Rolv Gjestland

How to design
a cinema auditorium

Practical guidelines for architects, cinema owners and

others involved in planning and building cinemas
 Rolv Gjestland

How to design
a cinema auditorium
How to use this book

This book can be read from beginning to end, to learn more about
the elements that need to be taken into consideration when de-
signing a cinema auditorium. But it may also be used as a refer-
ence in the design process, as the different parts of the auditorium
are planned. Just be aware that making a change in one element
might affect others.

Designing a cinema auditorium is quite easy if you follow the rules.

Although, if everyone follows all the rules, all auditoriums will look
the same. Go beyond the rules, but always keep in mind that the
main purpose of a cinema auditorium is to give the audience the
best film experience. In addition, there are many other rooms in a
cinema complex where you can use your creativity to create great
experiences for patrons and make them want to come back.

A digital version of this book is also available on the UNIC website:

www.unic-cinemas.org

Feedback

This is the second edition of the book, and still I am sure someone
will miss something, someone will disagree with something and
something will be incomplete or difficult to understand. Please
do not hesitate to share your opinions, so the next edition can be
better and the next one after that … Please use the contact details
on the next page.
About the author About UNIC

Rolv Gjestland has a master’s degree in metallurgy from the Nor- The International Union of Cinemas (UNIC) is the European trade
wegian University of Science and Technology. He is now advisor body representing national cinema associations and key operators
in cinema concepts, design, logistics and technology for Film& across 38 territories, covering over 42 500 screens and over 1.34
Kino, the nonprofit trade organisation for Norwegian cinemas. billion cinema-goers in 2019.
Since 1984, he has been involved in almost every newbuild or
upgrade of cinemas in Norway. He has written projection manuals UNIC promotes the cultural, social and economic benefits of a
– both for analogue and digital cinema – and manuals and articles vibrant cinema-going culture in Europe and provides a strong voice
about cinema design (available in Norwegian). for European cinema operators on issues of shared interest.

He started his career as a cinema-goer at a very young age and Like millions across Europe, we love cinema and very much look
considers this to be one of his most important skills. Over the forward to a bright future for our industry. We hope that this book
years, he learned a lot about improving the cinema-going experi- will encourage many of you to design state-of-the-art auditoriums,
ence, both in the auditorium as well as in the lobby and the rest where film lovers will be able to enjoy the unique experience of
of the cinema complex. In doing so, he has acquired a great deal watching films together, on the Big Screen.
of knowledge and expertise about operating cinemas, effective
logistics and facilitating the efficient use of staff – without ever Contact:
sacrificing the quality of the experience. Union Internationale des Cinémas /
International Union of Cinemas
One of his slogans is: “A film production is not finished until the Avenue des Arts 10–11, 1210 Brussels, Belgium
film is presented to the audience,” and that cinemas are the only Tel: +32 2 8809939
place that can guarantee film presentation as intended by the film- Email: communications@unic-cinemas.org
maker.

Contact:
Rolv Gjestland, c/o Film&Kino
Dronningens gate 16, N-0152 Oslo, Norway,
Tel: +47 95208502
Email: rolv@kino.no
Foreword 10 2.3.1 Porthole size 48
Introduction 11 2.3.2 Porthole, horizontal position 50
2.3.3 Porthole, vertical position and clearance
under the projection beam 51

1 Screens 13
2.3.4
2.3.5
Porthole glass
Fire protection
51
53
1.1 Screen shape 13
1.1.1 Aspect ratio 13
1.1.2
1.1.3
Curved or flat screens
Non-rectangular screens
15
18
3 Direct view displays for cinema 55

1.2 Position and tilt 18 3.1 Display format 56

1.2.1 Horizontal position 18 3.2 Display size 56
1.2.2 Vertical position 19 3.3 Depth behind the display 57
1.2.3 Depth behind the screen 19 3.4 Luminance 57
1.2.4 Tilting the screen 20

4 Viewing conditions
1.3 Size 21
1.4 Screen surfaces 26 61
1.5 Perforations 28
1.6 Seams 30 4.1 Screen to first row distance 61
1.7 Mounting systems 30 4.2 Horizontal viewing angles 62
4.3 Vertical viewing angles 64
1.7.1 Lace-in frame 30
4.4 Seating outside the screen’s edges 66
1.7.2 Wrap-around frame 31
4.5 Safety area in front of large cinema projectors 66
1.7.3 Roll-up screens 32
4.6 Seating area 67
1.8 Masking and curtains 34
4.7 Sightline clearance 68
1.8.1 Screen masking 34
4.8 Stairways in the aisles 71
1.8.2 Adjustable masking 35
1.8.3 Space for movable side-masking 36
1.8.4 Curtains 38
5 Seating 75

5.1 Seating row distance 75

2 Projection 41 5.1.1
5.1.2
Escape width
Last row depth
76
77
2.1 Room for the projector 41 5.2 Seating types 78
2.1.1 Projection room 41 5.2.1 Depth 79
2.1.2 Projector cabinet 43 5.2.2 Width 81
2.1.3 Boothless projection 43 5.2.3 Height 82
2.2 Projection angle 46 5.3 Seating quality 82
2.2.1 Distortion 46 5.3.1 Cushion density 83
2.2.2 Lens shift 48 5.4 Curved seating rows 84
2.3 Porthole 48 5.5 Offset seating rows 86
5.6 Aisles 87 8.4 Echo 117
5.6.1 Crossing aisles 87 8.5 Wall surface 118
5.6.2 Handrails 89
5.7 Mounting seats 90
5.8
5.9
Sightline issue with recliners
Stadium construction
91
92 9 Speaker placements 121

9.1 Front speakers 122

9.2 Subwoofers 125
6 Stray light 95 9.3
9.4
Rear surround speakers
Side surround speakers
126
127
6.1 Optical errors 95 9.5 Mounting surround speakers 129
6.2 Reflected light from the screen 95 9.6 Baffle wall 130
6.3 Other light sources 97 9.6.1 The room behind the baffle wall 134
6.3.1 Exit doors 98
6.3.2 Light from the projection room 98
6.3.3
6.4
Other light sources and visible elements
Room colours
99
99 10 Auditorium shapes 137
6.5 Ceiling 100 10.1 Room height 137
10.2 Parallel side walls 139
10.3 Angled side walls 139
7 Lighting 103 10.4 Projection room above the rear part of the auditorium
10.5 Balcony
141
142
7.1 House lighting 103
7.1.1 Luminaries 104
7.1.2
7.1.3
Other lights
Light levels
105
106 11 Accessibility 145
7.1.4 Light control 106
11.1 Wheelchairs 145
7.2 Emergency lighting 107
11.1.1 Wheelchair access 145
7.2.1 Exit lights 107
11.1.2 Ramps 146
7.2.2 Stair lighting 108
11.1.3 Space for wheelchairs 147
7.2.3 Guiding lights 109
11.1.4 Number of wheelchair spaces 148
11.1.5 Wheelchair locations 148
11.1.6 Entrance and exit doors 149
8 Acoustics 111 11.2
11.3
For hearing impaired people
For visual impaired people
150
151
8.1 Sound isolation 111
8.1.1 Doors 112
8.1.2 Vestibule 112
8.2 Background noise 113 Thanks 152
8.3 Reverberation 115 Literature 154
 Foreword Introduction

The intention of this book is to give architects, cinema owners and What we know as Digital Cinema is a global format based on spec-
managers, as well as other people involved in the process of plan- ifications made by the Digital Cinema Initiative (DCI) and stan-
ning and designing cinemas, some support in the design process. dardised by the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers
(SMPTE).
Some aspects, especially regarding security, safety and accessi-
bility must comply with local or international regulations. There One key principle of DCI is that all pictures must fit within the
are also the laws of nature and physics that cannot be changed, image container, which can be either 1080 x 2048 pixels (2K) or
such as optics or anthropometry. 2160 x 4096 pixels (4K).

The topics discussed mainly focus on design and less on techno- The image files are compressed and distributed together with the
logy, such as projectors, audio equipment, the electrical system or audio, subtitles and all the other necessary files in a digital pack-
the ventilation system. age called a DCP (Digital Cinema Package). Image, sound and
subtitle files may also be encrypted to prevent illegal use of the
I have tried to be as neutral as I can, but my personal views might DCP.
sometimes shine through.
The dominating way of showing a film in a cinema auditorium is by
Not all seats can be perfect, and a completely pitch-black screen- projecting pictures on a screen. Direct view displays for cinema,
ing room might not look so nice. Designing an auditorium always using active LED technology, have recently been introduced. With
includes a lot of compromises. This little book will hopefully help such systems there will no longer be a projection beam passing
in achieving the best compromises. through the room, above the head of the audience, and there is no
need for a projection room. But, apart from that, direct view dis-
I wish you luck and hope this guide will contribute to the design of plays will not significantly change the way cinema auditoriums will
great cinema auditoriums, where audiences will be able to enjoy be designed in the future.
unforgettable experiences.

10 11
 SCREENS
1 Screens
The screen is one of the most important elements in a cinema audi-
torium. The room design depends, for a large part, on the screen
type, size, shape and position. Before making the final design draw-
ings, the type of screen surface should be decided, as it might
limit the acceptable seating area.

Projection screens are usually made of coated PVC, but there are
also woven and nano-engineered screens. PVC screens are white
or silver coated, and usually perforated so as to let sound pass
through them.

1.1 Screen shape

1.1.1 Aspect ratio

Picture format is a basic choice a filmmaker must make in order to

tell the story. Over the years, filmmakers have experimented with
many different formats but, following the digitisation of cinemas,
two formats stood out: 1.85:1 (also known as “Flat”) and 2.39:1
(also known as “Scope”).

