfer of electrical power, and the power system network will
be less efficient.
Example 10.4
as, vðtÞ ¼ 40 þ 2 110 sin xt þ 2 75 sinð3xt 25 Þ þ 2 45 sinð5xt 50 Þ þ
pffiffiffi p ffiffi
ffi pffiffiffi
2 23 sinð7xt 75 Þ and iðtÞ ¼ 8 þ 2 12 sinðxt 25 Þ þ 2 7 sinð3xt 50 Þ þ
pffiffiffi p ffiffi
ffi
2 5 sinð5xt 75 Þ þ 2 3 sinð7xt 100 Þ. Calculate the SH, THDV, THDI,
DV, DI, and SN.
Solution
The value of the harmonic voltage is calculated as,
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
VH ¼ V32 þ V52 þ V72 ¼ 752 þ 452 þ 232 ¼ 90:44 V ð10:122Þ
The value of the harmonic current is calculated as,

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
IH ¼ I32 þ I52 þ I72 ¼ 72 þ 52 þ 32 ¼ 9:11 A ð10:123Þ
The value of the apparent power due to harmonic components of voltage and
current is calculated as,
SH ¼ VH IH ¼ 90:44 9:11 ¼ 823:90 VA ð10:124Þ
The total harmonic distortion due to voltage is calculated as,
VH 90:44
THDV ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:82 ð10:125Þ
V1 110
The total harmonic distortion due to current is calculated as,
IH 9:11
THDI ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:76 ð10:126Þ
I1 12
The value of the apparent power due to distortion of voltage (DV) is calculated
as,
DV ¼ VH I1 ¼ 90:44 12 ¼ 1085:28 VA ð10:127Þ
The value of the apparent power due to the distortion of current (DI) is calculated
as,
DI ¼ V1 IH ¼ 110 9:11 ¼ 1002:1 VA ð10:128Þ
The value of the non-fundamental apparent power is calculated as,

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
SN ¼ S2H þ D2I þ D2V ¼ 823:902 þ 1002:12 þ 1085:282 ¼ 1691:40 VA
ð10:129Þ

An electrical system has the following single-phase current and voltage.
vðtÞ ¼ 320 þ 2 120 sin xt þ 2 67 sinð2xt 30 Þ þ 2 34 sinð3xt
pffiffiffi
60 Þ þ 2 17 sinð4xt 90 Þ
pffiffiffi pffiffiffi pffiffiffi pffiffiffi
iðtÞ ¼ 5 þ 2 16 sinðxt 30 Þ þ 2 9 sinð2xt 60 Þ þ 2 6 sinð3xt 90 Þ þ 2
4 sinð4xt 120 Þ. Find SN.
10.9 Modeling Concept of Load
The term load represents a single device that consumes active and reactive power
connected to a power system. The load is broadly divided into static and dynamic.
Static load represents the active and reactive powers at any instant of time as
functions of the bus voltage magnitude and the frequency at the same instant. Static
loads are counted for passive elements such as resistive, inductive, and capacitive.
The dynamic load is a load that represents the active and reactive powers at any
instant of time as functions of the bus voltage magnitude and the frequency at the
last instant of time. Examples of dynamic loads are the loads driven by the motor.
According to the basic definition of power (P), the following relation can be written
as,
V2
P ¼ VI ¼ ¼ I2R ð10:130Þ
R
According to Eq. (10.130), the static load model is classified as constant current,
constant impedance, and constant power. In a constant current static load model, the
power varies directly with the voltage magnitude. In a constant impedance static
load model, the power varies directly with the square of the voltage magnitude. It is
often known as a constant admittance load model. Whereas in a constant power
static load model, the power does not change with changes the voltage magnitude.
Consider a load device whose active and reactive power at the rated voltage (V0)
is P0 and Q0, respectively. However, these parameters are considered initial bus
values during modeling. Again, consider the load consumes active power P and
reactive power Q at voltage V. At constant current static load model, the active and
reactive power can be expressed as [6],
1
P V
¼ ð10:131Þ
P0 V0
10.9 Modeling Concept of Load 479
1
Q V
¼ ð10:132Þ
Q0 V0
At constant impedance static load model, the active and reactive power can be
expressed as,
2
P V
¼ ð10:133Þ
P0 V0
2
Q V
¼ ð10:134Þ
Q0 V0
At constant power static load model, the active and reactive power can be
expressed as,
0
P V
¼ ð10:135Þ
P0 V0
0
Q V
¼ ð10:136Þ
Q0 V0
The static load models can be further extended as exponential and polynomial.
The static load model in an exponential case can be expressed as,
np
V
P ¼ P0 ð10:137Þ
V0
np
V
Q ¼ Q0 ð10:138Þ
V0
where np and nq are the exponent parameters of the load. By setting these
parameters to 0, 1, and 2 represent the constant power, constant current and con-
stant impedance load models. The values of the exponential parameters based on
reference [6] are mentioned in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1 Values of exponential parameters for certain loads [6]

Loads np nq
Induction motor (half load) 0.2 1.5
Induction motor (full load) 0.1 2.8
Incandescent lamp 1.6 0
Fluorescent lamp 1.2 3
Heating 2 0
The static load model in a polynomial case can be represented by the combi-
nation of constant power, constant current, and constant impedance load models.
These can be represented as,
" 2 #
V V
P ¼ P0 a0 þ a1 þ a2 ð10:139Þ
V0 V0
" 2 #
V V
Q ¼ Q0 b0 þ b1 þ b2 ð10:140Þ
V0 V0
where a0, a1, a2 and b0, b1, b2 are the constant parameters of the load and the sum of
these parameters is equal to one, i.e.,
a0 þ a1 þ a2 ¼ 1 ð10:141Þ
b0 þ b1 þ b2 ¼ 1 ð10:142Þ
The frequency dependency of a static load model is represented by the frequency

deviation and frequency sensitivity parameter as,
fd ¼ 1 þ af ðf f0 Þ ð10:143Þ
where f is the frequency of the bus voltage, f0 is the rated frequency of the load, and
af is the sensitivity parameter.
The static load modeling with the frequency-dependent is obtained by multi-
plying Eq. (10.143) to any of exponential or polynomial expressions. Now, mul-
tiplying Eq. (10.137) by (10.143) yields,
np
V
P ¼ P0 1 þ af ðf f0 Þ ð10:144Þ
V0
10.10 Resistive Load Modeling
A resistive load radiates heat when energized with rated voltage. Ohm’s law rep-
resents the relationship between the resistance, voltage, and current as,
V ¼ IR ð10:145Þ
The following expression defines the resistance as,

10.10 Resistive Load Modeling 481
l
R¼q ð10:146Þ
A
where l is the length of the conductor, A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor,
and q is the resistivity of a conductor. The resistivity is temperature-dependent and
is expressed as,
q ¼ q0 ½1 þ aðT T0 Þ ð10:147Þ
where
q0 is the resistivity at 300°K,
a is the temperature coefficient at 300°K,
T0 is the temperature at 300°K,
T is the normal operating temperature.
In an operating condition, the heating of resistance depends on T. This tem-
perature (T) depends on the current flowing in the resistance. Therefore, T is
equivalent to I and a is replaced by a current coefficient, b. Equation (10.147) can
be modified as,
q ¼ q0 ð1 þ bIÞ ð10:148Þ
l
R ¼ q0 ð1 þ bIÞ ð10:149Þ
A
l l
R ¼ q0 þb I ð10:150Þ
A A
R ¼ R0 þ R1 I ð10:151Þ
where the expression of resistances is written as,
l
R0 ¼ q0 ð10:152Þ
A
l
R1 ¼ b ð10:153Þ
A
V ¼ IðR0 þ R1 IÞ ð10:154Þ
V ¼ R1 I 2 þ R0 I ð10:155Þ
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
R0 R20 þ 4VR1
I1;2 ¼ ð10:156Þ
2R1
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
R0 R20 V
I1;2 ¼ 2
þ ð10:157Þ
2R1 4R1 R1
The power can be expressed as,

" sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi# " sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi#2
R0 R20 V R0 R20 V
P¼V 2
þ ¼ 2
þ R ð10:158Þ
2R1 4R1 R1 2R1 4R1 R1
From Eq. (10.158), it is seen that the power can be calculated if other parameters
are known.
10.11 Modeling of Induction Motor Load
Three-phase and single-phase induction motors with different ratings are used in
different types of industries. Students can get more knowledge from the course of
electrical machines on classifications, equivalent circuits, and applications of
induction motors. However, in a power system, most of the stability analysis uses
dynamic model based on the equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 10.3.
The no-load circuit either is used across the source or across the load with any
significant error. The no-load circuit consists of a parallel combination of magne-
tizing resistance and inductance. However, the value of the magnetizing resistance
is very small compared to magnetizing inductance, and it can be neglected in the
dynamic model. The more simplified dynamic model is shown in Fig. 10.4.
R1 X1 V2 X2
I g = I1 I0 I2
R2
Eg Rm Xm s
Fig. 10.3 Equivalent circuit of induction motor

10.11 Modeling of Induction Motor Load 483
Fig. 10.4 Simplified R1 X1 V2 X2

equivalent circuit
I g = I1 I0 I2
+
+ R2
E2
Eg E1 Xm s
−
−
From the circuit in Fig. 10.4, the expression of current I2 is written as,
E2
I2 ¼ R 2 ð10:159Þ
s þ X2
From Fig. 10.3, the active power and the reactive power absorbed by the circuit
is expressed as,
V22 R2
P¼ þ I12 R1 þ I22 ð10:160Þ
Rm s
V22
Q¼ þ I12 X1 þ I22 X2 ð10:161Þ
Xm
10.12 Harmonic Simulation
Harmonics are generated by a nonlinear load such as battery charger, variable

frequency drives, arc furnace, and shunt frequency source. They draw current at the
fundamental frequency and inject current to the network at a higher frequency by an
odd multiplier (3, 5, 7, 9, etc.) of the fundamental frequency. Harmonic currents
create excess heating in the conductor, motor and transformer due to I2R whereas
the harmonic voltages distort the sinusoidal voltage waveforms that create the high
peaks. These high peaks damage the insulation and shorten the life of the high
voltage equipment. The normal operation of protective devices such as fuse, relay,
and circuit breaker is disturbed due to the presence of excessive harmonic current.
However, a suitable rating of the capacitor is used in the network to partially and
fully remove the harmonic currents as the capacitive reactance decreases with
increasing frequency. A five-bus power system is shown in Fig. 10.5. Here, the grid
source is connected at bus 1, the generator is connected at bus 5, and a shunt
frequency source is connected at bus 3. The line and transformer data are shown in
Tables 10.1 and 10.2, respectively.
Fig. 10.5 A single-line diagram drawn by CYME
Table 10.2 Line data

Line R X B
(X/mi) (X/mi) (lS/mi)
2–3 0.24 0.85 6.78
2–4 0.14 4.57 10.34
3–4 0.21 2.95 8.68
Source S1 100 MVA, operating and nominal voltage is 12.47 kV, Z1 = 0.1 + j0.6
X, Z0 = 0.5 + j2.0 X.
Generator 17.5 MVA hydro, 7.33 kV, 0.80 pf.
The data of each equipment such as source, transformer, generator, load, and
balanced overhead line need to be input through the equipment link. In addition, the
harmonic order along with magnitudes and phase angles needs to be assigned
through the equipment link as shown in Table 10.6. Once all equipment data are
entered, select the harmonic analysis and keep the default global setting and run the
software. Finally, different graphs such as voltage and current distortions and
impedance scans are plotted (Tables 10.3 and 10.4).
CYME simulation results are plotted as shown in Figs. 10.6, 10.7, 10.8, 10.9,
10.10, 10.11 and 10.12.
10.12 Harmonic Simulation 485
Table 10.3 Transformer data

Transformer Impedance (%) Connection X1/R1 = X0/
(D-Y earthed) R0
T1: 3/ shell, 15MVA, Z1 = Z0 = 8.25 12.47 kV/33 kV 18
liquid-filled
T2: 3/ shell, 5MVA, liquid-filled 8.25 7.33 kV/33 kV 12
Table 10.4 Line data Harmonic order Magnitude Angles

(A) (deg.)
3 4 30
5 8 30
7 12 30
9 6 30
11 19 30
Fig. 10.6 Voltage distortions profile for bus 5

Fig. 10.7 Voltage distortions profile for bus 2
10.13 Power Quality Parameters and Measurement
Power quality has become important issues for power utility companies and elec-
trical contractors due to the use of sophisticated control equipment at the substa-
tions and due to nonlinear loads. Equipment such as smart devices, battery chargers,
and other variable frequency devices create disturbances in the power system
network. There are sophisticated equipment for monitoring and measuring power
quality anomalies such as transients, sags, swells, harmonic distortions, voltage
flickers, overvoltages, and undervoltages [5, 7].
Sags: A decrease in rms voltage or current to between 0.1 and 0.9 pu at the
power frequency for durations between of 0.5 cycles to 1 min. It is often known as
voltage dips. Sags or voltage dips occur due to the energization of heavy loads,
starting of large induction motor and single-line-to-ground fault. In a
single-line-to-ground fault, the magnitude of the current is very high, but the
voltage is very low.
Swells: It is the opposite of sag. An increase in rms voltage or current to between
1.1 and 1.8 pu at the power frequency for durations of 0.5 cycles to 1 min. The
10.13 Power Quality Parameters and Measurement 487
Fig. 10.8 Current distortions profile for transfer 2
main causes of swells are switching off large loads, energizing a capacitor bank, and
momentarily overvoltage.
Undervoltage: A reduction in rms voltage between to 0.8 pu to 0.9 pu at the
power frequency for more than one minute is known as undervoltage, and the main
causes of undervoltage are due to less supply capability.
Overvoltage: An increase in rms voltage between to 1.1 pu to 1.2 pu at the
power frequency for more than one minute is known as overvoltage, and the main
causes of undervoltage are due to lightning, ferroresonance, high voltage equipment
switching, and insulation fault.
Undervoltage: A reduction in rms voltage between to 0.8 pu to 0.9 pu at the
power frequency for more than one minute is known as undervoltage, and the main
causes of undervoltage are due to draw a high current by an induction motor, high
reactive power with low power factor, etc.
PCC: It is abbreviated as the point of common coupling as shown in Fig. 10.13.
The common connection point where the power utility and the consumer have
common access to measure harmonic indices is known as the point of common
coupling.
Fig. 10.9 Voltage distortions bar profiles for different buses
Interruptions: A decrease in the voltage level of less than 0.1 pu for up to

one-minute duration is known as interruptions. It is categorized as short-term (up to
3 min) and long-term interruptions (more than 3 min). The main causes of inter-
ruptions are due to equipment failure or malfunctioning, damage to transmission
lines, or poles, etc.
Flicker: The flicker means fluctuation of line voltage. The fluctuation of line
voltage occurs due to continuous and rapid changes in load current. The voltage
will fluctuate due to changing the load current, which causes changing a light. This
voltage fluctuation on a light or lamp is usually perceived as flicker by the human
eyes.
Electrical Noise: It is an unwanted high-frequency signal (less than 200 kHz)
which is superimposed on a low-frequency voltage or current in a power system.
There are many causes for the electrical nose. Some examples are improper
grounding, variable speed drive devices, corona, electrical interference etc.
DC offset: DC offset is the presence of DC voltage and current in an AC system.
The main causes of dc offset are due to the operation of electronic devices.
Fig. 10.10 Current distortions profiles for transformer 1
THD: The total harmonic distortions due to voltage and current are already
defined in Eqs. (10.109) and (10.110), respectively. However, it can be extended as
the ratio of the square root of the individual harmonic components squared to the
fundamental component of the current and can be expressed as,
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
I32 þ I52 þ I72
THDI ¼ ð10:162Þ
I1
TDD: It is abbreviated as the total demand distortion. It is defined as the ratio of

the square root of the individual harmonic components squared to the maximum
demand load current (IL at the fundamental frequency) at PCC, and it can be
expressed as,
I32 þ I52 þ I72
TDDI ¼ ð10:163Þ
IL
According to IEEE Std 519-2014 [6], at the PCC, system owners or operators
should limit line-to-neutral (phase) voltage harmonics as daily 99th percentile very
Fig. 10.11 Current distortions bar profile for transformer 2
short time (3 s) and weekly 95th percentile short time (10 min) values should be
less than the values given in Table 10.5.
Again, according to IEEE Std 519-2014, the current distortion limits for the
users connected to a system where the rated voltage at the PCC is 120 V to 69 kV
and is mentioned in Table 10.6. In Table 10.6, the following points are
summarized.
• Daily 99th percentile very short time (3 s) harmonic currents should be less than
2.0 times the values given in Table 10.6.
• Weekly 99th percentile short time (10 min) harmonic currents should be less
than 1.5 times the values given in Table 10.6.
• Weekly 95th percentile short time (10 min) harmonic currents should be less
than the values given in Table 10.6.
• TDD up to 50th order only.
• The maximum demand current value is established at the PCC and should be
taken as the sum of the currents corresponding to the maximum demand during
each of the twelve previous months divided by 12.
Fig. 10.12 Impedance profile bus 2
Table 10.5 Voltage distortion limits [7]

Bus voltage Vb at PCC Individual harmonic (%) THD
(%)
Vb 1 kV 5.0 8.0
1 kV\Vb 69 kV 3.0 5.0
69 kV\Vb 161 kV 1.5 2.5
161 kV\Vb 1.0 1.5a
a
High voltage equipment can reach up to 2%
Fluke Corporation developed a sophisticated power quality analyzer (F438-2)

which is used widely as shown in Fig. 10.14. It is a “Class A” tool that complies
with international standards with a measurement accuracy of 0:1%, 500 kHz
bandwidth, and 200 kHz sample rate. It has a wideband measurement capability
and can measure harmonics of up to 80 kHz. The tool provides an inverter mea-
surement facility and can measure power and efficiency across two separate circuits.
Table 10.6 Current distortion limits [7]

Maximum harmonic current distortion in percent of IL
Individual harmonic order (odd harmonics)a,b
Isc =IL 3 h\11 11 h\17 17 h\23 23 h\35 35 h 50 TDD
\20c 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0
20\50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0
50\100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
100\1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
[ 1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0
a
Even harmonics are limited to 25% of the odd harmonic limits above
b
Current distortions that result in a dc offset, i.e., half-wave rectifier converters are not allowed
c
All power generation equipment are limited to these values of current distortion, regardless of the
actual Isc/IL
Isc is the maximum current at PCC
IL is the maximum demand load current (fundamental frequency) at PCC
Fig. 10.13 Identification of bus 1 bus 2 bus 3

PCC between utility and line
consumer
G xer
xer
bus 4 PCC
IL Consumer
I 5 I1
I7 I3
Different types of power line anomalies have been measured by the Fluke
Corporation power quality analyzer F438-2, and the measurement results are shown
in Fig. 10.15.
Example 10.5
A three-phase, 60 Hz source delivers power to a car manufacturing company.
Section 10.1 draws a current of 100A at a fundamental frequency. Section 10.2
draws 100A at a fundamental frequency along with 14A, 11A, 8A for the third,
fifth, and seventh harmonic components of current, respectively. Calculate the
THDI and TDDI.
Solution
The value of the load current at the fundamental frequency is calculated as,
Fig. 10.14 A F438-2 Power Quality Analyzer courtesy by Fluke Corporation
Transient voltages Interruptions Harmonics
Voltage swells
Frequency fluctuations
Higher-order harmonics
Unbalance
Voltage dips
Inrush current
Fig. 10.15 Power line voltage and current variations

IL ¼ 100 þ 100 ¼ 200 A ð10:164Þ
The value of the THDI can be calculated as,

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
I32 þ I52 þ I72 142 þ 112 þ 82
THDI ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:20 ð10:165Þ
I1 100
The value of the TDDI can be calculated as,

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
I32 þ I52 þ I72 142 þ 112 þ 82
TDDI ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:10 ð10:167Þ
IL 200

A three-phase, 60 Hz source delivers power to an automobile battery manufacturing
company. Section 10.1 draws a current of 100A at a fundamental frequency.
Section 10.2 draws 100A at a fundamental frequency along with 13A, 11A, 7A, 3
A for the third, fifth, seventh, and ninth harmonic components of current, respec-
tively. Calculate the THDI and TDDI.
References
1. Das JC (2015) Power system harmonics and passive filter design. First Edition, IEEE Press
Wiley, pp 1–844, USA
2. Emanuels AE (2010) Power definitions and the physical mechanism of power flow. 1st edn,
Wiley, pp 1– 273, UK
3. Chattopadhaya S, Mitra M, Sengupta S (2011) Electric power quality. First, Springer, pp 1–
279, New York
4. Arrillaga Jos, Watson Neville R (2003) Power system harmonics. Second Edition, Wiley, pp 1–
412
5. Mikkili S, Panda AK (2016) Power quality issues-current harmonics. 1st edn., CRC Press,
pp 1–185, USA
6. Berg GJ (1973) Power-system load representation. IEEE Proc 120(3):344–348
7. IEEE Std 519–2014, IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in
Electric Power Systems, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. pp. 1–50, USA
Exercise Problems
10:1 A linear load of impedance ZL ¼ 3 þ 8 X is connected in series with a

pffiffiffi
voltage source vðtÞ ¼ 2ð110 sin xtÞ. Calculate the total instantaneous
power, instantaneous active power, instantaneous reactive power, average
power, reactive power, apparent power and power factor.
10:2 The fundamental, second, third and fourth harmonic components of the
current of a 110 V, 0.95 pf electrical system are found to be 10A, 7A, 4A and
2A, respectively. Calculate the H, P, Q, and distribution factor (DF).
10:3 The distribution factor of a 120 V, 0.90 pf electrical system is found to be
0.31. The fundamental and second harmonic components of the current are
3A and 5A, respectively. Calculate the third harmonic component of the
current, P, Q, and H.
10:4 The single-phase current and voltage expressions of an electrical system are
given as, vðtÞ ¼ 45 þ 2 110 sin xt þ 2 25 sinð2xt 20 Þ þ 2
13 sinð3xt 40 Þ and iðtÞ ¼ 9 þ 2 7 sinðxt 35 Þ þ 2 5 sinð2xt 70 Þ þ
pffiffiffi
2 3 sinð3xt 105 Þ. Find the average active power due to dc component,
average fundamental, harmonic active and reactive powers.
10:5 The single-phase current and voltage expressions of an electrical system are
given as,vðtÞ ¼ 2 75 sin xt þ 2 35 sinð3xt 20 Þ þ 2 21 sinð7xt 60 Þ
pffiffiffi pffiffiffi p ffiffi
ffi
and iðtÞ ¼ 2 19 sinðxtÞ þ 2 15 sinð3xt 70 Þ þ 2 11 sinð7xt 105 Þ.
Calculate the rms values of voltage and current, average apparent power,
fundamental and harmonic active and reactive powers.
10:6 The single-phase current and voltage expressions of an electrical system
are given as, vðtÞ ¼ 60 þ 2 90 sin xt þ 2 65 sinð3xt 25 Þ þ 2
35 sinð5xt 50 Þ þ 2 15 sinð7xt 75 Þ iðtÞ ¼ 10 þ 2 10 sinðxt
25 Þ þ 2 9 sinð3xt 50 Þ þ 2 7 sinð5xt 75 Þ þ 2 5 sinð7xt 100 Þ
Calculate the SH, THDV, THDI, DV, DI and SN.
10:7 A three-phase, 60 Hz source delivers power to a plastic manufacturing
company. The moulding section draws a current of 100A at a fundamental
frequency. The finishing section draws 100A at a fundamental frequency
along with 9A, 7A, 3A for the third, fifth and seventh harmonic components
of current, respectively. Calculate the THDI and TDDI.
Chapter 11
Overhead Line Insulators and Sags
11.1 Introduction
There are several components of overhead lines used for electrical power trans-
mission and distribution systems. Some of these components are an insulator,
crossarm, tower, pole, conductor, etc. Insulators of different types are available for
power transmission and distribution networks. Some of these insulators are
cap-and-pin, long-rod, shackle, and line-post composite, etc. The shackle insulators
are normally used at the dead-end or at a sharp turn of the distribution lines where
there is a high tensile load. Suspension insulators are used at the transmission lines
as vertical, horizontal, and V-string configurations. The line-post insulators are used
at the grid substation with the relevant high voltage equipment as well as at the
busbar. Sag is formed when the transmission line conductors are supported between
the two equal electrical towers. A perfect value of sag is maintained by the con-
ductors to avoid excess stretch or tension. In this chapter, details on insulators and
sags will be discussed.
11.2 String Efficiency of Suspension Insulators
The three cap-and-pin porcelain insulators are arranged in a suspension string and
hung to the crossarm as shown in Fig. 11.1. The porcelain portion of each insulator is
arranged between two metal parts. Therefore, each insulator will form a capacitor
known as mutual capacitance. Another capacitor will be formed between the metal
parts of the insulator to the tower. This capacitor is known as shunt capacitance. The
equivalent circuit of Fig. 11.1 is shown in Fig. 11.2. Let us consider the voltage
across the first, second, and third insulators as V1, V2, and V3, respectively. Let us
consider the mutual capacitance of each insulator as C and the shunt capacitance C1
as a fraction m of mutual capacitance. This assumption can be expressed as [1, 2],