The Scope format is used to tell the story on a big, very wide screen
and is meant to be the widest format in a regular cinema. Other
formats will then use the same, fixed, screen height. The screen

SCREENS
12 13
 SCREENS
height is therefore always 1 in cinema aspect ratios, unlike tele- ___ Same top picture line, with variable centre level and projec-
vision or computer screens where it can be 4:3, 16:9, etc. tion angle. The vertical sightlines from the first seating row to
the picture centre might be uncomfortable for the audience in
Other formats can be used if the room is too narrow for a good wide formats (2.39 and such). If the picture is masked, there
Scope screen, or if special systems – such as IMAX, Dolby Cinema must be moveable bottom masking. This alternative is rarely
or 70mm film – are going to be screened. There may be various used.
other reasons for selecting screen formats, which we won’t list here.
It is important, and required by DCI, that all active pixels are visi-
Some filmmakers decide to make their films in other aspect ratios ble on the screen. Making a compromise on screen aspect ratio
than Flat or Scope, or what is often referred to as “non-standard” and cropping the pictures to fit the screen height and width in any
aspect ratios. Content with aspect ratios smaller than 2.39:1 usu- format is not acceptable.
ally fills the screen height on a 2.39:1 screen with black (no pic-
ture) columns on each side, called a pillarbox. Larger aspect ratios
must be letterboxed, with black bars above and under the image.
In rare occasions the picture might be both letterboxed and pillar- 1.1.2 Curved or flat screens
boxed, sometimes called windowboxed.
The screen can be either flat or curved. For practical reasons,
On a 1.85:1 screen, all aspect ratios above 1.85:1 will be letter- screens are only curved horizontally. Both vertical and horizontal
boxed. If that is the case, one must decide the picture’s vertical curving would demand a special solution, like a vacuum chamber
position on the screen: behind an unperforated screen. Such domed screens, if they still
exist, are not discussed in this book.
___ Same picture centre for all formats, which results in different
levels for the picture bottom and top line. If screen masking is When choosing between flat or curved screens, there are some fac-
used, there must be movable top and bottom masking. tors to take into consideration:

___ Same bottom picture line, where the picture centre and top ___ Standard projection lenses are designed to give best focus and
level varies with selected format. Also, the projection angle geometry on flat screens.
will depend on the format. With screen masking, only move-
able top masking is required. ___ The picture geometry will look better on a flat screen when
viewed from seats with a large angle to the screen centre.

14 15
 SCREENS
___ If the depth behind the screen is limited in the centre, the edges
must be pushed out closer to the front rows, where the field of
view will be larger. Because of limitations in terms of maximum
field of view, it may require removing the first row (see fig. on
facing page).

___ A flat screen can have a matte, white surface. It may require
a more powerful projector to achieve correct luminance on the
screen, but it will give the best picture quality for all seats.

___ A curved screen must have a gained screen surface (see Screen
surfaces section later in the book), which prevents reflection
If the depth behind the screen is limited, curving a screen (with a fixed width) will
from one side of the screen to the opposite side, reducing the increase the field of view and can make the viewing conditions on Row 1 unacceptable
contrast (black level) on the sides.

___ A gained screen should be curved, to even out the luminance

across the screen and keep the hotspot (area with higher lumi-
nance) closer to the centre of the screen when observed from the
sides of the auditorium.

___ A curved screen may give the auditorium a more “classical” look
and enhance the sense of immersion, like in the days of 70 mm
SIDE VIEW
film, Cinerama format, etc.

 straight horizontal magenta

A
___ DO NOT use deep curved screens. 5% curve is a good compromi- Screen frame line projected in the bottom of
se, meaning that the chord depth (sagitta) is equal to 5% of the a 5% curved cinema screen.
Here, the top of the beam is
chord length (the straight line between the screen edges). horizontal, the vertical projec-
tion angle is 8.4° and P/H=3.4,
where projection throw is P,
Projected horizontal line picture height is H.
___ On a curved screen, a straight horizontal line projected on the
screen will be slightly curved (see fig below). Larger angles, FRONT VIEW
larger screens and deeper curved screens increase the curve.

16 17
 SCREENS
1.1.3 Non-rectangular screens ___ If the screen is not wall-to-wall, and access behind the screen
is not possible on both sides of the screen, the screen could
To compensate for projection on a curved screen, the top and bot- be placed a little off the room’s centre axis to enable access
tom edge of the screen might be slightly curved according to the behind the screen from one side.
projected top and bottom lines. This way, the curved line in the
bottom will follow the screen’s bottom edge and look straight to
the audience, if the screen is not too deeply curved.
1.2.2 Vertical position

The bottom picture line (BPL) should be as low as possible, given

1.2 Position and tilt that the sightline clearance is acceptable and that the Projection
Down Angle is not too big (see Projection angle section later in the
book). One way to create the illusion that the BPL is lower is to
A wall-to-wall, floor-to-ceiling screen will make the screen look have a little stage or podium in front of the screen. This can also
bigger (and more impressive) but, when it comes to the low bottom be useful for introductions, presentations, panel discussions, etc.
edge, it rarely delivers acceptable viewing conditions.

1.2.3 Depth behind the screen

1.2.1 Horizontal position
If the front speakers are placed behind the screen, there must be
Usually on a floor plan, the centre of the screen axis should be the enough depth behind the screen for the speakers as well as ac-
same as the room centre axis, but this is not always the case: cess to them. Large auditoriums usually have larger speakers with
larger depths. As a rule of thumb, the depth should be a minimum
___ If the seating area is not centric to the room and the screen of 1200 mm. If the distance from the screen to the last row is less
width is not wall-to-wall, the centre of the screen might have than approximately 15 m, the depth can be reduced to 1000 mm.
the same centre axis as, or closer to, the seating area. Even with thinner loudspeaker models, the depth behind the
screen should always be large enough for access to the speakers.
___ If the projector is not on the room’s centre axis, the screen
might be placed on, or closer to, the projection axis to achieve
less distorted projection.

18 19
 SCREENS
Some systems use speakers above the screen, so access behind Another reason to tilt the screen could be to optimise the screen
the screen is not necessary and the screen can be placed closer for better luminance across the seating area. Usually, this will de-
to the wall. mand tilting the screen forward. It might be done in flat or close to
flat auditoriums, however, it is not recommended in regular cine-
ma auditoriums with stadium seating.

1.2.4 Tilting the screen

To compensate for a large projection angle/keystone (see Projec-

tion distortion section later in the book), the screen may be slight-
ly tilted. But a tilted screen has some disadvantages, especially
1.3 Size
when it comes to screen masking (described later in the Screen A good, modern cinema auditorium for big films should have a
chapter). Tilted screens will not be as aesthetically pleasing as large screen. The larger the better (usually), but larger screens de-
vertical screens. If tilting the screen is necessary, the tiltback an- mand a larger distance from the first row to the screen and will
gle should never exceed 3°. allow less seats, so the screen size will usually have to be a com-
promise.

Not all films look best on huge screens, therefore in some cases a
moderate screen size might be better.

The auditorium’s size and shape will define how big the screen will
look. In a rectangular room, you can use the field of view to decide
the screen size, or it’s even easier to use the ratio between the
viewing distance and the screen’s width or height.

 educing the projection

R
angle (relative to the screen)
by tilting the screen.

20 21
 SCREENS
For 2.39:1 aspect ratio screens: In an auditorium with less than 4–5 rows, or if the distance from
the screen to the first row is very large, it might be better to cal-
For an auditorium with more than 4– 6 rows, use the distance from culate the screen size using the distance from the screen to the
the screen to the last row to evaluate the screen size, as shown in centre row (best seat), as shown in the diagram below.
the diagram below.

Screen seen from last row on a 2.39:1 screen Screen seen from centre row on a 2.39:1 screen

22 23
 SCREENS
For 1.85:1 aspect ratio screens: In an auditorium with less than 4–5 rows, or if the distance from
the screen to the first row is very large, it might be better to cal-
In a given auditorium, a 1.85:1 aspect ratio screen should have culate the screen size using the distance from the screen to the
a smaller width and a larger height than a 2:39:1 screen. For an centre row (best seat), as shown in the diagram below.
auditorium with more than 4–6 rows, use the distance from the
screen to the last row to evaluate the screen size, as shown in the
diagram below.

Screen seen from last row on a 1.85:1 screen Screen seen from centre row on a 1.85:1 screen

24 25
 SCREENS
1.4 Screen surfaces ___ Silver screens are mainly used with polarised 3D systems.
Silver screens used to have very high gain, but in recent years
Most cinema screens are made of white or silver coated PVC. There new types have been developed with lower gain and more even
are also other types, made of nano-engineered material or woven light reflection. The screen will partly depolarise the light,
screens. given by the extinction ratio. Values over 100 are good, while
values below 75– 80 will result in unacceptable 3D ghosting,
Choosing the right type of screen and coating is important and has depending on light levels and other factors.
consequences for the auditorium design. The screen gain tells us Gain ~1.7 – ~3.0, HGA 20–30°
how much of the incoming, projected light is reflected on the cen-
tre axis. The gain is measured in a lab, on the screen axis, relative
to a reference surface with 1.0 gain. A high gain screen will reflect
more light on its axis, but the luminance will decrease with increas-
ing viewing angle, as shown in the graph below.

There are many factors to consider when calculating how the

screen luminance will look from different seats, but the gain table
can be used to get an indication of the consequences. An accept-
able viewing angle is often given by the Half Gain Angle (HGA), the
angle where the luminance is 50% of the nominal.

___ Matte white screens will give a nice and even reflection to all
seats in the auditorium. However, there will also be larger loss
because more of the light will be reflected to areas outside the
seating area. Using a matte white screen will demand a more
powerful light source.
Gain +/– 1.0, HGA > 60°

___ White gained screens are mainly used for 2D and for 3D with ac-
tive glasses or colour separation (WMT/Infitek/Dolby) systems.  elative screen luminance (examples) vs viewing angles for various screen types.
R
NOTE: Different screen types may deviate from these curves, even if they have the
Gain 1.4–1.8, HGA 30–35° same screen gain, so always check with the manufacturer.

26 27
 SCREENS
The choice of screen surface will have consequences for the pic- Standard perforations have a diameter of 0.9 –1.1 mm. If the dis-
ture quality and acceptable seating area (see Horizontal viewing tance from the screen to the viewer is less than 4–5 m, the per-
angle section later in the book). See, as an example, the illustra- forations will be visible from the first row(s), and a screen with
tion below with two different screen types in the same room. smaller perforations must be used.

Standard perforations can interfere with the projected pixels,

especially in 4K resolution, resulting in a moiré pattern on the
screen (see below). A screen with smaller perforations (0.4 –0.8
mm) will cancel the moiré effect.

Many screen manufacturers have screens that are designed to

avoid moiré and improve sound transmission, using small perfora-
tions (Ø < 0.6 mm).

 cceptable seating area in the same room configuration, with two different screen types.
A
Left: Harkness Perlux HiWhite 140; Right: Harkness Clarus 220. The illustration was generated
by Harkness Digital Screen Modeller (available on their website). N.B. Acceptable seating area
will depend on other factors too, so each case must be treated individually.

1.5 Perforations
Usually, the front loudspeakers are located behind the screen, to
match the location of the sound with the action on the screen.
Therefore, for acceptable sound quality, the screen must be perfo- Moiré pattern
rated. For good sound transmission, the total open area (the sum
of all perforations) should be in the range of 4–5%.

28 29
 SCREENS
1.6 Seams To hide the frame, lacing and folded edge with eyelets, the screen
edges must have matte black masking.
To make larger screens, sheets of screen material are welded to-
gether. When doing so, the perforation pattern must match per-
fectly between each of the sheets. Even a tiny deviation in the
pattern will be visible as a grey vertical or horizontal line that can
be seen from all seats in the auditorium.

Screens with high-density small perforations might be impossible

to weld, as the surface available for the seam is too narrow. Such
screens might therefore not be available in large sizes.

1.7 Mounting systems  ace-in screen mounting, rear view.

L
(Source: Harkness screens)

There are different methods of mounting the screen in a cinema

auditorium. The most common are described below.
3.7.2 Wrap-around frame

1.7.1 Lace-in frame Another way of mounting the screen is to use a frame size that
matches the largest picture height and width. The screen is wrap-
With lace-in frame systems, the frame is bigger than the screen. ped around the frame, called a wrap-around screen or sometimes
The screen is delivered with a folded edge with eyelets all around. a “floating screen”. The frame size and the maximum picture size
The screen is stretched inside the bigger frame using a cord (simi- will be the same. With this method, it is possible to make a wall-to-
lar to a trampoline). To avoid conflict with the lacing and eyelets, wall and/or floor-to-ceiling picture size.
the maximum picture size must be a minimum of 200–300 mm
smaller than the frame width and height (100 –150 mm for each
edge).

30 31
 SCREENS
For larger screens, the screen is rolled on a solid aluminum or car-
bon fiber tube that rolls down with the screen. This way, the weight
of the tube will stretch the screen, evening out the screen surface.
Mounting such a system requires a solid roof mount, and a lot of
mechanics to handle the rolling system safely. The tube must be
perfectly horizontal to avoid buckled edges on the screen. Evening
out the screen will take some time, so the screen should be rolled
down well in advance of the screening.

The cost for such a system is substantially higher than for screens
mounted in frames.


Wrap around mounting, rear view.
(Source: Harkness screens)

1.7.3 Roll-up screens

In a multi-purpose room, it might be necessary to be able to some-

times remove the screen. This can be done using a roll-up screen.

For screens up to 5–6 m wide, it can be done in a simple fashion

with the screen roll at the top. The screen can be pulled up or
down like a roller blind. Of course, such a screen will be sensitive
to air movements and other variables, so it is not recommended for
permanent installations.  ultivision Polyvision 2 roll-up
M
screen with tension bands on
the sides to reduce buckles
along the screen edges.
(Source: Multivision)

32 33
 SCREENS
1.8 Masking and curtains 1.8.2 Adjustable masking

It is recommended that the masking is adjustable, to make a nice

1.8.1 Screen masking frame for each format.

Screen masking is used to make a nice even frame around the pro-
jected image, and to hide the screen mounting in a lace-in system.

Screen masking is mandatory if the auditorium is used to screen

analogue film, such as 35 mm or 70 mm. The reason for this is
that the projector’s aperture, limiting the light from the lamp-
house, is not in the same focus plane as the emulsion layer on the
film, making the edges of the projected image blurred. Masking
will hide the blurred edges and make a sharp frame around the
image.

With digital cinema, the edges around the projected image are
sharp but not all pixels in the projection system are used. Unused
pixels on the screen are not completely black and can be seen as a
dark-grey (almost black) edge outside of the picture’s edges.
To conceal these edges, masking should be used. Variable screen masking of different formats on a 2:39:1 screen with screen width L

The screen masking must be close to the screen surface to mini- On a Scope (2.39:1) screen, moveable side-masking is used. On
mise the gap, it being visible for people sitting away from the pro- a Flat (1.85:1), movable top or top and bottom masking is used.
jection axis. It is important to ensure the masking is not so close To show special formats, like 70 mm film, both moveable side-
that it touches the screen and might damage the screen surface. masking and top-bottom masking may be used.

Masking of the screen frame and masking where no speakers are

behind the screen can be made with matte, black, thick fabrics or
solid material (no light reflection).

34 35
 SCREENS
Adjustable masking fabrics, that might be in front of any speakers, Example:
must be sound transparent. For a 15m wide screen, the space outside the screen should
be a minimum of: 0.3 + 0.05 x 15 m = 1.05 m on each side.
The side of the masking, which is towards the picture’s edge, Different systems might require more or less space.
should be wrapped around a 150–300 mm wide solid panel in
order to give a straight vertical (or horizontal) edge and prevent With this type of side-masking, it is not possible to make wall-to-
folds of the masking fabrics from falling into the image. wall screens.

Masking should be motorised, with preset stops for selected for- There are a couple of solutions for masking that require less (or no)
mats and the possibility for manual stops for special formats. space on the sides:

To ensure that the edge towards the image is vertical, it is recom- ___ Black masking panels (200 – 500 mm wide), without fabric
mended to use rails and curtain runners in both the top and bot- outside of the panels. This will mask the unused pixels outside
tom of the screen. the picture but will not mask the screen outside the masking
panels. In a dark room, this can be an acceptable solution.
Changes between formats should be fast and noiseless.

1.8.3 Space for movable side-masking

There must be enough space to store the masking fabrics outside

of the screen. The width needed depends on the type of fabrics
and the suspension system. As a rule of thumb, this formula can
be used for side-masking:

S ≥ 0.3 + 0.05 x W (m)

S = free space outside the picture edge on each side

W = the maximum picture width
Saving space on the sides using black masking panels

36 37
 SCREENS
___ Roll-up masking where the masking rolls down to change the Fabrics for the curtains should be heavy (min 400 –500 g/m2),
masking format. One roll on each side, for each format, or rolls with 50 –75 % folding.
that can slide sideways for different formats.
The curtains must be motorised and, when open, the curtains
must not block the view of the whole screen from any seat. And
if coloured, the curtains should be hidden to prevent reflecting
colours onto the screen.

Saving space on the sides using rollup masking.

1.8.4 Curtains

In auditoriums meant for big premieres, film festivals and multi-

purpose rooms where the screen surface needs to be hidden or
protected, a main curtain system can be a nice solution.

The curtains’ size should at least cover the whole screen system,
including masking, but they would look better if they are bigger.

38 39
 2 Projection

PROJECTION
2.1 Room for the projector
Digital cinema projectors are noisy, in the range of 40–60 dB @ 1 m
for laser projectors and more for xenon projectors, mainly caused
by their fans. Therefore, they must be physically isolated from
the auditorium. The temperature in the room must be within an
acceptable range, typically between 10–35°C for laser projectors.
If the air around the projector gets too hot, the lamp/laser life will
be reduced and the projector may shut down.

Medium and large xenon lamp projectors will need external

exhaust ducting, with an airflow of 800 –1000 m3 per hour. Check
cooling requirements with your installer.

2.1.1 Projection room

With digital cinema projection systems there is no need for a tra-

ditional projection room, like in the old days with 35 mm film pro-
jectors. However, a separate projection room still has some advan-
tages:

___ A
 ccess to the equipment is easy and can take place during the
show, avoiding cancellations.

PROJECTION
40 41
 ___ Easy access for service and maintenance. 2.1.2 Projector cabinet

PROJECTION
___ Storage for spare parts like lamps, filters, etc.
The projector can be installed in a cabinet behind the auditorium,
___ Fuse box for each auditorium, easily available and accessible. above the ceiling in the corridor behind the auditorium or on the
rear wall inside the auditorium. The cabinet must be designed for
___ Space for processors, servers, amplifiers, light controls, etc.
access to the projector, the quick fix of problems during a show as
___ Possibilities for manual operation in case of errors, or if well as repairs and maintenance. It must meet requirements for
the auditorium will be used for special screenings, events, sound isolation and temperature control inside, as well as neces-
conferences, etc. sary cooling. Fire regulations may also apply.

If the auditorium is planned for 35 and/or 70 mm film projection

in addition to digital cinema, it is necessary to have a projection
room. Usually, the digital projector will be placed between the two
analogue projectors. In addition, there must be access to each pro-

1830
2400
jector for operation and service.

Projector mounted above the ceiling in the corridor behind the auditorium

2.1.3 Boothless projection

With digital projectors, there is very little need for manual opera-
tion. Access is still required for service, repairs and maintenance.
For example, changing lamps in xenon projectors, filters, etc. and,
on rare occasions, fixing or adjusting the projector during a show.
To save space, the projector can be mounted inside the auditorium
Projection room example with two 35/70 mm film projectors and one digital projector in a box mounted above the audience on the rear wall, or in a box
mounted below the ceiling.

42 43
 If the projector box is located above the rear part of the auditori- the projector which could be heard in the auditorium and it

PROJECTION
um, or if the projector is in a box mounted below the ceiling (rather must have a quiet air supply. This can be difficult (and expen-
than being behind the rear wall) there are some issues to take into sive) to achieve.
consideration (see also fig. on facing page):
___ If the auditorium has a room-in-room construction to improve
___ The distance from the projector to the screen will be shorter. sound isolation, the weight of the cabinet with projector might
This will decrease the projection ratio (shorter focal length), prove a challenge in terms of the inner box construction.
reduce the depth of focus and may reduce picture sharpness.

___ Shorter projection throw will increase projection distortion

(see Projection angle section below).

___ The clearance under the projector box must meet the require-
ments for minimum passage height. Projection from the ceil-
ing will usually have a larger projection angle than a projector
behind the last row.