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3212-2_11
498 11 Overhead Line Insulators and Sags
crossarm
Insulator
conductor
Fig. 11.1 A tower with suspension insulator
Fig. 11.2 An equivalent Crossarm

circuit of a tower with
suspension insulator
I1
C1 V
i1 C 1
P
I2 V
Tower 2
C1 i2 C V
N
I3
V3
C1 i3 C
M
C1 ¼ mC ð11:1Þ
Applying KCL at node P yields,
I2 ¼ I1 þ i 1 ð11:2Þ
V2 xC ¼ V1 xC þ V1 xC1 ð11:3Þ
11.2 String Efficiency of Suspension Insulators 499
V2 xC ¼ V1 xC þ V1 xmC ð11:4Þ
V2 ¼ V1 ð1 þ mÞ ð11:5Þ
Again, applying KCL at node N yields,
I3 ¼ I2 þ i 2 ð11:6Þ
V3 xC ¼ V2 xC þ ðV1 þ V2 ÞxC1 ð11:7Þ
V3 xC ¼ V2 xC þ ðV1 þ V2 ÞxmC ð11:8Þ
V3 ¼ V1 m þ V2 ð1 þ mÞ ð11:9Þ
V3 ¼ V1 m þ V1 ð1 þ mÞ2 ð11:10Þ
V3 ¼ V1 ðm2 þ 3m þ 1Þ ð11:11Þ
The total voltage across the insulators string, i.e., the voltage between the
conductor and earth (V) is calculated as,
V ¼ V1 þ V2 þ V3 ð11:12Þ
V ¼ V1 þ V1 ð1 þ mÞ þ V1 ðm2 þ 3m þ 1Þ ð11:13Þ
V ¼ V1 ðm2 þ 4m þ 3Þ ¼ V1 ðm þ 1Þðm þ 3Þ ð11:14Þ
The string efficiency is defined as the ratio of the voltage across the string to the
product of a number of the string and the voltage across the insulator nearest to the
conductor. Mathematically, it can be defined as,
V
gs ¼ 100 ð11:15Þ
3 V3

circuit of a tower with the four
insulator strings
I1
C1 V
i1 C 1
P
I2 V
Tower 2
C1 i2 C V
N
I3
V3
C1 i3 C
M
I4
V4
In general, for n number of insulator string, Eq. (11.16) can be written as,
V
gs ¼ 100 ð11:16Þ
n Vn
From Eq. (11.16), it is seen that the string efficiency will decrease with
increasing the number of insulator.
Again, the four insulators are considered as a string as shown in Fig. 11.3.
Applying KCL at node M yields,
I4 ¼ I3 þ i 3 ð11:17Þ
V4 xC ¼ V3 xC þ ðV1 þ V2 þ V3 Þ C1 ð11:18Þ
V4 xC ¼ V1 ðm2 þ 3m þ 1ÞxC þ ½V1 þ V1 ðm þ 1Þ þ V1 ðm2 þ 3m þ 1Þ mxC

ð11:19Þ
V4 ¼ m2 þ 3m þ 1 þ m þ mðm þ 1Þ þ mðm2 þ 3m þ 1Þ ð11:20Þ
V4 ¼ m2 þ 3m þ 1 þ m þ m2 þ m þ m3 þ 3m2 þ m ð11:21Þ
V4 ¼ m3 þ 5m2 þ 6m þ 1 ð11:22Þ
From Eq. (11.5), (11.11), and (11.22), it is concluded that the voltage distri-
butions across the insulators are not equal.
11.2 String Efficiency of Suspension Insulators 501
Example 11.1
The three units of the cap-and-pin insulator are used as a string for the transmission
lines tower as shown in Fig. 11.4. The value of the shunt capacitance is 9% of the
mutual capacitance. The maximum peak voltage across the unit is found to be
11 kV. Calculate the voltage distribution across the string and string efficiency.
Solution
The value of the m factor is,
C1
m¼ ¼ 0:09 ð11:23Þ
C
The phase voltage across the string is calculated as,
11
V3 ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 7:78 kV ð11:24Þ
2
Applying KCL at node P yields,
I2 ¼ I1 þ i 1 ð11:25Þ
V2 xC ¼ V1 xC þ V1 xð0:09CÞ ð11:26Þ
V2 ¼ 1:09V1 ð11:27Þ
Again, applying KCL at node N yields,
I3 ¼ I2 þ i 2 ð11:28Þ
V3 xC ¼ V2 xC þ ðV1 þ V2 Þxð0:09CÞ ð11:29Þ
V3 ¼ V2 þ ðV1 þ V2 Þ0:09 ð11:30Þ

circuit for Example 11.1
I1
C1 V
i1 C 1
P
I2 V
Tower 2
C1 i2 C V
N
I3
V3
C
V3 ¼ 1:09V1 þ ðV1 þ 1:09V1 Þ0:09 ð11:31Þ
7:78 ¼ 1:09V1 þ ðV1 þ 1:09 V1 Þ0:09 ð11:32Þ
V1 ¼ 6:09 kV ð11:33Þ
V2 ¼ 1:09 6:09 ¼ 6:64 kV ð11:34Þ
String efficiency is calculated as,
V 6:09 þ 6:64 þ 7:78

gs ¼ 100 ¼ 100 ¼ 87:87% ð11:35Þ
n Vn 3 7:78

The three units of the cap-and-pin insulator are used as a string for the 33 kV
transmission lines tower as shown in Fig. 11.5. The value of the shunt capacitance
is 12% of the mutual capacitance. Calculate the voltage distribution across the
string and string efficiency.

circuit for Practice
Problem 11.1
I1
C1 V
i1 C 1
P
I2 V
Tower 2
C1 i2 C V
N
I3
C1 V3
i3 C
M
I4
11.3 Equalization of Voltage Distributions 503
11.3 Equalization of Voltage Distributions
Generally, the voltage distributions across the insulators are not uniform. It is due to
when leakage current flows from the insulator pin to tower, this leakage current
cannot be eliminated. It is necessary to equalize the voltage distribution across the
insulators of the string to improve the string efficiency. Proper selection of the ratio
of earth capacitance to mutual capacitance, capacitance grading, and guard ring is
used to equalize the voltage distribution across the string.
Capacitance grading: In a capacitance grading, the value of the top unit (near the
crossarm) capacitor should be minimum and the value of the lower unit (near the
conductor) should be maximum [2]. Let the top unit capacitor is C, and other
capacitors are C2, C3, and C4 as shown in Fig. 11.6. The voltage across each unit is
assumed V.
Applying KCL at node P of Fig. 11.6 yields,
I2 ¼ I1 þ i 1 ð11:36Þ
VxC2 ¼ VxC þ mxCV ð11:37Þ
C2 ¼ ð1 þ mÞC ð11:38Þ
Applying KCL at node N of Fig. 11.6 yields,
I3 ¼ I2 þ i 2 ð11:39Þ
VxC3 ¼ VxC2 þ mxCð2VÞ ð11:40Þ
C3 ¼ C2 þ 2 mC ð11:41Þ

circuit for capacitance grading
I1 C V
mC
i1
P
I2
Tower C2 V
mC i2
N
I3
C3 V
mC
i3
M
I4 V
C4
C3 ¼ ð1 þ mÞC þ 2 mC ð11:42Þ
C3 ¼ ð1 þ 3 mÞ C ð11:43Þ
Again, applying KCL at node M of Fig. 11.6 yields,
I4 ¼ I3 þ i 3 ð11:44Þ
VxC4 ¼ VxC3 þ mxCð3VÞ ð11:45Þ
C4 ¼ ð1 þ 3mÞC þ 3mC ð11:46Þ
C4 ¼ ð1 þ 6mÞC ð11:47Þ
Guard Ring method: It is a large metal ring that is electrically connected to the
conductor and surrounds the bottom unit of the insulator as shown in Fig. 11.7. As
a result, this arrangement increases the capacitance between the metal fittings and
line. Let the capacitances between the metal fittings and the guard ring are C1, C2,
and C3. Also, the self-capacitance is C and the earth capacitance is mC.
The capacitance of each unit is the same. Therefore, the current passes through
them will be the same and it can be written as,
I4 ¼ I3 ¼ I2 ¼ I1 ð11:48Þ
I2 þ i1x ¼ I1 þ i1 ð11:49Þ

circuit with a guard ring
I1 C C1 V
mC
i1 i1x
I2 P
Tower C2 V
mC i2 C i2x
N
I3
C3 V
mC
i3 M C i3x
I4 V
C

i1x ¼ i1 ð11:50Þ
xC1 ð3VÞ ¼ mxCV ð11:51Þ
1
C1 ¼ mC ð11:52Þ
3
I3 þ i2x ¼ I2 þ i2 ð11:53Þ
i2x ¼ i2 ð11:54Þ
xC2 ð2VÞ ¼ mxCð2VÞ ð11:55Þ
C2 ¼ mC ð11:56Þ
Applying KCL at node M of Fig. 11.7 yields,
I4 þ i3x ¼ I3 þ i3 ð11:57Þ
i3x ¼ i3 ð11:58Þ
xC3 ðVÞ ¼ mxCð3VÞ ð11:59Þ
C3 ¼ 3mC ð11:60Þ
Example 11.2
The three insulators are used as a string for high voltage transmission lines. The
capacitance between the metal fitting and earth (earth capacitance) is 0.18 C and the
capacitance between the metal fitting and guard ring is 0.12 C as shown in
Fig. 11.8. Calculate the string efficiency.
Solution
I2 þ i1x ¼ I1 þ i1 ð11:61Þ
xCV2 þ xð0:12CÞðV2 þ V3 Þ ¼ xCV1 þ xð0:18CÞV1 ð11:62Þ


circuit for Example 11.2
I1
0.18C V1
i1 C i1x
I2 P
0.12C V2
Tower 0.18C i C
2 i2x
N
I3 0.12C
C V3
I4
V2 þ 0:12ðV2 þ V3 Þ ¼ V1 þ 0:18V1 ð11:63Þ
1:18V1 1:12V2 0:12V3 ¼ 0 ð11:64Þ
I3 þ i2x ¼ I2 þ i2 ð11:65Þ
xCV3 þ xð0:12CÞV3 ¼ xCV2 þ xð0:18CÞðV1 þ V2 Þ ð11:66Þ
V3 þ 0:12V3 ¼ V2 þ 0:18ðV1 þ V2 Þ ð11:67Þ
0:18V1 þ 1:18V2 1:12V3 ¼ 0 ð11:68Þ
Dividing Eq. (11.64) by 0.12V3 and Eq. (11.68) by 1.12V3 yields,

V1 V2
9:83 9:33 ¼ 1 ð11:69Þ
V3 V3
V1 V2
0:16 þ 1:05 ¼ 1 ð11:70Þ
V3 V3
Equating Eqs. (11.69) and (11.70) yields,

V1 V2 V1 V2
9:83 9:33 ¼ 0:16 þ 1:05 ð11:71Þ
V3 V3 V3 V3
V1 V2
9:67 ¼ 10:38 ð11:72Þ
V3 V3
V1 ¼ 1:07V2 ð11:73Þ
1:07V2 V2
0:16 þ 1:05 ¼ 1 ð11:74Þ
V3 V3
V2 ¼ 0:82V3 ð11:75Þ
V1 ¼ 1:07 0:82V3 ¼ 0:88V3 ð11:76Þ
The total voltage across the string is calculated as,
V ¼ V1 þ V2 þ V3 ð11:77Þ
V ¼ 0:88V2 þ 0:82V3 þ V3 ¼ 2:7V3 ð11:78Þ
The string efficiency is calculated as,
V 2:78V3
gs ¼ 100 ¼ 100 ¼ 92:67% ð11:79Þ
n Vn 3 V3

The three insulators are used as a string for 66 kV high voltage transmission lines.
The capacitance between the metal fitting and earth (earth capacitance) is 0.14
C and the capacitance between the metal fitting and the guard ring is 0.10 C as
shown in Fig. 11.9. Calculate the voltage distribution.

circuit for Practice Problem
11.2
I1
0.14C V1
i1 C i1x
I2 P
0.10C V2
Tower 0.14C i C
2 i2x
N
I3 0.10C
C V3
I4
Fig. 11.10 A conductor with

a sag
A span
B
sag s
conductor
11.4 Transmission Lines Sag
Conductors of transmission lines are generally supported by electric tower or pole.