___ The need for clearance under the box may limit the level of the
last row and may reduce the sightline clearance.

___ Having a large box inside the room will have a negative influ-
ence on the acoustics, especially if the auditorium has an im-
mersive audio system.

___ If the projector is hanging from the ceiling and there is a minor
problem with the projector during a show, the audience will
have to leave the room for the problem to be fixed and the
show might be cancelled.
 wo versions of the same auditorium. Top version has the projector behind the last row,
T
___ The projector box must be soundproof, to eliminate noise from bottom version has the projector mounted in the ceiling (boothless).

44 45
 2.2 Projection angle Vertical projection distortion: % Keystone = H
P
× tan δv × 100%

PROJECTION
W
The projection angle is the angle between the projection axis (or Horizontal projection distortion: % Keystone = P × tan δh × 100%
centerline), from the lens to the centre of the screen, and the per-
pendicular to the screen. This can be seen in the illustration for δ =Projection angle (vertical or horizontal)
P = Projection throw
the Position and tilt section above. The projection angle has a ver- H = Max picture height
tical and a horizontal component. W = Max picture width

Usually the projection lens is located higher than the centre of

the screen so the distance from the lens to the top of the image For good projection, the keystone should be less than 3%. Up to
is shorter than to the bottom. The result is a picture that is wider 5% is acceptable.
towards the bottom, called vertical keystone. If the projection lens
is located off the centre of the screen’s centerline sideways, the
image will be higher on the opposite side (see illustrations below).

3% vertical keystone
5% vertical keystone

Straight projection Vertical angled projection Horizontal angled projection Both vertical and horizontal
(down) (right) angled projection

Picture shapes with angled projection.

2.2.1 Distortion
3 and 5% vertical keystone relative to vertical projection angle and relative screen size.
The projection distortion increases with the projection angle and
with the ratio between the picture size and the projection throw
(distance from lens to screen). Increasing the screen size makes
the projection angle more critical.

46 47
 2.2.2 Lens shift the screen through the window next to the projector. If the wall

PROJECTION
between the projector and the auditorium is thick, the porthole
Digital cinema projector lenses usually have a lens shift function- must be larger. Chamfering the bottom edge of the opening on the
ality to reduce vertical and/or horizontal keystone. To do this, the auditorium side can be a solution (see illustration below).
lens is adjusted horizontally or vertically relative to the optical
axis, moving the projected image sideways or vertically without
changing the image geometry.

Even minor lens shift adjustments will have a negative impact on

the picture quality. The acceptable lens shift range will vary with
types of lens and projector. Consult the manufacturer or installer
for advice.
Chamfered 5 –10°

2.3 Porthole
The main purpose of the porthole, which is the window between  hamfered edge on the auditorium
C
side of the porthole
the projector and the auditorium, is to prevent noise leaking from
the projection room or cabinet into the auditorium. If the projector
is in a different fire safety cell than the auditorium, the porthole
must also meet requirements for fire protection.
The internal height of a porthole is usually around 400 mm,
and the width around 800 mm. If observing the screen through
the glass is a necessary addition, increase the width to 1200 or
2.3.1 Porthole size 1400 mm (or more).

The porthole must be large enough for projection in any possible Some 3D systems might require larger porthole size because of
format and, if necessary, have additional width to allow viewing special attachments in front of the lens. If 3D is an option, check

48 49
 necessary size (usually height) with the installer or the manufac- 2.3.3 Porthole, vertical position and clearance

PROJECTION
turer of the 3D system. under the projection beam

For dual projection systems, it is common to stack the projectors. There are different factors that limit the porthole’s vertical position:
In such cases the porthole height must be higher. Check with the
projector installer/manufacturer as to what size is required. ___ The projection angle must not be too big (see the Projection
angle section above).
The projection room might contain additional projectors, such as
two 35mm or combined 35/70 mm projectors. Position them sym- ___ There might be limitations given by the floor level and internal
metrically, with the digital cinema projector on the centre axis and height of the projection room/cabinet.
with enough space between each of them for operation and ser-
vice. See drawing in the Projection chapter. ___ There must be enough clearance under the projection beam on
the row in front of the projector (usually last row) to avoid seated
Do not make the porthole larger than necessary, because the sur- people – intentionally or accidentally – making shadows on the
face will act as an acoustical reflector in the auditorium and can screen. One can expect people to bow their heads when passing
also be a source of stray light on the screen. the beam. Measured in the front of the row in front of the projec-
tor, a 1700 mm clearance from floor to the beam’s bottom is ac-
ceptable. If critical, the clearance can be reduced to 1600 mm.

2.3.2 Porthole, horizontal position ___ Avoid conflict between the porthole and the surround speakers
on the rear wall (see Speaker placements section later in the book).
Horizontally, the projection lens should be on the screen centre
axis. If there is more than one projector, with one main projector,
place the main projector on the screen centre axis, the second pro-
jector on the left side (if possible) and the third on the right side. 2.3.4 Porthole glass
More than 3 projectors might be a challenge because of horizontal
keystone. Optical requirements
Use anti-glare and anti-reflective coated optical glass, that trans-
mits 98 –99% of the light. Angle the glass surface relative to the
projection axis for best results.

50 51
 Sound isolation 2.3.5 Fire protection

PROJECTION
Thicker glass will give better sound isolation. If single glass is
used, the thickness should be 8 –10mm and carefully mounted to If the projector is in a different fire compartment than the audi-
make it as soundproof as possible. torium, the porthole must be fire resistant. There are two ways to
achieve this:
For even better sound isolation, use double glass. To avoid internal
reflections between the sheets of glass becoming visible on the ___ Use tempered, fireproof, anti-reflective coated glass – like
screen, Dolby has recommended a solution where the glass closest Schott Pyran (AR) – with acceptable optical properties for
to the lens is angled at 7° and the other –15° relative to the projec- 2D projection, mounted in a fireproof framing system. For 3D
tion axis (see illustration below). using polarisation, this type of glass may partly depolarise the
light and increase ghosting and is therefore not recommended.
Use sound-absorbing material at the top and bottom, between the
sheets of glass. For best acoustic performance the two pieces of ___ For better performance, and if polarised 3D projection might
glass should have slightly different thickness. be used, use anti-glare and anti-reflective coated optical glass
and secure the window with a fire door or curtain that is acti-
vated and protects the porthole in case of fire. This is similar
to what was done in the past when nitrate film was still used
15° 7° in cinemas.

Projection axis

6 and 8 mm anti-reflective
optical white glass Sound absorbtion

Double glass porthole.

(Source: Dolby)

52 53
 3 Direct view displays
for cinema

DIRECT VIEW
DISPLAYS
A direct view cinema display is similar to a huge TV-screen. Instead
of projectors projecting pixels (or grains) on a screen, the dis-
play is made up of active LED panels. Each pixel consists of
3 diodes emitting red, green and blue light (see photos below).

LED pixels.
(Source: Cineplexx Wienerberg,
Vienna)

With a direct view display, most issues discussed so far in this

book can be ignored, with a few exceptions described below. Most
of the contents in the following chapters will apply to both projec-
tion screens and direct view displays.

DIRECT VIEW DISPLAYS FOR CINEMA

54 55
 3.1 Display format There are other systems, from other manufacturers, approved by
DCI, but none of them are installed in regular cinemas at the time
A direct view display has a fixed aspect ratio, with 2160 x 4096 of writing this book.
pixels (4K) or 1080 x 2048 pixels (2K). Any picture format with

DIRECT VIEW
aspect ratio above 1.90 (2048/1080) will be letterboxed and Other sizes from Samsung or other manufacturers will probably be

DISPLAYS
aspect ratios below 1.90 will be pillarboxed. Flat format will have available in the foreseeable future.
a picture width that is 2% smaller and a height that is 20% larger
than a Scope picture.

Non-active pixels will not emit any light, and the display will be
nearly black when the pixels are turned off, so there is no need for
screen masking.
3.3 Depth behind the display
The display itself, with the panels mounted in a rack, has a depth
of about 0.5–0.6 m. In addition, the display must be accessible
from behind for service, maintenance, etc. The depth from the

3.2 Display size display front to the wall behind will therefore have to be in the
range of 1.0 –1.5 m. This is approximately the same as in tradi-
tional auditoriums with projection screens.
The size of a direct view display is given by the pixel density. For
example, a 4K display (4098 pixels wide) with 2.5 mm pixel pitch
(pixel density) will be 10.24 m wide and 5.4 m high. There are
limited LED panel types, with different pixel pitches, available.
The limited display size limits the auditorium size, and the audito-
rium should be designed relative to the display size. At the time of
3.4 Luminance
writing, there are 3 display sizes available from Samsung, called With direct view displays the luminance can reach about 10 times
Samsung Onyx: the luminance of a projected image (or even more). That opens up
many new possibilities for filmmakers to tell their stories but, as is
2.7 x 5.1 m (2K) often the case with new technologies, it can also be misused.
5.4 x 10.2 m (4K)
7.4 x 14 m (4K)

56 57
 With a black display background, instead of a white screen, black
in the picture will still be close to black even if the auditorium
house lights are on. This provides the ability to use the audito-
rium beyond showing films in a dark room, like serving drinks and

DIRECT VIEW
food. But be aware that turning the house lights on will also make

DISPLAYS
all other elements in the auditorium visible and disturb the film
experience. Showing films with the house lights on will be closer
to watching films on a TV-screen at home, and that is not what the
cinema-going experience should be.

58 59
 4 Viewing conditions
4.1 Screen to first row distance

CONDITIONS
VIEWING
The maximum picture width limits the distance from the first row
to the screen on a 2.39:1 screen. On a 1.85:1 screen, both the
maximum picture height and width might represent limitations.
Sitting too close to the screen, the human visual system will not
be able to perceive all the action on the screen and it will not
be possible to recognise symbols and read subtitles with only
minor head movements. The result is often a reduced cinema-going
experience, and a possible headache.

 uman head move-

H
ment and field of
view from above

VIEWING CONDITIONS
60 61
 Horizontal field of view between the edges on a 2.39:1 screen that The distortion is given by:
is less than 80° is comfortable, corresponding to a distance from
d = 1
first row (eye) to the screen: n=
d1 cos a
D1 ≥ 0.6 x W
n = distortion, d = diameter of circle on screen, d1 = apparent diameter
D1 = distance from screen to first row (eye position) a = angle between sightline from eye to centre of the screen and
W = maximum picture width a perpendicular to the screen

CONDITIONS
VIEWING
Maximum field of view should not exceed 90°, corresponding to: See illustration below.

D1 ≥ 0.5 x W

See illustration in the Seating area section below.

For 1.85:1 screens, the height will often limit the distance to the
first row, as described in the Vertical viewing angles section below.
In addition the horizontal field of view in the human visual system
is much larger than the vertical, so if the vertical field of view is
large, it might be difficult and unpleasant to perceive the action
on the screen.

4.2 Horizontal viewing angles Good values:

Acceptable values:
1 ≤ n ≤ 1.2 or a ≤ 35°
1.2> n ≤ 1.4 or 35° < a ≤ 45°
If the viewer is seated off the screen’s centre axis, a two-dimen- Unacceptable values: n > 1.4 or a > 45°
sional picture on the screen will look distorted. To a certain degree,
the human visual system compensates for this distortion but it will Horizontal viewing angle from any seat to the centre of the screen
gradually become worse as the angle increases, before it becomes should be less than 45°.
unacceptable for the viewer.

62 63
 The observed luminance on the screen decreases when the viewing Nevertheless, the vertical viewing angle from first row (eye level,
angle increases. And it is more critical with higher gain screens. 1200 mm above floor level) to the centre of the screen should be
With silver screens, the maximum viewing angle must be much lower 25° or less (see illustration on facing page). Larger vertical sight-
than 45° (see illustration in the Screen surfaces section above). lines may be uncomfortable and can cause neck pain.

Harkness Screens has, for instance, made a Digital Screen Modeller Some countries recommend minimum 35° angle from eye to
(calculator) that can be used to find acceptable seating area for screen top, but that will often be in conflict with modern large
various of their screen models, available on their website. screens. A maximum of 45° may be a better limitation for sightline

CONDITIONS
VIEWING
to picture top.

On a 1.85:1 screen, the picture top is usually higher than on a

4.3 Vertical viewing angles 2.39:1 screen. To get acceptable vertical sightlines on a 1:1.85
screen the distance to the first row might have to be larger, and
result in less seating rows.
A relaxed, seated person will look 15° downward. The comfortable
viewing zone is +/–15° relative to this sightline. Such conditions For people sitting in wheelchairs, the vertical sightline to picture
are almost never achievable in a cinema auditorium. However, top should be a maximum of 35°.
chairs with head rest and recliners can improve comfort, especially
on the first rows.

e
entr
en c
scre
ption e to
perce tlin
olor Sigh
it for c
im
70° L

Std si
ghtlin
e (rela
xed/s
eated
): 15°
down

 ertical viewing
V
Head, side view. angle from first row.

64 65
 4.4 Seating outside the screen’s edges 4.6 Seating area
Sitting outside of the screen’s edges will reduce the viewer’s in- Based on the recommendations given in this chapter, the illustra-
volvement in the film and reduce the experience. Up to 5° outside tion below shows good and acceptable seating areas in a cinema
the screen’s edge is OK. Angles up to 10° are acceptable. See auditorium.
illustration in the Seating area section below.

CONDITIONS
VIEWING
4.5 S afety area in front of
large cinema projectors
There are standards and regulations that limit the seating area in
front of projectors with high light output, to avoid eye damage if
staring into the projection beam. The size of this safe area increa-
ses with light output and is also affected by lens type, etc. This
issue has become more critical with RGB laser projectors that can
deliver higher light output for larger screens or increase the lumi-
nance level on the screen (High Dynamic Range).

The standard defines a Hazard Distance (HD), which is the mi-

nimum safe distance in the front of the lens. The standard also
defines a Separation Height (SH) from the floor to the bottom part
of the projection beam. If SH is below 2 m, the area defined by HD
must not have any seats and must be labeled as a “No Entry” zone.

See illustration in the Seating area section below.


Acceptable seating area in a cinema auditorium with a 2.39:1 screen.
Further limitations might apply, due to the screen reflection (properties).

66 67
 4.7 Sightline clearance
In a cinema, everyone should see the whole picture. To achieve
this, the auditorium must be designed to give acceptable sightline
clearance from every seat. It is common to use 1200 mm as refer-
ence height from floor to eye for a seated person.

CONDITIONS
VIEWING
Sightlines from eye (reference level) to bottom picture line on the screen (sightline clearance = c).

The sightline clearance, c, must account for the height from eye to
the top of the head, and must also account for situations where a
taller person sits in front of a shorter person.

Good values: c ≥ 200 mm

Acceptable values: 150 ≤ c < 200 mm
Poor values: 120 ≤ c < 150 mm
Unacceptable values: c < 120 mm
Seated person.

On a cross section, draw a line from eye position on Row 1 to the If all the risers have equal heights, the sightline clearance decreas-
bottom picture line, and do the same for Row 2. The clearance es with increasing distance from the screen. To obtain acceptable
between the two lines, measured at eye position on Row 1 is the sightlines from the last rows, the risers might have to be very high,
sightline clearance for Row 2. This should be done for every row and the total height of the stadium construction will become very
in the auditorium (see illustration on facing page). Always use the high. That will again lead to a larger projection angle and increa-
format with the lowest bottom picture line as reference. sed keystone. The sound reproduction will also suffer from this.

68 69
 The ideal solution is to design individual riser heights for each row, Note that the riser height in front of a crossing aisle must be larger
calculated to give equal sightline clearance for every row. Alterna- due to increased row distance.
tively, use lower riser heights for the first group of rows, larger for
the next group, etc. To improve the sightline clearance for small children, a solution
might be to offer individual seat cushions that children can borrow.
This formula can be used to calculate each riser height with a fixed
(common) sightline clearance, c:

CONDITIONS
VIEWING
( ∑ ) 4.8 Stairways in the aisles
n
Y1 1
Yn = Xn +c –c
X1 Xn
n=1
The stairways to get from one row to the next in a stadium are differ-
n = row number (n=1 for first row, etc.) ent from regular stairways. One could argue that the aisle consists
Xn = distance from screen to row n
Yn = difference in height between eye level on of one stairway per row. But still local regulations might apply. For
row n and picture bottom level
c = sightline clearance each row there must be one deep step, to give a safe entrance to
the passage between the seats. It also prevents people from stum-
bling when they go in and out of that passage.
Sightline clearance can be improved by:
Depending on the riser heights, there will be 1, 2, 3 (or more)
___ Increasing the bottom picture level. steps per row. One deeper step on the row level will be followed by
___ Increasing the distance from screen to Row 1. 1, 2 (or more) short steps to the next row level.

___ Increasing the stadium height (level last row). If the riser heights are variable, with lower risers in the front, the
___ Reducing the number of rows, making it possible natural solution might be to have for example 2 steps (1 long and
to increase the riser height for each row. 1 short) in the front, and 3 steps (1 long and 2 short) in the rear of
the auditorium. At some point there will be a change between 2 or
___ Decreasing the seating row distance, 3 steps per row. This change might be confusing. Consider using
without increasing the number of rows. the same number of steps per row for all rows, or all rows in front or
in the rear of a crossing aisle. This way the rhythm of walking will
be the same, with 1 long, 1 short or 1 long, 2 short steps etc., even
if the steps in the front may be very low.

70 71
 The steps must not be too high. Local regulation probably limits Using individual riser heights to optimise sightline clearance will
the maximum step height, usually in the range of 200 mm. This give a small increase in the riser heights from first to last row.
means that risers below ~400 mm can have 2 steps (or more), and The increase per row is small, larger in the front, and less in the
below ~600 mm can have 3 steps (or more). The tread should be rear. The difference is distributed on each step, so the increase is
minimum 250 mm (check local regulations). hardly noticeable when walking the aisle in a dark auditorium (the
steps are marked with lights). Most people will not even notice that
the auditorium slope is slightly curved.

CONDITIONS
VIEWING

Above: 2 steps per riser (riser height < ~400 mm).
Below: 3 steps per riser (riser height < ~600 mm).

72 73
 5 Seating
Be sure to comply with current rules regarding security, fire safety,
accessibility etc. when making the seating layout in your audito-
rium.

5.1 Seating row distance

SEATING
The seating row distance covers the seat depth and the clearance
for access and escape between the seating rows, but should be
even larger to offer more leg room and better sitting comfort. The
row distance is measured from the back of one seat to the back of
the seat in the next row.

Before designing the seating area with rows and risers, it is a big
advantage to have decided what type of seating the auditorium will
have (see the Seating types section below). Also take into account
that trends are changing and other types of seating might require
another seating layout if new seats are installed in the future.

For regular seating, the row distance should be 1200 mm or more

for good leg room and seating comfort, given that the escape width
(see below) is large enough.

SEATING
74 75
 5.1.1 Escape width

There are different rules for minimum clearance between seating

rows, depending on valid regulations and the seating layout.

___ Maximum number of seats between two aisles is usually in the

range of 30–50.

___ If there is access to the seats only from one side, the accepta-
ble number of seats between the aisle and the wall is usually
half of what is accepted with aisles on both sides.

SEATING
___ The minimum escape width might be fixed (usually 400 – Seating row distance, and clearance between seating row, for access and escape.
450 mm) or increasing with number of seats (or distance) to
the closest aisle (usually 350–500mm).

___ There might be restrictions for maximum distance from any 5.1.2 Last row depth
seat to the closest exit door. This maximum distance may also
be dependent on the number of exits in the auditorium. On the last row, the row depth must be bigger to compensate for
the thickness of the seat back, and because it leans backwards.
___ Special rules apply for rows accessible for wheelchairs (see This extra depth is usually in the range of 150 –200 mm. With
Accessibility chapter later in the book). reclining seat backs, it might be increased to 250–400 mm.
Special seating models might require even more depth on the last
___ Other restrictions may apply and be sure to comply with all of row. Confirm with relevant seating models.
them.
There are recliner models where the seat moves forward instead
of the back of the seat moving backwards, (almost) removing the
need for extra depth on the last row.