The distance between the two towers is known as span. According to the IEEE
standard, conductors should be supported with minimum ground clearance.
Therefore, the sag is the distance between the two points of support and the lowest
point on the conductor as shown in Fig. 11.10.
Sag reduces excessive tension and increases the life of the conductor. It is also
used to cater to ice loading in the winter season. Sag is very small compared to the
span of the conductor. The sag looks like a parabolic (span in between 120m and
160 m) when the load of the conductor is distributed horizontally, whereas it looks
like a catenary (span is more than 1000 ft or 304.8 m) when the load of the
conductor is concentered at the center. The tension at any point of the conductor
acts horizontally, and the horizontal component of the tension is constant
throughout the length of the conductor. Sag depends on the following factors.
• Sag will increase if the weight of the conductor increases.
• Sag depends on the location of the conductor installation.
• Sag will increase with the increase of the span, and it is directly proportional to
the square of the span.
• Conductor expands at a higher temperature, which increases the sag. The
conductor shrinks at a lower temperature, which decreases the sag.
11.5 Sag Calculation with Equal Supports
Consider a conductor is suspended by the two equal supports A and B as shown in

Fig. 11.11. Let w be the weight of the conductor per unit length, and T is the tension [3, 4].
Fig. 11.11 A conductor with A B

equal height supports l l
2 2
P ( x, y )
S x
2 y
T O
wx
x
11.5 Sag Calculation with Equal Supports 509
Equating two moments for two forces (T and wx) around the point O yields,
x
T y ¼ wx ð11:80Þ
2
wx2
y¼ ð11:81Þ
2T
From Fig. 11.11, it is seen that the sag is maximum from the two supporting
points A and B. In this case, at x = l/2, y = S. Substituting these conditions in
Eq. (11.81) yields,
wl2
S¼ ð11:82Þ
8T
Alternate approach: Consider, P(x, y) is the equilibrium point at a distance of arc

and ds is the differential distance. Tension T acting is at the point P on the con-
ductor, which is hanged by the equal supports as shown in Fig. 11.12. Let w be
weight per unit length of the conductor, l is the span, and H is the lowest point.
From Fig. 11.12, the following relations can be written as,
T0 ¼ wc ð11:83Þ
Tx ¼ T cos / ð11:84Þ
Ty ¼ T sin / ð11:85Þ
dy
tan / ¼ ð11:86Þ
dx
ds2 ¼ dx2 þ dy2 ð11:87Þ
Fig. 11.12 A conductor with

equal height supports and
resolving the tension
Equating the horizontal and the vertical tensions yields,
Tx ¼ T cos / ¼ T0 ¼ wc ð11:88Þ
Ty ¼ T sin / ¼ ws ð11:89Þ
dy Ty
¼ ð11:90Þ
dx Tx
dy ws s
¼ ¼ ð11:91Þ
dx wc c

dy2
ds ¼ dx 1 þ 2
2 2
ð11:92Þ
dx

ds2 dy2
¼ 1þ 2 ð11:93Þ
dx2 dx
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ds dy2
¼ 1þ 2 ð11:94Þ
dx dx

rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ds s2 c 2 þ s2
¼ 1þ 2 ¼ ð11:95Þ
dx c c2
cds
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ dx ð11:96Þ
c2 þ s 2
Consider the following expression,
s ¼ c sinh / ð11:97Þ
Differentiate Eq. (11.97) with respect to / yields,
ds ¼ c cosh / d/ ð11:98Þ
c2 cosh /d/
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ dx ð11:99Þ
c 1 þ sinh2 /
c2 cosh /d/
¼ dx ð11:100Þ
c cosh /
cd/ ¼ dx ð11:101Þ

Z Z
c d/ ¼ dx ð11:102Þ
c/ ¼ x þ m ð11:103Þ
Considering the following boundary conditions to find the integrating constant

(m).
x ¼ 0; s ¼ 0; /¼0 ð11:104Þ
m¼0 ð11:105Þ

x
/¼ ð11:106Þ
c

s x
¼ sinh ð11:107Þ
c c
dy x
¼ sinh ð11:108Þ
dx c
x
dy ¼ sinh dx ð11:109Þ
c

Z Z x
dy ¼ sinh dx ð11:110Þ
c

cosh xc
y¼ 1
þn ð11:111Þ
c
Considering the following boundary conditions to find the integrating constant (n).
x ¼ 0; y¼c ð11:112Þ

c ¼ cþn ð11:113Þ
n¼0 ð11:114Þ

x
y ¼ c cosh ð11:115Þ
c
Squaring Eqs. (11.88) and (11.89) and adding yields,
T 2 ¼ ðwsÞ2 þ ðwcÞ2 ð11:116Þ

s 2
T 2 ¼ w2 c2 1 þ ð11:117Þ
c

n xo
T 2 ¼ w2 c2 1 þ sinh2 ð11:118Þ
c
x
T 2 ¼ w2 c2 cosh2 ð11:119Þ
c
x
T ¼ wc cosh ð11:120Þ
c
T ¼ wy ð11:121Þ
x
y ¼ c cosh ð11:122Þ
c
" #
ðx=cÞ2 ðx=cÞ4
y ¼ c 1þ þ þ ð11:123Þ
2! 4!
Neglecting higher terms of Eq. (11.123) yields,
x2
y ¼ cþ ð11:124Þ
2c
x2
yc¼ ð11:125Þ
2c
From Eq. (11.125), the sag (S = y-c) is expressed as,
x2
S¼ ð11:126Þ
2c
The sag will be maximum at x = l/2 and substituting Eq. (11.83) into
Eq. (11.126) yields,
l2 wl2 wl2
S¼ ¼ ¼ ð11:129Þ
8c 8T0 8T
From Eq. (11.107), the length of the conductor is calculated as,

" #
s x ðx=cÞ ðx=cÞ3 ðx=cÞ5
¼ sinh ¼ þ þ þ ð11:130Þ
c c 1! 3! 5!
" #
ðx=cÞ ðx=cÞ3
s¼c þ ð11:131Þ
1! 3!
x3
s ¼ xþ ð11:132Þ
6c2
However, the total length of the conductor (Lcond) is 2 s. The following condi-
tion can be written as,
l Lcond
x¼ ; s¼ ð11:133Þ
2 2
Lcond l l3
¼ þ ð11:134Þ
2 2 48c2
l3
Lcond ¼ l þ ð11:134Þ
24c2
From Fig. 11.12, the following relation (approximate) can be written as,
s2 ¼ x2 þ ðy cÞ2 ð11:135Þ
y2 s2 ¼ 2yc c2 x2 ð11:135Þ

x2
y2 s2 ¼ 2c c þ c2 x2 ð11:136Þ
2c
y2 s 2 ¼ c2 ð11:137Þ
Example 11.3
A 33 kV transmission line is crossing a river by the two equal supports. The span is
210 m, and the weight of the conductor is found to be 560 kg/km. The ultimate
strength and safety factor of the conductor are given as 2500 kg and 2, respectively.
Calculate the sag, length of the conductor, and the height of the supporting towers if
the ground clearance is 11 m.
Solution
The weight of the conductor is calculated as,
560
w¼ ¼ 0:56 kg=m ð11:138Þ
1000
Working tension of the conductor is calculated as,
Ultimate strength 2500

T¼ ¼ ¼ 1250 kg ð11:139Þ
safety factor 2
The sag is calculated as,
wl2 0:85 2102

S¼ ¼ ¼ 3:75 m ð11:140Þ
8T 8 1250
The distance c is calculated as,
T 1250
c¼ ¼ ¼ 1470:59 m ð11:141Þ
w 0:85
The sag is calculated as,
l2 2102
S¼ ¼ ¼ 3:75 m ð11:142Þ
8c 8 1470:59
The length of the conductor is calculated as,
l3 2103
Lcond ¼ l þ ¼ 210 þ ¼ 210:18 m ð11:143Þ
24c2 24 1470:592
The height of the tower is calculated as,
Htower ¼ 11 þ 3:75 ¼ 15:75 m ð11:144Þ

A 120 kV transmission line is crossing a river by the two equal supports at the
height of 50 m. The span of the two towers and the weight of the conductor are
found to be 150 m and be 0.72 kg/m. The working tension of the conductor is
given 950 kg. Calculate the sag, length of the conductor, and the clearance between
the conductor and water at the midpoint if the tow height 20 m.
11.6 Sag Calculation with Unequal Supports
Unequal supports of the conductor are used when the transmission lines are installed
in uneven areas such as the mountain areas. Consider a conductor is hung by the two
unequal supports A and B as shown in Fig. 11.13. Let S1 be sag at the point A at a
distance x1 from the lowest point O. Similarly, S2 be sag at point B at a distance x2
from the lowest point O. Let W be the weight of the conductor per unit length.
According to Eq. (11.81), the expression of sag for the distance x1 is written as,
wx21
S1 ¼ ð11:145Þ
2T
Fig. 11.13 A conductor with B

unequal height supports
h
A l
S2
S1
O
x1 x2
Similarly, the expression of sag for the distance x2 is written as,
wx22
S2 ¼ ð11:146Þ
2T
The difference between the two sags is written as,
h ¼ S2 S1 ð11:147Þ
wx22 wx21
h¼ ð11:148Þ
2T 2T
w 2 w
h¼ x x21 ¼ ð x2 x1 Þ ð x2 þ x1 Þ ð11:149Þ
2T 2 2T
The length of span is expressed as,
l ¼ x1 þ x2 ð11:150Þ
wl
h ¼¼ ð x2 x1 Þ ð11:151Þ
2T
2hT
x2 x1 ¼ ð11:152Þ
wl
From Eqs. (11.150) and (11.152), the following expressions can be written as,
l hT
x1 ¼ ð11:153Þ
2 wl
l hT
x2 ¼ þ ð11:154Þ
2 wl
Example 11.4
The horizontal distance between the two 40 and 80 m unequal towers is found to be
400 m as shown in Fig. 11.14. The weight of the conductor and working tension
are given as 1.25 kg/m and 920 kg, respectively. Calculate the clearance between
the lowest point of the conductor and the ground level. Also, calculate the sag and
clearance from the ground at the midpoint.
11.6 Sag Calculation with Unequal Supports 517

unequal height supports for l = 400 m h
Example 11.4 A
S2
S1 P 80 m
O
x x2
40 m x1
Solution
The value of the distance from the lowest point to the lower support is calculated as,
l hT 400 40 920
x1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 126:4 m ð11:155Þ
2 wl 2 1:25 400
The sag at the distance x1 is calculated as,
wx21 1:25 126:42

S1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 10:85 m ð11:156Þ
2T 2 920
The clearance between the lowest point of the conductor and the ground level
from the lower support is calculated as,
lclearance ¼ 40 14:24 ¼ 25:76 m ð11:157Þ
Let P be the midpoint at a distance x from the lowest point O. The value of this
distance is calculated as,
x ¼ 200 x1 ¼ 200 126:4 ¼ 73:6 m ð11:158Þ
The sag at this point is calculated as,
wx2 1:25 73:62

Sp ¼ ¼ ¼ 3:68 m ð11:159Þ
2T 2 920
The clearance of midpoint above the ground is calculated as,
lclearancemid ¼ 25:76 þ 3:68 ¼ 29:44 m ð11:160Þ

A conductor is hanged by the two unequal supports as shown in Fig. 11.15. The
weight of the conductor and working tension are given as 1.02 kg/m and 835 kg,
respectively. The length of the span and the difference between the two supports are
350 m and 18 m, respectively. Calculate the sag from the smaller support.

unequal height supports for h
A l = 350 m
S2
S1
O
x2
x1
11.7 Sag Calculation with the Effect of Ice and Wind
There are some countries such as China, Canada, and many European countries
where transmission lines are covered unevenly by ice (or snow) in addition to
snowstorms as shown in Fig. 11.16. Icing is considered as one of the most
important factors affecting the reliability of power system networks in many
countries. Therefore, the combined effect of icing and wind severely disturbs the
safe operation of transmission and distribution lines.
Consider a cross section of a transmission line conductor that is uniformly
covered by ice as shown in Fig. 11.17. Let d is the diameter of the conductor and
t is the thickness of the ice around the conductor. In this condition, this conductor
can be compared to the hollow cylinder whose inner and outer diameters are D and
(D + 2t), respectively. The volume per unit length of this cylinder is expressed as,
Vpul ¼ A 1 ð11:161Þ
Fig. 11.16 Sample transmission lines covered with ice

11.7 Sag Calculation with the Effect of Ice and Wind 519
Fig. 11.17 A conductor d t

surrounded by ice
The area of the cylinder is expressed as,

p p
A ¼ ½ðd þ 2tÞ2 d 2 ¼ ð4dt þ 4t2 Þ ¼ ptðd þ tÞ ð11:162Þ
4 4
Vpul ¼ ptðd þ tÞ 1 ð11:163Þ
The density of ice (q) is defined as the ratio of mass (m) to the volume per unit
length (Vpul), and it can be expressed as,
m
q¼ ð11:164Þ
Vpul
Substituting Eq. (11.163) into Eq. (11.164) and the weight of the ice per unit
length of the conductor is expressed as,
wi ¼ qptðd þ tÞ ð11:165Þ
The weight of the ice (wi in kg/m) will act vertically downward with the weight
of the conductor (W) and the force per unit length (ww or fw in kg/m) due to wind
will act horizontally as shown in Fig. 11.18. Let the sag S makes an angle h with the
vertical load and acts in the direction of the total load as shown in Fig. 11.18. This
angle is calculated as,
Fig. 11.18 A loading fw

diagram of a conductor
surrounded by ice
θ
Sv
w +w i
wt
fw
tan h ¼ ð11:166Þ
w þ wi
The total weight per unit length is calculated as,

wt ¼ ðw þ wi Þ2 þ fw2 ð11:167Þ
Let us consider P is the wind pressure per unit projected area of the conductor,
the wind load per unit length of the ice-covered conductor is expressed as,
ww ¼ Pðd þ 2tÞ l ð11:168Þ
The sag with the total weight of the conductor is expressed as,
wt l2
S¼ ð11:169Þ
2T
The vertical sag is acting in the direction of the ice and the conductor load is
expressed as,
Sv ¼ S cos h ð11:170Þ
Example 11.5
The horizontal distance between the towers is found to be 130 m. The weight and
diameter of the conductor are given as 0.96 kg/m and 1.25 cm, respectively. The
conductor is covered with ice of 0.92 cm thickness by a wind pressure of 4.6 gm/cm2.
The ultimate strength and safety factor of the conductor are 1850 kg and 2, respec-
tively. Assume the weight of ice is 0.65 gm/cm3. Calculate the sag and the vertical sag.
Solution
The value of the working tension is calculated as,
1850
T¼ ¼ 925 kg=m ð11:171Þ
2
The volume of ice per meter (100 cm) length of the conductor is calculated as,
V ¼ ptðd þ tÞ 100 ¼ p 0:92ð1:25 þ 0:92Þ 100 ¼ 627:19 cm3 ð11:172Þ
The weight of ice per unit meter of length of the conductor is calculated as,
wi ¼ 0:65 627:19 ¼ 0:41 kg ð11:173Þ

11.7 Sag Calculation with the Effect of Ice and Wind 521
The wind force per meter length of the conductor is calculated as,
ww ¼ Pðd þ 2tÞ l ¼ 4:6ð1:25 þ 2 0:92Þ 100 ¼ 1:42 kg ð11:174Þ
The total weight per meter length of the conductor is calculated as,
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
wt ¼ ðw þ wi Þ2 þ fw2 ¼ ð0:96 þ 0:41Þ2 þ 1:422 ¼ 1:97 kg ð11:175Þ
The sag of the conductor is calculated as,
wt l2 1:97 1302
S¼ ¼ ¼ 18 m ð11:176Þ
2T 2 925
The angle for the vertical sag is calculated as,

1:42
h ¼ tan1 ¼ 46:03 ð11:178Þ
0:96 þ 0:41
The value of the vertical sag is calculated as,
Sv ¼ S cos h ¼ 18 cos 46:03 ¼ 12:5 m ð11:179Þ

The span of the transmission line is given as 145 m, and the diameter of the
conductor is found to be 1.5 cm. The conductor is covered with ice, and the
combined loading of conductor and ice is given as 1.65 km/m. The wind loading is
1.22 kg/m, and the tension of the cable is 1230 kg. Calculate the sag and the
vertical sag.
References
1. Wildi T (2014) Electrical machines, drives and power systems, 6th edn, Pearson Education Ltd,
USA, pp 1–920
2. Satyanarayana S. Sivanagaraju S (2009) Electric power transmission and distribution, 1st edn.
Pearson, Canada, pp 1–632
Oxford, pp 1–726
4. Metha VK, Metha R (2005) Principles of power system, 3rd edn. S. Chad and Co. Ltd, India,
pp 1–608
Exercise Problems
11:1 The transmission lines tower uses the three units of the cap-and-pin insulator
as a string as shown in Fig. P11.1. The value of the shunt capacitance is 15%
of the mutual capacitance. The line voltage across the string is found to be
22 kV. Calculate the voltage distribution across each insulator and string
efficiency.
11:2 The four units cap-and-pin insulator is used as a string for the 66 kV
transmission lines tower as shown in Fig. P11.2. The value of the shunt
capacitance is 16% of the mutual capacitance. Calculate the voltage distri-
bution across each insulator and string efficiency.
11:3 A guard ring is fitted with a string that consists of the three insulators of the
transmission lines. The capacitance between the metal fitting and the earth
(earth capacitance) is 0.09 C, and the capacitance between the metal fitting
and guard ring is 0.11 C as shown in Fig. P11.3. Find voltage the string
efficiency.
Fig. P11.1 An equivalent Crossarm

I1
C1 V
i1 C 1
P
I2 V
Tower 2
C1 i2 C V
N
I3
V3
C

I1
C1 V
i1 C 1
P
I2 V
2
Tower C
C1 i2 V
N
I3
C1 V3
i3 C
I4 M
V4
i4
Q
I5

I1
0.09C V1
i1 C i1x
I2 P
0.11C V2
Tower 0.09C i C
2 i2x
N
I3 0.11C
C V3
I4
Fig. P11.4 An equivalent

circuit for Problem 11.4 I1 V1
0.13C C
i1 i1x
I 2 P 0.08C V2
0.13C i2 C
i2x
N
I3 0.08C
C V3
0.13C i3x
i3 M
0.08C
C
I4 V4
11:4 A string consists of four insulators for high voltage transmission networks.
The capacitance between the metal fitting and the earth (earth capacitance) is
0.13 C, and the capacitance between the metal fitting and guard ring is 0.08
C as shown in Fig. P11.4. Find the string efficiency of this arrangement.
11:5 The transmission line conductor is hanged between the two equal supports
with a span of 220 m as shown in Fig. P11.5. The sag and weight of the
cable are found to be 20 m and 1.67 kg/m. Calculate the length of the
conductor and the horizontal tension of the conductor.
11:6 A 30 m conductor suspended the two equal supports with a suitable span as
shown in Fig. P11.6. The sag and weight of the cable are found to be 12 m
and 30 kg/m. Calculate the length of the span and the maximum tension of
the conductor.
Fig. P11.5 An equivalent 220 m

circuit for Problem 11.5 A B
s 20 m s
T0
Fig. P11.6 An equivalent l

circuit for Problem 11.6 A B
s = 15 m
s = 15 m 12 m
Fig. P11.7 An equivalent 400 N

circuit for Problem 11.7 l
A B
s h s
20 m 20 m
11:7 A 40 m conductor is suspended at equal heights with a suitable span as

shown in Fig. P11.7. The maximum tension and the mas of the conductor are
found to be 400 N and 25 kg. Determine the length of the span and the sag
of the conductor.
11:8 A 50 m long conductor is suspended between a fixed support A and a
moveable support B with a suitable span as shown in Fig. P11.8. The mass
of the conductor is found to be 0.2 kg/m. Calculate the span and sag.
11:9 The span between the two 30 and 50 m unequal towers is found to be 185 m
as shown in Fig. P11.9. The weight of the conductor and working tension are
found to be 3.29 kg/m and 526 kg, respectively. Find the clearance between
the lowest point of the conductor and the ground level. Also, find the sag and
clearance from the ground at the midpoint.
l
B
A
s h s 60 N
25 m 25 m
Fig. P11.8 An equivalent circuit for Problem 11.8
Fig. P11.9 A circuit for B

Problem 11.9 h
A l = 185m
S2
S1 P
O 50 m
30 m x x2
x1
11:10 The span between the towers is found to be 160 m. The weight and diameter
of the conductor are found to be 1.97 kg/m and 1.12 cm, respectively. The
conductor is covered with an ice of 0.95 cm thickness by a wind pressure of
6.9 gm/cm2. The ultimate strength and safety factor of the conductor are
2050 kg and 2, respectively. Assume the weight of ice is 0.75 gm/cm3.
Calculate the sag and the vertical sag.
Appendix
Answers to Practice and Exercise
Problems
Chapter1
Practice Problems
1:1 vðtÞ ¼ 20 sinðxt þ 35 ÞV, pðtÞ ¼ 98:48 100 cosð2xt 20 ÞW
1:2 16.26 W, 6.92 W, 6.56 W
1:3 600 VA, 8.49 X, 0.027 H
1:4 15.6 VA, 9.75 W, 12.18 Var
1:5 12 k W + j 3.94 kVar, 4.19 X
1:6 8:89 j17:79VA, 2:34 þ j14:35VA, 44:35 j2:08VA
1:7 29.25 kW
1:8 260:68 j48:34 V
1:9 Van ¼ 200 j130 V, Vcn ¼ 200 j230 V
1:10 Van ¼ 115:47 j30 V, Vbn ¼ 115:47 j150 V, Vcn ¼ 115:47 j270 V
1:11 IAa ¼ 49:08 j35 A, IBb ¼ 49:08 j85 A, ICc ¼ 49:08 j155 A, 6.25 kW,
6.25 kW, 18:74 j18:74kVA
Exercise Problems
1:1 pðtÞ ¼ 6:3 6:4 cosð20t 10 ÞW
1:2 pðtÞ ¼ 39:39 40 cosð200t 30 ÞW
1:3 107.33W, 197.12W, 48.91W, 9.07 W
1:4 109.91 W, 141.13 W
1:5 52.53 W, 18.58 W
1:6 1.34 kW, 406.83 W
1:7 483.22 W, 224.4 W
1:8 13.89 X, 0.05 mF
1:9 22:98 j19:28VA, 22.98 W, 19.28 Var
1:10 40:74 þ j87:36kVA, 40.74 W, 87.36 Var

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3212-2
528 Appendix: Answers to Practice and Exercise Problems
1:11 124:36 þ j121:27VA