76 77
 5.2.1 Depth

Regular seating can be divided into 5 main categories (see illust-

ration below):

___ Tip-up seating refers to seats that tip-up when not in use, in-
creasing the space for passing. To allow people to pass, the
seated person must stand up, tip-up the seat and take one step
320 1800 1800 back if the row distance is less than approximately 1200 mm.

Additional seating on the last row.
Seat depth: 500–800 mm with seat tipped-up.
(Source: Ferco Verona recliner)

SEATING
___ Fixed seating refers to seats that cannot be folded up. With
such seats, one should be seated when people pass. They re-

5.2 Seating types quire larger row distance than tip-up seats.
Seat depth: 800–1000 mm.

Cinema seating comes in many different models from various man- ___ Twin seats (also known as Sofas or “Loveseats”) are similar to
ufacturers and highly variable qualities. Each of them can have fixed seats, but without armrests or with removable armrests
a lot of options, e.g. different upholstery, armrests, seat back (like in airplanes) between the two seats
heights, cupholders/tables etc. Seat depth 800–1000 mm.

Recliners and some rockers will need power supply for their mo- ___ Rockers, where the backrest can be reclined, often combined
tors. In addition, power supply is needed if the seats have additio- with forward seat gliding. The glide function can usually not
nal features like electrical outlets, USB/wireless chargers, heating be combined with tip-up seats, but there are exceptions. Both
or other options that require electrical power. for security and for making the room look nice when people
enter the auditorium, the seats should return to their rest posi-
Most auditoriums have regular seats (i.e. chairs) to sit in. In some tion when they are empty.
auditoriums there might be “special seating,” like cushions in the Seat depth: 700–1100 mm (fixed, empty), 700– 800 mm (tip-
front (for children), bed-type seating (on which you can lay down) up, empty).
etc. These types of seating are not discussed in this book.

78 79
 ___ Recliners with footrests, where both the backrest and the foot- Cupholders, tables and other accessories may increase the seating
rest are motorised for extra comfort. Separate motors for the depth and require increased seating row distance.
backrest and footrest provide for individual preferences. Some
seats have an additional separate motor for the neckrest.
When a person leaves the seat, the free space in front of the
seat must comply with the required escape width. If the seat 5.2.2 Width
is not automatically returned to its neutral position (“Auto-
Return”), the seating row distance must be larger. Even if the Tip-up seats, fixed seat and rockers usually have similar seat width
row distance is large enough, it is preferable that the back- that varies with the width of the armrest (50 –150 mm) and can
rest and the footrest have AutoReturn to make the room look be mounted with shared armrests or double armrests. Seat width:
tidy before the next show. The AutoReturn system must have 500–750 mm (shared armrests), 650–900 mm (double armrests).

SEATING
a security stop for the footrest, to prevent pinching the foot or
hand when the footrest returns. Recliners usually have wider seats and wider armrests, shared or
Seat depth: 900–1400 mm (rest position), up to 1800 mm or double. Seat width 650–900 mm (or more).
more with reclined back and footrest up
Tables mounted on the armrests or between the seats will usually
require larger width per seat.


Typical width for different types of seating.
Left: Shared armrests.
Centre: Individual/double armrests.
Examples on seat depths for different types of seating. Varies with models and options. Right: Recliner with individual armrests.

80 81
 5.2.3 Height but does not include the upholstery (fabric, imitation leather, real
leather, etc.).
The height of a seat is given by the height from the floor to the top
of the seat back. The same seat model can often be delivered with Fabric durability is often measured in Martindale, where a mini-
different seat backs with different heights. A seat back is consid- mum 70– 80 000 Martindale for cinema seating is a common re-
ered as high if it has support for the neck. As a rule of thumb, quirement.
heights around 1050 mm or higher can be considered as high and
below 1000 mm as low. Seating with fabric can have a neckrest or neck zone with (imita-
tion) leather which makes it easier to clean, as it is often soiled by
hair chemicals, etc.

SEATING
5.3 Seating quality Armrests are often made with materials that look nice and are easy
to clean, like lacquered wood, (imitation) leather, etc. Fabrics on
armrests will often look dirty after a short while, due to food and
There is a wide variety of seating available. The differences are beverage consumption.
down to construction, cushion, upholstery etc. and it can be diffi-
cult to evaluate the quality based on brochures with tech specs or Seating fabrics should be treated to withstand spilled beverages,
even by testing a model for a short period. Different people should fat etc., and to make them easier to clean.
sit in it for at least 2 hours to conduct a more reliable test. Price of-
ten reflects the quality, but this is not always the case. References
from other installations might be useful and seats should always
be bought with extended warranty (5 years or more) for the cons- 5.3.1 Cushion density
truction, cushions and upholstery.
Sitting down in a soft seat might be very comfortable, at least for
There is a European standard for testing seating quality: “EN the first few minutes. But cinema seating must give good support
12727, Furniture – Ranked seating – Requirements for safety, for the back and legs to be comfortable and not make the cinema-
strength and durability.” The test results are arranged in four le- goer feel stiff and aching after 2–3 hours. When testing seats, be
vels for different types of use: (1) Light, (2) Moderate, (3) Gene- careful to avoid being misled by your first impression.
ral and (4) Severe. Cinema seating should comply with “Level 4:
Severe use”. This is a test of the seat construction and cushions,

82 83
 5.4 Curved seating rows
By curving the seating rows, people in the auditorium will look
more in the direction of the centre of the screen, which is more
comfortable. Many people also consider curved seating rows to
give the auditorium a touch of luxury. But it also raises some issues:

___ The sides of the rows will be closer to the screen and for the
first row they may even be too close. This can be solved by
removing the extreme seats in Row 1, and maybe some seats
on Row 2.

SEATING
___ If the rear wall is flat and the last row is curved, there will be
an empty space in each rear corner. This may look strange and A:
A common centre for all row
can be more difficult to keep clean. curves results in deeper curved
rows in front. The row distance
on the sides will be slightly larg-
___ With straight rows, the seating area will look well-arranged and er than in the centre, reducing
the sightline clearance. The
it is easier to get an overview (preferred by many architects). rows must not be deeply curved.
As an example here, a line from
the curve centre to the rear
corner is 10 degrees to the
___ The stadium construction will be more complicated and may screen centre line.
be more expensive to build with curved seating rows. B:
The same radius for all row
curves gives parallel rows (same
row distance on the sides as
in the centre).
The choice between straight or curved seating rows only has a mi-
C:
nor influence on the film experience and may be more related to Gradually change from curved
rows in front to straight last row.
design taste. The row distance on the sides
will be larger than in the centre,
reducing the sightline clearance.
There are different principles for curving seats, some of which are
D:
shown in the illustrations on the opposite page. Front section curved, rear sec-
tion straight rows. Gives wider
entrance to the crossing aisle,
and better access for wheel-
chairs, etc.

84 85
 5.5 Offset seating rows 5.6 Aisles
It is common to believe that sightline clearance can be improved Aisles are necessary to gain access to the seating rows and are
by offsetting each row by half a seat’s width, as shown below. But important for escaping in case of an emergency. The requirements
the field of view between the heads of the two persons in front of vary in different countries. Be sure to check current local regula-
you is only 15–30°, which is not enough to see the whole width of tions.
the picture. Besides, the people in front of you might for instance
lean their heads against each other and make the field of view even Usually there are rules for the total width of all aisles. It can, for
smaller. For a person sitting on the side, the head of the person in instance, be 1 cm per seat in the auditorium. In addition, an aisle
front can actually be in the sightline to the centre of the screen. must have a minimum width to be accepted as part of the escape
system (for instance 1200 mm). Be sure to comply with current

SEATING
In addition, offsetting the seating rows might reduce each or every rules regarding fire regulations and escape system.
second row by one seat.
As described earlier in this chapter, the number of seats between
two aisles is limited and may have to be reduced (usually halved) if
there is only one aisle. For improved comfort, there should not be
more than 10 seats between a wall and an aisle. Leaving a small
corridor (400–500 mm) from the wall to the closest seat (not part
of the escape system) will make those extreme seats more attrac-
tive and will improve the sound quality for people sitting there.

5.6.1 Crossing aisles

A crossing aisle is either a separate aisle crossing the auditorium,

Offsetting
 seating or a row with seats having extended seating row distance to make
rows will not improve
viewing conditions,
an aisle in front of them. In both cases, the aisle can fill different
and might reduce needs:
number of seats
per row.

86 87
 ___ It will be an additional possibility to cross the auditorium. If the crossing aisle is on the same level as the entrance, it will give
easy access for wheelchairs. It can also be more discreet than an
___ It can be used for wheelchairs.
entrance on the first row.
___ If it is designed as a row with extended row distance,
it can be equipped with extra comfortable seats A crossing aisle behind the last row might be useful for a less dis-
(and potentially higher ticket prices). turbing crossing, but it will usually require lower stadium height
or higher level on the projection lens to get acceptable clearance
___ It will give easy access to good seats for VIPs.
under the projection beam. This will either reduce the sightline
___ It can give space for a mixing console (sound and/or light) clearance or increase the vertical keystone.
for special events, such as stage presentations or perfor-
mances, conferences and debates, film festivals etc.

SEATING
5.6.2 Handrails

If there is access to the seating rows only on one side of the aisle,
the other side of the aisle must have a handrail. Handrails must be
designed according to valid regulations, both related to height ab-
ove floor and their design. It might be required to have two hand-
rails with different heights.

To make the handrails discreet and prevent disturbing light reflec-

tions during the show, they should be as dark and matte as possi-
ble.

If the aisle has seating on both sides, handrails are not a good so-
lution. In such cases additional focus must be placed on ensuring
it is safe to walk the aisle in a dark room.

 rossing aisles. Top: Row distance extended to make a crossing aisle.

C
Bottom: Separate crossing aisle, without seats.

88 89
 5.7 Mounting seats 5.8 Sightline issue with recliners
It is common to mount the seats on the floor with one leg stand for If the seats have reclining backs, the eye height will be reduced by
every one or two seats. 50–150 mm when the back is reclined. It will also move the head
backwards 50 –250 mm (see illustration below). Especially if the
For easier and faster cleaning, the seats in a stadium auditorium person in the seat in front sits upright, this will affect the sightline
can be mounted on the riser. This requires a minimum riser height, clearance. Take this into account when designing the auditorium
in the range of about 200 mm or more, and a riser construction profile to ensure that the sightline clearance is good for everyone,
that can carry this type of mounting. Consult the seating dealer to even if the person in front does not recline.
get specifications for the build.