1:12 140:9 þ j176:95VA
1:13 0.028mF
1:14 Vs ¼ 477:25 j79:59 V
1:15 Is ¼ 152:08 j0:14 AVs ¼ 620:96 j78:43 V
1:16 Van ¼ 254:03 j30 V, Vbn ¼ 254:03 j150 V, Vcn ¼ 254:03 j90 V
1:17 Vbn ¼ 100 j130 V, Vcn ¼ 100 j110 V
Chapter 2
Practice Problems
2:1 880 V
2:2 10, 0.09 Wb, 13.63 A, 136.36A
2:3 2, 32 X, 3.75 A
2:4 21.69 X, 5.4 X
2:5 2.5%
2:6 109.54 kVA, 97.33%
2:7 666.67 X, 1000 X
2:8 7.65 X, 5.53 X, 0.076 X, 0.055 X, 4.6%
2:9 600 kVA, 720 kVA
2:10 2.38 kV, 207.85 kV
2:11 0.0045, 0.027
2:12 50, 25
Exercise Problems
2:1 V2 ¼ 48 V
2:2 V1 ¼ 1000 V
2:3 I2 ¼ 5 A
2:4 I1 ¼ 2 A
V2 ¼ I2 ¼ 0:1, V2 ¼ 10 kV
V1 I1
2:5
2:6 V1
V2 ¼ NN12 ¼ 0:25, N1 ¼ 1250
2:7 V2 ¼ 220 V, N2 ¼ 100
2:8 I2 ¼ 0:96 A
2:9 I2 ¼ 4:8 A, V2 ¼ 15 V
2:10 I1 ¼ 3 A, V2 ¼ 115 V
2:11 I1 ¼ 6:8 A, I2 ¼ 68 A
2:12 I1 ¼ 4:5 A, I2 ¼ 21:6 A
2:13 /m ¼ 0:02Wb
2:14 E1 ¼ 6660 V
2:15 N1 ¼ 330, N2 ¼ 33
2:16 N1 ¼ 991, N2 ¼ 9:91 ¼ 10
2:17 a ¼ 2, I1 ¼ 2:5 A, /m ¼ 1:98mWb
Appendix: Answers to Practice and Exercise Problems 529
2:18 a ¼ 4:8, N2 ¼ 104, Bm ¼ 1:17 Wb=m2

2:19 Bm ¼ 0:79 Wb=m2 , E2 ¼ 2192:3 V
2:20 A ¼ 0:006 m2
2:21 f ¼ 55 Hz
2:22 N1 ¼ 220, N2 ¼ 22, A ¼ 0:075 m2
2:23 Bm ¼ 1:8 Wb=m2
2:24 Iw ¼ 0:32 A, Im ¼ 0:39 A
2:25 Iw ¼ 0:2 A, Im ¼ 0:46 A
2:26 R0 ¼ 178:8X, X0 ¼ 115:2X
2:27 /m ¼ 1:8 mWb, Iw ¼ 0:15 A, Im ¼ 0:25 A
2:28 Iw ¼ 0:58 A, Im ¼ 0:55 A, Pcu ¼ 0:70W, Pcore ¼ 255:70W
2:29 I1 ¼ 17:7 A
2:30 I1 ¼ 19:6 A, cos /1 ¼ 0:97
2:31 Z01 ¼ 19:4X, Z02 ¼ 0:194X
2:32 Z01 ¼ 25X, Z02 ¼ 0:11X, Pcu ¼ 34:9kW
2:33 VR ¼ 2:8%
2:34 VR ¼ 0:7%
2:35 gfullload ¼ 96:9%, Output kVA ¼ 30:9kVA, g ¼ 97:6%
2:36 gfullload ¼ 96:5%, Output kVA ¼ 28:3kVA, g ¼ 97:6%
2:37 gfullload ¼ 94:6%, Output kVA ¼ 18:5kVA, g ¼ 96%
2:38 g ¼ 97:6%, g ¼ 98:9%
2:39 gfullload ¼ 43%, g ¼ 99%
2:40 Z01 ¼ 7:5X R01 ¼ 5:6X, X01 ¼ 4:9X, Z02 ¼ 0:06X R02 ¼ 0:05X,
X02 ¼ 0:04X, VR ¼ 3:8%
2:41 Z01 ¼ 12:5XR01 ¼ 9:8X, X01 ¼ 7:8X, Z02 ¼ 0:5XR02 ¼ 0:39X,
X02 ¼ 0:31X, VR ¼ 2:05%
2:42 R0 ¼ 314:2X, X0 ¼ 183:3X, Z01 ¼ 1:37X, R01 ¼ 0:64X, X01 ¼ 1:2X
2:43 Iw ¼ 0:66 A, Im ¼ 1A,R0 ¼ 333:33X, X0 ¼ 220X
2:44 kVA1 ¼ 599:8kVA, kVA2 ¼ 119:9kVA
2:45 N1 ¼ 53:86 ¼ 54, N2 ¼ 12:43 ¼ 12
2:46 (a) VL2 ¼ 2:54kV, (b) VL2 ¼ 0:85kV
2:47 Ib ¼ 5:45 A, Zb ¼ 4036:7X
2:48 Ib ¼ 524:86 A, Zb ¼ 125:75X
2:49 Xpu ¼ 0:59pu
2:50 Zactual ¼ 48:4X
2:51 Xpu1 ¼ Xpu2 ¼ 0:034pu
2:52 Vline ¼ 1120:96 j78:66 V
2:53 XT1 ¼ 0:32pu, XT2 ¼ 0:24pu, Xline ¼ 0:05pu, Zload ¼ 1:58 þ j2:1pu,
EG ¼ 253 kV
2:54 XG ¼ 0:18pu, XT1 ¼ 0:48pu, Xline1 ¼ 0:08pu, XT2 ¼ 0:4pu, XT3 ¼ 0:32pu,
Xline2 ¼ 0:4pu, XT4 ¼ 0:24pu, Zload ¼ 3:2 þ j2:4pu
2:55 XG1 ¼ 0:6pu, XT1 ¼ 0:17pu, XG2 ¼ 0:2pu, Xline ¼ 0:056pu, XT2 ¼ 0:062pu,
XM ¼ 0:066pu, Zload ¼ 0:64 þ j0:39pu
2:56 XG1 ¼ 0:21pu, XT1 ¼ 0:22pu, Xline ¼ 0:17pu, XT2 ¼ 0:2pu, XG2 ¼ 0:27pu
Chapter 3
Practice Problems
3:1 Fdef ¼ 0:44, Av:demand ¼ 3424:66kW, FLF ¼ 0:17
3:2 Fdif ¼ 1:24, Av:demand ¼ 799:09kW, FLF ¼ 0:32
3:3 Max:demand ¼ 60kW, UGday ¼ 840MWh, Av:Load ¼ 35MW, FLF ¼ 0:58
3:4 Annual charge ¼ B$ 940, Equivalent flat rate ¼ B$ 0:11
3:5 Unit consumed per year ¼ 192720kWh, Annual charge ¼ B$ 24772, Overall cost
per kWh ¼ B$ 0:13
Exercise Problems
3:1 Total energy ¼ 315:36 103 kWh
3:2 FLF ¼ 0:49
3:3
60
50
40
30
Load
(MW)
20
10
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time (H)
Fdef ¼ 0:62, Av:demand ¼ 10273:97kW, FLF ¼ 0:26

3:4 Fdef ¼ 0:44, Av:demand ¼ 6849:32kW, FLF ¼ 0:34
3:5 Fdif ¼ 1:06, Av:demand ¼ 627:85kW, FLF ¼ 0:21
3:6 540kW
3:7 Max:demand ¼ 12230:77MW
3:8 Energy ¼ 78:84 106 kWh, 0.3, 30MW, 10MW
3:9 FCF ¼ 0:27
3:10 Max:demand ¼ 80MW, Unit generated per day ¼ 1100 103 kWh, Av: load ¼
45833:33kW, FLF ¼ 0:57
120
100
80
60
Load
(MW)
40
20
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time (H)
3:11 Max:demand ¼ 60MW, Unit generated per day ¼ 740 103 kWh, Av: load ¼
30833:33kW, FLF ¼ 0:51
3:12
1200
1000
800
600
Load
(W)
400
200
12mn 4 8 12 4 8 12
Time (H)
Max:demand ¼ 1200W, FDiF ¼ 1:33

3:13 Total annual charges ¼ B$ 340, Equivalent flat rate ¼ B$ 0:039
3:14 Total units consumed per year ¼ 245280kWh,
Annual charges ¼ B$ 18664, Overall cost per kWh ¼ B$ 0:08
Chapter 4
Practice Problems
4:1 R30 ¼ 28:23X
4:2 GMD ¼ 13:44m, GMRA ¼ 0:429m, GMRB ¼ 0:078m, LA ¼ 6:88 107 H=m,
LB ¼ 1:03 106 H=m, Lt ¼ 1:719 106 H=m
4:3 L ¼ 1:25 106 H=m, XL ¼ 13:42X
4:4 L ¼ 1:21 106 H=km, L ¼ 0:15H

4:5 C ¼ 0:52l F, Ic ¼ 3:11A
4:6 C ¼ 0:94l F, Ic ¼ 5:63A
4:7 C ¼ 0:21l F, Xc ¼ 15157:61X
4:8 1.03m
Exercise Problems
4:1 R25 ¼ 15:93X
4:2 R20 ¼ 16:2X
4:3 r ¼ 0:704cm
4:4 L ¼ 0:014H
4:5 GMR ¼ 1:70r
4:6 GMR ¼ 1:25r
4:7 GMR ¼ 1:72r
4:8 4.29 m, 0.18 m, 0.06 m, L ¼ 0:00148H=km
4:9 4.23m, L ¼ 0:133 103 H=km
4:10 4.48 m, 0.15 m, L ¼ 1:63 103 H=km
4:11 L ¼ 1:28 103 H=km
4:12 4.8 m
4:13 L ¼ 7:76 104 H=km
4:14 L ¼ 1:02 103 H=km
4:15 L ¼ 9:67 104 H=km, 0.23H
4:16 L ¼ 8:82 104 H=km
4:17 L ¼ 1:12 103 H=km
4:18 0.09 H, 28.52 X
4:19 1.18 cm
4:20 105.96 m
4:21 1.27 lF, 27.63 A
4:22 C ¼ 1:24 108 lF=km, 0.07 A
4:23 C ¼ 1:11 1011 F/m, 2394521 X
4:24 C ¼ 2:25 109 F, 1178897.73 X
Chapter 5
Practice Problems
5:1 Vs ¼ 18096:94 j2:53 V, VR ¼ 4:5%, g ¼ 98:23%
5:2 Vs ¼ 45865:37 j9:19 V, VsðLLÞ ¼ 79:44kV, VR ¼ 20:36%
5:3 VsðLLÞ ¼ 56:13kV, cos /s ¼ 0:7
5:4 VsðLLÞ ¼ 79:79kV, Is ¼ 210:53 j26:98 A
5:5 A ¼ 1, C ¼ 0:01S, B ¼ 4X, D ¼ 1:04
5:6 Vs ¼ 33395:8 j12:98 V
5:7 A ¼ 0:65 j4:15 , C ¼ 0:0011 j97 S, B ¼ 14:27 j35:25 X, D ¼ 0:65 j4:15
5:8 b ¼ 0:0015rad/km, v ¼ 204124:15km/s, k ¼ 4082:48km, Zc ¼ 195:96X
Vs ¼ 231497:32 j5:31 V
Exercise Problems
5:1 Vs ¼ 896:14 j41:87 V, cos /s ¼ 0:5, g ¼ 50:97%
5:2 Vs ¼ 10:93kV, VR ¼ 0:64% g ¼ 99:36%
5:3 Vs ¼ 6:6kV, VR ¼ 0:91%
5:4 Vs ¼ 11:04kV, g ¼ 99:58%
5:5 Vr ¼ 5:98kV, IL ¼ 74:23A, g ¼ 96:03%
5:6 Vs ¼ 10:66kV, d ¼ 15:04
5:7 Vs ¼ 11:38kV, Ps ¼ 243:33kW, Ss ¼ 246:2kW þ j152:59kVAR
5:8 IL ¼ 408:53 j68:2 A, Pr ¼ 2:29MW, /s ¼ 48:81 ðlagÞ
5:9 A ¼ 0:99 j0:01 , C ¼ 0:0003 j90 S, B ¼ 5:14 j76:5 X, D ¼ 0:99 j0:01 ,
Vs ¼ 66:65kV Is ¼ 198 j28:98 A, cos /s ¼ 0:86
5:10 A ¼ D ¼ 0:99 j0:06 , C ¼ 0:000216 j90 S, B ¼ 54:59 j80:57 X,
VsðLLÞ ¼ 46:92kV Is ¼ 463:7 j26:36 A, cos /s ¼ 0:79