SEATING

Floor mounted seats with one leg
stand for every two seats (left)
and riser mounted seats (right)
(Source: Skeie)

Recliners often have four legs per seat and are mounted on the
floor. They have motors and will need electrical power. Other seat-
ing types may also have four legs, and they may also require elec-
trical power. 
Example of different head
positions with reclining back.
(Source: Figueras)

90 91
 5.9 Stadium construction on the floor that is easy to clean between shows, like vinyl, lino-
leum, parquet or other hard surfaces. The floor between the first
A cinema auditorium is often designed as a “shoebox” with a sta- row and the screen should have dark carpets, both for the acous-
dium construction for the seating area. The stadium construction tics and to prevent disturbing reflections of light from the screen.
can be made of wood, steel, concrete or other materials. Often, the
room under the stadium is used as a chamber for air, with grids in
the risers to let the fresh air flow close to where people are sitting.
If this is the case, special considerations must be taken to the air
chamber regarding fire safety, acoustics etc. Sprinklers might be
demanded. Be sure to comply with current rules and regulations.

SEATING
If there is an air chamber under the seating area, and the seats are
riser mounted, the grids in the risers must be designed in cooper-
ation with the seating installers. The construction must also take
into account the extra strength needed for such mounting.

Seating installers often have their own, or an agreement with,

people who are experts in building stadiums and mounting seats.
They are effective and precise and if there is a problem with the
construction or the seating mounting, there is only one responsible
party.

The room under the stadium might need acoustical dampening to

avoid noise and resonance when people walk on the floor.

There may also be restrictions related to fire safety for the chamber
under the seating area.

To avoid step-noise when people walk, carpets in the aisles should

be used. Between the seating rows, it is common to use material

92 93
 6 Stray light
Stray light is used here as a term for all unwanted light in the audi-
torium. There are three main sources for stray light: optical errors
in the projection system, reflected light from the screen and direct
or reflected light from other sources than the projected image.

6.1 Optical errors

Stray light caused by the projection system comes from errors or

STRAY LIGHT
defects in the optical components, such as the lenses, porthole
glass etc. Choosing the right type of porthole glass, as discussed
earlier in this guide, and keeping all optical elements clean is es-
sential. Apart from these exceptions, this type of stray light is not
considered to be related to the auditorium design.

6.2 Reflected light from the screen

When films are screened, the light hitting the screen will be re-
flected so the audience can see the pictures. Some of the reflected
light will hit surfaces that are not black, and a little portion of this
light will be reflected back onto the screen. This unwanted light
will affect the contrast and reduce the black level on the screen.

STRAY LIGHT
94 95
 Reflected light from coloured surfaces in the auditorium will have ___ The ceiling should be matte black, without a visible mounting
an impact on the colours in the projected image. In addition to grid (see the Ceiling section below).
light reflected back onto the screen, some of the illuminated sur-
faces will become part of the visual experience, taking the audien- ___ Downlights and other luminaries in the ceiling often have
ce’s awareness away from the action on the screen. reflectors that will shine like stars when hit by light from the
screen. Recommended lighting types are discussed later (see
Future formats, with increased dynamic range (larger span bet- Lighting chapter below).
ween white and black), will require very low black levels on the
screen. Therefore, it will become more important to have dark ___ Handrails, door handles, ambient light lamps and other ele-
auditoriums, particularly when it comes to surfaces facing the ments in the room should be carefully designed so as not to
screen. Ideally, all surfaces in the auditorium should be matte disturb the visual experience of the film.
black, including the ceiling, walls, floor and seating, with no ref-
lecting surfaces. For a perfect picture, even the audience should ___ Everything behind the screen, facing the back of the screen,
be dressed in black, or there should be no audience at all (but, must be black. If not, light passing through the screen perfora-

STRAY LIGHT
of course, neither of these is anything a cinema operator wants). tions will be reflected and show up as shiny dots on the screen.
A completely black room can be an unpleasant experience, espe- However, this will only be seen from specific seats and always
cially for people who don’t like being in a pitch-black environment. in the same spot on the screen. This can be very disrupting for
the people in those seats, and these reflections can be very
At the very least, the walls from the first row to the screen should difficult to detect as they are only seen from a few seats.
be black (see Room colours section below).

The room might have decorative lighting on the walls to give it a

nice atmosphere, especially for before and after the film screen-
ings and for other uses of the auditorium. Those lamps should be
shielded from the light reflected from the screen.
6.3 Other light sources
There can be many different light sources in an auditorium. Some
There are many elements that may be disturbing when illuminated of them will shine on the screen and reduce the contrast. Others,
by the reflected light from the screen. within the audience field of view, may disturb the audience and
change how colours and contrast are perceived.

96 97
 6.3.1 Exit doors king into the auditorium. Pay attention to this when designing the
porthole and lighting in the projection room.
When an exit door is opened, light from the adjacent room may
shine into the auditorium and disturb the show. The best way to
solve this is to have a vestibule protecting the entrance (described
in the Acoustics chapter below). In cases without any protection, 6.3.3 Other light sources and visible elements
make sure that the light level outside is low, with no direct light
shining in when the door is opened. Sometimes, there can be other light sources in the auditorium,
such as a clock on the wall, logos, LED lights from electrical ap-
Exit doors must be marked with exit lights. Such lights can be a pliances etc. These elements must – when possible and legally
big issue in a cinema auditorium and are described below in the permitted – be turned off or shielded from the audience and the
Lighting chapter. screen during the show, or, preferably, removed or made invisible
from the auditorium.

STRAY LIGHT
6.3.2 Light from the projection room

Traditional projection rooms have lighting in the ceiling covering

all or sections of the room in addition to spotlights covering equip-
6.4 Room colours
ment that might be operated during shows, when the auditorium As described above, light reflected from the screen will hit the
is dark. It is important to prevent any light leaking into the audi- surfaces of the room. If the surfaces are not completely black, they
torium, obviously with the exception of light from the projector. will reflect light back on the screen, which may reduce the contrast
When the lights go down in the auditorium and the show begins, and influence the colours of the projected image. If the illumina-
the human visual system will adapt to the dark room and become ted surfaces are within the audience’s field of view, they will have
more sensitive to light. Even the slightest leak of light from the an impact on their visual experience.
projection room will be visible on the screen, (often as a light spot)
reducing the black level and disturbing or even damaging the film Ideally the auditorium should be completely black, except for the
experience. Often, this stray light is so weak that it will only be screen (and necessary exit lights etc.).
visible when the human visual system has adapted to the darkness
and it will not be visible to the staff coming from outside when loo-

98 99
 Completely black rooms might be a little unpleasant, but colours (even if it is painted black). The visibility of the grid will vary with
in the room must be used with care. the changing light on the screen, making the ceiling even more
disturbing. There are ceiling systems available with good acousti-
Walls close to the screen should be matte black or very dark. If cal properties, with concealed suspension and no visible grid.
painted, very matte/flat paint must be used. Oil-based paint
should not be used. Walls in the rear part of the auditorium may
well be black or very dark. Avoid light colours, especially if they are
exposed to reflected light from the screen. Elements shielded from
the light from the screen can be lighter and make the room look
less dark before and after the film, when the house lights are on.
Hidden LED lights can also be used to colour the room.

The floor in front of the screen, especially if the bottom picture line
is close to the floor, is of critical importance and should be matte

STRAY LIGHT
black. Carpets will generally reflect less light than hard surfaces,
like vinyl, parquet or painted floor.

The floor in the aisles should also be dark, but any edges and other
Black ceiling in a cinema with visible grid.
changes in the flat floor must be marked for security reasons.

Seating colours should be dark. Black would be ideal, but other

dark colours may look nicer and are acceptable.

6.5 Ceiling
The ceiling should be matte black with no visual grid. If not, reflect-
“ Invisible” ceiling with concealed suspension.
ed light from the screen will make the grid visible and disturbing (Source: Ecophon)

100 101
 7 Lighting
7.1 House lighting
The main house lighting system should be discreet and provide
even illumination in the seating area, corridors, aisles and floor
between Row 1 and the screen.

Incandescent lamps used in the past had the advantage of provid-

ing a nice light that changed towards red when dimmed and was
dimmable all the way down to 0.0%. Today, this is not an option,
so other types of lamps must be used.

Compact fluorescent lamps were used for a while but are now rare-
ly used because of limited dimming possibilities, bad colour spec-

LIGHTING
trum and other factors.

Today, most cinemas use LED lighting. For cinemas, dimming the
lights before the film starts is an essential part of the show. And
when the film is over, the light should be discreetly lit, starting at
0%. To achieve this with LED, it is necessary to find lamps, dim-
ming systems and control systems that can dim the lamps smooth-
ly beyond 1%.

For nice dimming, there are LED lamps that change colour temper-
ature during the dimming, to give a similar effect as incandescent
lamps.

LIGHTING
102 103
 7.1.1 Luminaries 7.1.2 Other lights

Glass and reflectors that are illuminated by light from the screen If the auditorium has curtains, separate lighting on the closed
will shine like stars in the sky at night when there are bright scenes curtains might be a nice option. These lamps can for instance be
on the screen. One way to avoid or minimise this is by using down- dimmed when the house lighting is off, when the curtain opens
lights where the light source is retracted from the opening, with a and the screening starts. Without curtains, separate lighting can
black baffle between the light source and the opening. be used to colour the screen, creating a nice colourful image, or
making the screen “glow” and look more impressive. There are lots
With LED lighting it is possible to find even more discreet luminar- of other possibilities for a creative light designer.
ies, that barely are visible during the show.
For visually pleasing presentations on stage, other light sources
than the regular house lighting from above will look better. One
simple solution is to install vertical rods on each side wall, with
stage lights mounted to provide a nice light setting on the stage.
Moreover, mounting stage lights on the side walls provides easier
access to the luminaries than lights mounted in the ceiling.