5:11 A ¼ D ¼ 0:99 j0:2 , C ¼ 0:000348 j90:1 S, B ¼ 82:46 j75:96 X, VsðLLÞ ¼

92:69kV Is ¼ 269:65 j15:31 A, cos /s ¼ 0:80
5:12 VsðLLÞ ¼ 117:63kV, Is ¼ 161:61 j27:57 A, g ¼ 89:38%
5:13 Vs ¼ 58897:97 j15:77 V, VR ¼ 59:34%
5:14 Vs ¼ 64530:23 j0:33 V, Is ¼ 243:05 j23:74 A
5:15 Vs ¼ 52752:47 j16:51 V, Is ¼ 79:91 j34:72 A
5:16 A ¼ 0:68 j4:68 , C ¼ 0:0015 j105:66 S, B ¼ 19:55 j40 X, D ¼ 0:68 j4:68
5:17 b ¼ 0:0012rad/km, v ¼ 2:65 105 km/s, k ¼ 5303:72km, Zc ¼ 209:5X
Chapter 6
Practice Problems
6:1 I 00 ¼ 42939:07 A, I 0 ¼ 23618:85A, I ¼ 4204:16A, Itotal ¼ 64408:61A
6:2 MVASC ¼ 19:04, ISC ¼ 999:17A
6:3 MVASC ¼ 662:25, ISC ¼ 29411:63A
6:4 55 MVA, 29159.05 A
6:5 Ia0 ¼ 22:27 j24:36 A, Ia1 ¼ 4:46 j85:51 A, Ia2 ¼ 7:55 j140:68 A
6:6 Ia ¼ 14:22 j31:05 A, Ib ¼ 4:64 j143:71 A, Ic ¼ 2:68 j58:88 A
6:7 X 1,T 1 X 1,L X 1,T 2
jX 1, g1 X 2,L
jX 1,M
E1
E2
Reference
Positive sequence
X 2,T 1 X 2, L1 X 2,T 2
jX 2, g1 X 2, L 2 jX 2,M
Reference
Negative sequence
Bus 1 X 0,T 1 X 0, L1 Bus 4

X 0,T 2
jX g 0, g1 X 0, L 2 jX 0,M
j 3 X n , g1 M
G1
Reference
Zero sequence
6:8 Ia ¼ 4849:75 j90 A

6:9 Ia0 ¼ Ib0 ¼ Ic0 ¼ 50A, Ia1 ¼ 50 j120 A, Ib1 ¼ 50 j360 A, Ic1 ¼ 50 j240 A,
Ia2 ¼ 50 j 240 A, Ib2 ¼ 50 j360 A, Ic2 ¼ 50 j480 A
6:10 Vab ¼ 1:2 j0 V, Vbc ¼ 0 j0 V, Vca ¼ 1:2 j180 V
6:11 Ia ¼ 0 j0 pu, Ib ¼ 5:01 j148:02 pu, Ic ¼ 5:01 j31:98 pu
Exercise Problems
6:1 (i) 0:5 j0:86, (ii) 4 þ j1:732, (iii) 2:5 þ j2:6
6:2 Iao ¼ 14:97 j35:56 A, Ia1 ¼ 3:45 j110:66 A, Ia2 ¼ 2:31 j169:11 A,
Ibo ¼ 14:97 j35:56 A, Ib1 ¼ 3:45 j129:34 A, Ib2 ¼ 2:31 j49:11 A
6:3 Vao ¼ 191:69 j48:12 V, Va1 ¼ 47:79 j87:20 V, Va2 ¼ 60:41 j142:51 V
6:4 Va ¼ 537:27 j73:87 V, Vb ¼ 263:19 j126:04 V, Vc ¼ 218:85 j41:28 V
6:5 Ibo ¼ 169:71 j45 A, Ib1 ¼ 25:05 j175:21 A, Ib2 ¼ 16:96 j27:41 A
6:6 Ia ¼ 11:95 j15:03 A, Ib ¼ 3:93 j7:63 A, Ic ¼ 7:11 j104:83 A
6:7 Ibo ¼ 500 j0 A, Ib1 ¼ 500 j240 A, Ib2 ¼ 500 j120 A
6:8 Iao ¼ 0 j0 A, Ia1 ¼ 25:72 j30 A, Ia2 ¼ 25:72 j30 A, Ibo ¼ 0 j0 A,
Ib1 ¼ 25:72 j270 A, Ib2 ¼ 25:72 j90 A, Ico ¼ 0 j0 A, Ic1 ¼ 25:72 j150 A,
Ic2 ¼ 25:72 j210 A
6:9 Ia ¼ 4204:16A
6:10 Ib ¼ 2171:32A, Vao ¼ 0 j0 pu, Va1 ¼ 0:4 j0 pu, Va2 ¼ 0:6 j0 pu,
Va ¼ 1 j0 pu, Vb ¼ 0:53 j160:89 pu, Vc ¼ 0:53 j160:89 pu

6:11 Ia ¼ 0 j0 pu, Ib ¼ 3:52 j143:64 pu, Ic ¼ 3:52 j36:36 pu

6:12 If ðslgÞ ¼ 25426:689A, If ðllÞ ¼ 17819:149A, If ðdlgÞ ¼ 24377:308A
Chapter 7
Practice Problems
7:1 X ¼ 10:83X
2 3
7:97 j41:25 3 j45 0 5 j45
6 3 j45 4:98 j 49 3 j 55 0 7
7:2 Ybus ¼ 6
4
7
5
0 2 j55 5:81 j34:89 4 j25
5 j45 0 4 j25 8:86 j36:12
7:3 V1 ¼ 0:0825, V2 ¼ 0:8829, V3 ¼ 1:5904

7:4
7:5
7:6 x ¼ 1:047
7:7 Student can solve it
7:8 BUS1 BUS2

1.000 (0.00) 2949.3 A 0.979 (-1.65)
-52.48 MW
53.11 MW
-16.47 MVAR
18.36 MVAR
M
90.85 MW
38.18 MVAR 0.05 MW
0.02 MVAR
G
37.75 MW
19.82 MVAR 7.60 MW
3.62 MVAR
SWING
20.00 MVAR
60.00 MW
-37.60 MW -7.57 MW
2237.5 A -18.62 MVAR -3.56 MVAR
448.7 A
BUS3
0.984 (-1.36)
30.00 MW
15.00 MVAR
7:9
BUS1 BUS2
1.000 (0.00) 3917.9 A 0.967 (-2.69)
-67.05 MW
67.97 MW
25.00 MVAR
-26.71 MVAR
117.47 MW 30.86 MVAR
70.00 MW
56.54 MVAR
G
49.50 MW
25.68 MVAR 2.96 MW
SWING
-1.63 MVAR
-47.96 MW -2.95 MW
2926.8 A -23.37 MVAR 1.71 MVAR
25.00 MVAR
185.2 A
45.00 MW
BUS3
0.957 (-1.44)
Exercise Problems
7:1 Qav ¼ 233:33VAR
7:2 X ¼ 17:5X
7:3 Vr ¼ 66:33V

j6 j1
7:4 Ybus ¼
j1 j1:77
2 3
j5 j2 0
7:5 Ybus ¼ 4 j2 j10 j5 5
0 j5 j5

5 j10 5 þ j10
7:6 Ybus ¼
5 þ j10 5 j10
2 3
8:33 j16:67 5 þ j10 3:33 þ j6:67
7:7 Ybus ¼ 4 5 þ j10 9 j18 4 þ j8 5
3:33 þ j6:67 4 þ j8 7:33 þ j14:67
2 3
10:63 j20:85 5 þ j10 2:55 þ j5:47 3:08 þ j5:38
6 5 þ j10 9 j18 4 þ j8 0 7
7:8 6
Ybus ¼ 4 7
2:55 þ j5:47 4 þ j8 9:88 j20:14 3:33 þ j6:67 5
3:08 þ j5:38 0 3:33 þ j6:67 6:41 j12:05
7:9 V1 ¼ 1:3846V, V2 ¼ 2:0384V
7:10 V ¼ 0:4384
7:11
7:12
7:13 6335.6 A
-102.53 MW
50.00 MVAR
257.78 MW
100.00 MW
105.42 MW -50.12 MVAR
130.88 MVAR
58.79 MVAR
AB C
G
ABC
8846.4 A A BC
152.35 MW 2.53 MW
SWING
-147.47 MW -2.53 MW
72.09 MVAR 0.12 MVAR
-59.88 MVAR -0.12 MVAR
A BC AB C
B1
1.000 (0.00)
B2
0.945 (-3.10) 150.00 MW
140.9 A 60.00 MVAR
B3
0.944 (-3.22)
7:14 V ¼ 1:8414
7:15 V ¼ 1:04709
7:16
7:17
7:18
Chapter 8
Practice Problems
8:1 q ¼ 2:61 1013 X m
8:2 2.28 cm, 14.59 kV/cm, 0.84 cm
8:3 r1 ¼ 2:24cm, r2 ¼ 3cm, V ¼ 46:01kV, Vsafe ¼ 32:54kV
8:4 Vs1 ¼ 32:86kV, Vs2 ¼ 14:46kV
8:5 6184.65 V, 480.42 W, 471.92 W
8:6 C ¼ 0:64l F
8:7 Cn ¼ 4:46l F, Ic ¼ 10:68A
Exercise Problems
8:1 975.6 MX
8:2 53.31 MX
8:3 Emax ¼ 15:90V/cm, Emin ¼ 5:02V/cm, tins ¼ 1:3cm, (iv) r ¼ 0:70cm
8:4 Emax ¼ 28:09V/cm, Emin ¼ 9:66V/cm, r ¼ 1:18cm
8:5 tins ¼ 3:025cm, V ¼ 43:62kV
8:6 r ¼ 0:196cm, reconom ¼ 1:1cm
8:7 r1 ¼ 1:5cm, r2 ¼ 1:8cm, V ¼ 41:16kV Vsafe ¼ 29:10kV
8:8 tin ¼ 1:04cm, tout ¼ 2:76cm, Vpeak ¼ 71:18kV, Vsafe ¼ 50:33kV
8:9 Vs1 ¼ 7:17kV, Vs2 ¼ 3:41kV
8:10 Plc ¼ 40:33W, Pdl ¼ 1368:48W, Pdh ¼ 1328:15W
8:11 Plc ¼ 0:92W, C ¼ 0:189lF, Pdh ¼ 1199:08W
8:12 C ¼ 0:680l F, Ic ¼ 2:39A

8:13 C ¼ 0:272l F, R ¼ 2:22cm
8:14 Ccs ¼ 0:345l F, Ccc ¼ 0:145l F, Cn ¼ 0:78l F, Ic ¼ 0:062A
8:15 Ccs ¼ 1:45l F, Ccc ¼ 0:515l F, Cn ¼ 3l F
Chapter 9
Practice Problems
9:1 Pe ¼ 26:86MW, IL ¼ 3169:82 j42:15 A
H ¼ 8MJ/MVA, Pe ¼ 2MW, ddt2d ¼ 3:92rad/s2
2
9:2
9:3 Sp ¼ 1:643, xn ¼ 5:03rad=s, fn ¼ 0:8Hz, T ¼ 1:25s
6.7MJ/MVA, 670MJ, ddt2d ¼ 339:84rad/s2
2
9:4
9:5 106:7 ¼ 1:86rad, 0.46s, 64:53 ¼ 1:12rad, 0.16s
Exercise Problems
9:1 d ¼ 78:74 , IL ¼ 4460:29 j32:18 A, Qline ¼ 59:68Mvar, Q3/ ¼ 89:73Mvar
9:2 138.43 MW, IL ¼ 4460:291482:04 j157:52 A
9:2 Xc ¼ 14:99X
9:3 640 MJ, 8 MW, 216 elec.deg/s2
9:4 7 MJ/MVA, 210.52 elec.deg/s2
9:5 0.66, IL ¼ 0:66 j18:19 , Eg ¼ 0:95 j17:67 , 1.96, 7.84 rad/s
9:6 2.53, 8.91 rad/s, 0.24 s
9:7 1833.33 MW
9:8 14.5 MJ/MVA, 1450 MJ, 64.29 elec.deg/s2
9:9 21.8 MJ/MVA, 2180 MJ, 375 elec.deg/s2
9:10 9.49°, 121.52°, 0.48 s, 105.11°, 0.18 s
9:11 95.42°, 0.34 s
9:12 Use the software to solve
9:13 Use the software to solve
Chapter 10
Practice Problems
10:1 pðtÞ ¼ 2367:25 6740:71 cosð2xt 69:44 ÞW,
pa ¼ 4734:51ð1 cos 2xtÞW, qa ¼ 12622:71 sin 2xtVar, P ¼ 4734:51W,
Q ¼ 12622:71Var, Pav ¼ 4766:4W
10:2 187 W, 115.89 Var, 4.07 A, 627.72 VA
10:3 800 W, 2598.07 W, 1125.83 W, 650 Var
10:4 2054.79 VA
10:5 0.18, 0.09
Exercise Problems
10:1 pðtÞ ¼ 994:85 2832:81 cosð2xt 69:44 ÞW,
pa ¼ 944:85ð1 cos 2xtÞW, qa ¼ 1875:51 sin 2xtVar, P ¼ 944:85W,
Q ¼ 1875:51Var, Pav ¼ 351:73W, 0.45
10:2 913.73 VA, 1045 W, 343.47 Var, 1.2
10:3 8.23 A, 324 W, 156.92 Var, 1161.6 VA

10:4 405 W, 630.75 W, 96.83 W, 131.1 Var
10:5 85.38 V, 26.59 A, 2270.25 VA, 1425 W, 0 Var, 1925.8 W, 565.51 Var
10:6 937.85 VA, 0.84, 1.24, 753.3 VA, 1120.5 VA, 1643.94 VA
10:7 0.12, 0.06
Chapter 11
Practice Problems
11:1 5.46 kV, 6.11 kV, 7.48 kV, 84.67%
11:2 13.98 kV, 13.10 kV, 11.01 kV
11:3 256.58 m, 17.87 m
11:4 10.65 m, 17.54 m, 14.1 m
Exercise Problems
11:1 3.51 kV, 4.03 kV, 5.16 kV, 82.05%
11:2 6.61 kV, 7.67 kV, 9.98 kV, 13.81 kV, 68.9%
11:3 99%
11:4 82.75%
11:5 129.39 m, 216.09 kg
11:6 18 m, 461.4 kg
11:7 38.34 m, 3.14 m
11:8 4424 m, 9.6 m
11:9 12.31 m, 0.93 m, 13.24 m
11:10 39.83 m, 30.25 m
Index
A Capacitance of a three-core cable, 402

ABCD constants, 199, 227 Capacity factor, 128
AC circuit, 9 Charging current, 401, 403
AC resistance, 145 Classification of cable, 381
Additive polarity, 59 Coherent machine, 432
All aluminium alloy conductor, 143 Complex power, 8, 273
All aluminium conductor, 143 Complex power balance, 14
Aluminium conductor alloy reinforce, 143 Conductor, 380
Aluminium conductor steel reinforce, 143 Connected load, 125
Ampere circuital law, 144 Copper loss, 75
Annual load curve, 124 Corona discharge, 241
Annual load factor, 126 Critical clearing angle, 438
Annual plant factor, 128 Critical clearing time, 438
Apparent power, 6 Cross-linked polyethylene, 381
Apparent power due to distortion, 474 Current transformer, 92
Armoring, 381
Autotransformer, 83 D
Average load, 125 Daily load curve, 124
Average power, 3 Dam, 114
DC offset, 488
B DC resistance, 145
Base current, 97 Delta connection, 30
Base impedance, 97 Delta–delta connection, 90
Bedding, 381 Delta–wye connection, 88
Binder tape, 381 Demand factor, 126
Biomass energy, 111 Dielectric Absorption Ratio (DAR), 407
Block rate tariff, 136 Dielectric discharge, 408
Bundling conductors, 170 Dielectric power loss, 398
Bundling in capacitance, 191 Diesel power station, 123
Bus, 318 Distortion factor, 467
Diversity factor, 127
C Dominant root, 450
Cables heating, 396 Double-line-to-ground fault, 298
Capacitance grading, 387, 503

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3212-2
544 Index
E Intersheath grading, 391

Earth, 183 Iron loss, 75
Economical conductor, 386
Eddy current loss, 74 J
Efficiency of transmission lines, 198 Jacobian matrix, 345
Electrical noise, 488 Jacobian sub-matrix, 349
Electric field, 174
EMF, 49 K
Equal area criterion, 435 Kinetic energy, 113
ETAP, 317
External inductance, 151 L
Line capacitance, 173
F Line-to-line fault, 293
Fast decoupled load flow, 359 Load bus, 318
Ferranti effect, 239 Load curve, 124
Flat rate tariff, 136 Load duration curve, 129
Flicker, 488 Load factor, 126
Flux linkage, 167 Load flow equations, 323
Long transmission line, 198, 213
G
Gauss–Seidel method, 329 M
Gauss’s law, 173 Maximum demand, 125
Geometric Mean Distance (GMD), 153 Maximum electric field, 385
Generating station, 132 Measuring equipment, 39
Generator, 115 Medium transmission line, 198
Generator bus, 318 Minimum electric field, 385
Geometric Mean Radius (GMR), 153 Monthly average load, 125
Grading of cables, 387 Monthly load factor, 126
Gross head, 115 Mutual flux, 46
Ground wires, 241 Mutual inductance, 159
Guard ring method, 504
N
H Negative sequence components, 266
Harmonic current, 473 Net head, 115
Harmonic power, 467 Newton-Raphson method, 340
Harmonic voltage, 473 Nominal p-model, 208
Hopkinson demand rate, 137 Nominal T-model, 206
Hydro power station, 113 Non fundamental apparent power, 474
Hysteresis loss, 74 Nuclear power station, 123
I O
Ideal transformer, 47 Open circuit test, 78
Image conductor, 184 Open delta connection, 90
Impedance, 3 Overvoltage, 487
Inductance, 147
Inertia constant, 414 P
Infinite bus, 415 Parallel operation of transformer, 85
Instantaneous power, 1 Parallel transmission networks, 235
Instrument transformer, 92 Pelton wheel, 117
Insulation resistance, 379, 406 Penstock, 114
Interactive Power System Analysis (IPSA), 264 Perfect power quality, 461
Interharmonics, 461 Per unit value, 97
Internal inductance, 147 Phase, 24
Interruptions, 488 Phase sequence, 24
Index 545
Point of Common Coupling (PCC), 462, 487 Swells, 486

Polarity of transformer, 58 Swing equation, 419
Polarization index, 407 Symmetrical components, 265
Positive sequence components, 266 Symmetrical faults, 250
Potential energy, 113
Potential transformer, 92 T
Power factor, 17, 467 Tailrace, 115
Power factor angle, 17 Tariff, 135
Power factor correction, 18 Three-part tariff, 138
Power factor tariff, 139 Three-phase transformer, 60
Power station, 112 Three-phase transformer connection, 85
Power triangle, 7 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), 476, 489
PQ bus, 318 Transformer, 47, 115
Pressure energy, 113 Transformer efficiency, 76
Primary distribution, 133 Transformer equivalent circuit, 54
Primary leakage flux, 46 Transformer magnetizing current, 47
Primary transmission, 133 Transformer maximum efficiency, 77
Primary winding, 46 Transformer tests, 78
PV bus, 318 Transformer vector group, 62
Transformer voltage regulation, 69
R Transmission lines, 133
Reactance diagram, 94 Transposition, 167
Reactive power, 5, 8, 464 Travelling waves, 241
Real power, 4, 8 Turbine, 114, 118
Reserve capacity, 128 Turns ratio, 50
Two-part tariff, 137
S
Sag, 486, 508 U
Secondary distribution, 133 Underground cables, 379
Secondary leakage flux, 46 Under voltage, 487
Secondary transmission, 133 Unsymmetrical faults, 265
Secondary winding, 46 Unsymmetrical spacing conductors, 163
Self-inductance, 159
Sequence impedances, 275 V
Serving, 381 Voltage generation, 23
Short circuit current, 253 V–V connection, 90
Short circuit kVA, 254
Short circuit test, 80 W
Short transmission line, 197 Wind energy, 111
Simple tariff, 136 Wye–delta connection, 87
Single-line-to-ground fault, 288 Wye–wye connection, 85
Skin effect, 148
Slack bus, 318 Y
Stability curves, 412 Y-connection, 34
Steam power station, 112 Y-Y connection, 86
String efficiency, 499
Subtractive polarity, 59 Z
Subtransient, 250 Zero sequence components, 267
Subtransient current, 250 Zero sequence impedance, 278
Surge impedance loading, 224

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Md.

ISBN 978-981-15-3211-5 ISBN 978-981-15-3212-2 (eBook)

I would like to acknowledge Karin Koonings and Maureen Mallonee, Fluke

The key features of this book are as follows.

Power generation, turbines, different types of power system-related factors, and

Aids for Instructors

London, Canada Md. Abdus Salam

1 Analysis of Electrical Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2.8 Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

3.14 AC Power Supply System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

5.8 ABCD Parameters and Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

8 Underground Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

10.7 Non-sinusoidal Voltage and Nonlinear Loads

Appendix: Answers to Practice and Exercise Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527

AC generator, transformer, and other related high-voltage devices are required to

1.2 Instantaneous Power

vðtÞ ¼ Vm sin xt ð1:1Þ

The expression of the current can be derived as [1, 2]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1

Fig. 1.1 Circuit with an i (t )

Substituting Eq. (1.1) into Eq. (1.2) yields

iðtÞ ¼ Im jh ¼ Im sinðxt hÞ ð1:5Þ

The expression of instantaneous power is written as

pðtÞ ¼ vðtÞ iðtÞ ð1:6Þ

Substituting Eqs. (1.1) and (1.5) into Eq. (1.6) yields

pðtÞ ¼ Vm sin xt Im sinðxt hÞ ð1:7Þ

The instantaneous power is calculated as

Practice Problem 1.1

1.3 Average Power and Reactive Power

Substituting Eq. (1.10) into the Eq. (1.15) yields

Similarly, the expression of the average reactive power can be written as

P ¼ Vrms Irms cos h ¼ Vrms Irms cosðhv hi Þ ð1:21Þ

Similarly, from Eq. (1.19), reactive power can be represented as

Q ¼ Vrms Irms sin h ¼ Vrms Irms sinðhv hi Þ ð1:22Þ

Substituting Eq. (1.23) into Eq. (1.18) yields

Equation (1.25) can be rearranged by substituting Vm = ImR as

Zt ¼ 2 þ j5 j9 ¼ 4:47 j63:43 X ð1:31Þ

Fig. 1.2 Circuit for Example i (t ) 2Ω 5Ω

Fig. 1.3 Circuit for Practice i (t ) 2Ω

The source current in phasor form is calculated as

The average power supplied by the source is calculated as

The average power absorbed by the resistor is calculated as

1.4 Apparent Power

vðtÞ ¼ Vm sinðxt þ hv Þ ð1:35Þ

iðtÞ ¼ Im sinðxt þ hi Þ ð1:36Þ

The phasor forms of these voltage and current components are

According to Eqs. (1.20) and (1.21), the average power is

Substituting Eq. (1.40) into Eq. (1.39) yields

Fig. 1.4 Power triangles Im

The circuit impedance is calculated as

The value of the circuit resistance is

The circuit inductance is calculated as

1.5 Complex Power

Substituting Eqs. (1.37) and (1.38) into Eq. (1.47) yields

Sc ¼ Vrms jhv Irms jhi ð1:49Þ

Sc ¼ Vrms Irms ð1:50Þ

Sc ¼ Vrms Irms ð1:50Þ

Sp ¼ Vrms ½I1 þ I2 ð1:89Þ

Sp ¼ Vrms I1 þ Vrms I2 ð1:90Þ