Discreet lighting example.
The auditorium may have decorative lighting, designer lamps,

LIGHTING
(Source: iGuzzini)

white or coloured light, logos etc. on the walls. These lights should
be controlled by the same system as the house lighting so that they
The house lighting is often divided into different zones and/or sce- can be dimmed together. Be sure that they are mounted with re-
narios, both to create more of a spectacular atmosphere for the be- flective surfaces, not facing the screen in order to avoid stray light.
ginning and the end of a show and to use the auditorium for other
purposes than regular film screenings, including cleaning.

Some RGB LED lamps can change colours, making it possible to

change the atmosphere (light level and colour) in the room, for
example customised for a film, event or for the audience.

104 105
 7.1.3 Light levels customise the use of lights for different types of films or events,
different types of audiences and so on.
In a cinema auditorium, the 4 most common light levels are given
by the table below, with approximate Lux values: Where the lamps cannot be dimmed all the way down to 0 %,
dimming the different luminaries with a little offset in time can
create the impression that the lamps are dimmed to 0 %.
Level Description Lux

DALI (Digital Addressable Lighting Interface) is commonly used

Full People enter/leave the room, 150
for light control, but other (proprietary) systems like DMX, AMX
no screening
and others can also be used.
Half People enter/leave the room during 50
pre-show or end credits The light control system must communicate with the cinema’s
automation system.
Off All lights off 0

Max For cleaning and conferences etc., 3–400

where people need to be able to read
and write
7.2 Emergency lighting

LIGHTING
The luminaries for cleaning may be separate from the main house 7.2.1 Exit lights
lighting system but combining them in one system gives more op-
tions for different uses of the auditorium. All exits in the auditorium that are part of the escape system must
be marked with an exit sign that is visible from any seat in the
auditorium. When the main show starts, everything is normal and
the house lights are completely switched off, permission to dim
7.1.4 Light control the exit lights might be given (depending on local regulations).
In some cases, and in certain countries, it may even be accepted,
With LED lamps, it is recommended to use a system that allows under certain conditions, to switch the exit lights off completely.
the individual control of each lamp in the auditorium. This way it If anything changes, any lights are turned on or anything else hap-
is possible to make nice sequences for different scenarios and to pens, the system will immediately turn the exit lights on.

106 107
 If the exit lights must be on during the show, be sure the light is One solution can be to mount LED rods under the stair nosing,
shielded from the screen. with the light shining down along the riser to the step below. This
way the stair lights will be discreet when seen from above, but still
Exit signs come in many different shapes and designs. Carefully provide enough light to see the steps.
select a model and placement that is as discreet as possible, not
leaving a permanent light spot on the screen. This would be really
damaging for the viewing experience.


Stair light mounted in
stair nosing, shining
down along the risers.

Example
 of discreet
exit light for cinemas.
(Source: Orbik)

LIGHTING
7.2.3 Guiding lights

7.2.2 Stair lighting In a cinema auditorium there must also be a guiding light system
that is activated in an emergency situation. The system should
Stair lighting is used to mark each step in a stadium auditorium, give the audience enough light from the seating to the exit doors,
to make it safe and comfortable to walk the stairs in a dark room, and to find a safe way out of the building. The guiding light lumi-
without disturbing people sitting close to the stairways. naries inside the auditorium must be as discrete as possible, not to
disturb the film experience during the show.
Indirect lighting is usually a better solution than mounting the
lights directly on top of the steps. Use a system with dimmable
lights to avoid lighting that is too bright or too dim.

108 109
 8  Acoustics
8.1 Sound isolation
The sound reduction index (Dw) is used to describe how well a
cinema auditorium is acoustically isolated from its surroundings.
Dw is an on-site measurement in decibels (dB), using a weighting
curve close to dBA.

If the noise level in the surroundings are low, Dw values of 65 dB

or higher can be acceptable.

If there are two adjacent auditoriums with shared walls, or other

surroundings with high noise levels, the Dw value must be higher
and 70–75 dB is often required. In some cases it may be even
higher.

If there is a demand for low noise in the surrounding rooms or other

ACOUSTICS
parts of the building, like apartments, offices etc., the Dw value
should be 70–75 dB or higher.

Many elements, like doors, wall systems etc. are part of the au-
ditorium’s sound isolation. Such elements are lab tested before
installation to measure their sound proofing effectiveness, given as
the Weighted Sound Reduction Index, Rw, measured in dB.

ACOUSTICS
110 111
 8.1.1 Doors 8.2 Background noise
An auditorium has entrance and exit doors and may also have sep- In order to hear every detail in the film’s sound, a cinema audito-
arate emergency exits or doors leading to other rooms (projection rium must be very quiet. Noise sources are typically ventilation
room, room behind the screen etc.). If the room on the other side systems, the projector or external noise from other auditoriums,
of the door is quiet, a single acoustic door with Rw > 45 dB might the lobby, outside traffic etc. In screens with RGB laser projectors,
be acceptable. For better sound isolation, special acoustic doors there might be noise from so called “screen shakers” that vibrate
with higher Rw values (> 50 dB) must be used, but such doors are the screen to eliminate speckle (interference between incoming
often heavy, made of metal, and are not ideal to operate, especial- and reflected light, more visible with higher gain screens or higher
ly for the general audience, even if they are motorised. A better luminance).
solution might be a vestibule between the auditorium and its sur-
roundings. In the USA, it is common to use Noise Criteria (NC) to specify the
background noise. In Europe it is common to use Noise Rating
(NR). They are slightly different, as shown on the curves below.

8.1.2 Vestibule Measurements of background noise are taken in the audito-

rium, with the ventilation system running, the projector on and
A vestibule is a small room with one door towards the auditorium the sound volume on fader 7 (reference level), but no audio pro-
and another towards its surroundings. The vestibule construction gramme being played. If there are other noise sources in the audi-
and the doors must be designed to give acceptable noise reduc- torium, like screen shakers, etc. these should be turned on as well.
tion. Such a room will protect the auditorium from both light and If there are other cinema auditoriums close by, measurements

ACOUSTICS
sound leakage from the outside. If the room outside is quiet, the can be made while they are running (“noisy”) films, with their ven-
vestibule can be replaced by heavy black curtains to protect the tilation systems running too.
auditorium from light leakage.
The noise floor should be lower than NR25 (~NC25), where the
All surfaces in the vestibule should be matte black and, if neces- noise floor is the closest curve completely above the measured
sary, include lights that can be dimmed during the show. noise. For example, the sample measurement (dotted black line)
in the diagram below meets NC25 and NR27 requirements.

112 113
 Noise Criteria
Curves 8.3 Reverberation
Sound waves from the loudspeakers will hit the surfaces of the
auditorium, where they will be absorbed, transmitted or reflect-
ed. Reflected sound waves will hit other surfaces where they will
be absorbed, transmitted or reflected, and so on. This way, each
sound signal will be audible for a little while. When the sound
signal is produced in the loudspeaker, it will take a short time to
reach the listener, soon after the first reflections will be heard. The
reflections will build up to a maximum and then decay, until the
sound signal is no longer audible. This reverberation is measured
by calculating the time from the moment the sound is cut to the
point where its level is reduced with 60 dB (RT60).

In a cinema, it is fundamental to control the sound to ensure that

everyone in the audience will hear it as intended by the filmmaker
Noise Rating – or as close as possible. This requires a short reverberation time in
Curves
the cinema auditorium. In a big room, the reverberation time will
be longer than in a small room, so it is acceptable to have a longer
reverberation time. See illustration on next page.

ACOUSTICS
Reverberation is frequency dependent. Reverberation time is usu-
ally longer for low frequencies than for higher frequencies. The
illustration below shows recommended reverberation for different
frequencies, relative to the reverberation at 500 Hz.

Noise floor in
whole octave bands,
including a sample
It is also important for the sound decay to be even, with no signifi-
measurement (dotted cant peaks or dips.
line). The sample
measurement shown
complies with NC25
and with NR27.

114 115
 8.4 Echo
The speed of sound is about 340 m/s, or about 3 ms/m (depending
on temperature and other factors). In a large auditorium, sound
reflected from the rear wall, a high ceiling, etc. might have enough
delay to be heard separately from the direct sound, resulting in an
echo. To hear an echo, the distance from the sound source to the
reflecting surface must be more than approximately 17–18m.

Back and forth sound reflections, between parallel walls, will be

heard as a flutter echo, a series of echoes occurring in rapid suc-
cession.

Recommended
 reverberation time (RT60) in a cinema
Eliminating echo effects in a cinema is usually done using sound
auditorium, relative to room volume, measured at 500 Hz. absorption materials on the walls. Mounting angled or convex pan-
(Source: Dolby)
els on the walls to spread the reflections can provide additional
support to eliminate echoes.

A curved rear wall, a domed ceiling or other curved surfaces in

an auditorium can act as acoustical lenses, reflecting sound to a
small area in the centre of the room. In that area, the sound will be

ACOUSTICS
louder than in the rest of the room. One can eliminate this effect in
the same way as suggested above for echo effects.

Recommended
 reverberation time in a cinema auditorium,
relative to reverberation at 500 Hz. (Source: Dolby)

116 117
 8.5 Wall surface
Walls in the auditorium are an important part of the room’s acous-
tical system. Materials used to reduce the reverberation time are
usually relatively soft, making them exposed to intentional or ac-
cidental damage. To protect the walls from damage, it may be a
good solution to use solid, perforated panels, cassettes or similar,
with dampening material behind. This will protect the walls, while
maintaining their acoustical properties. Be sure to use recommen-
ded and proven solutions. And make sure that the panels don’t
resonate with low frequency sound from the film (creating noise).

ACOUSTICS
118 119
 9 Speaker placement
There are different audio systems available. For proprietary im-
mersive systems like Dolby Atmos or Barco Auromax, the type,
number and placement of speakers will be given by the manufac-
turer, along other specifications. It is important to bear in mind
that immersive sound formats require speakers mounted in the
ceiling. If immersive audio is an option for the auditorium, now or
later, preparing for ceiling mounted speakers is highly recommen-
ded, and can save lot of work and money if and when such systems
are installed.

Direct view displays are not perforated and must have the front
speakers mounted above the screen. This choice is also preferred
by some cinema chains and installers, claiming it will give better
sound reproduction. This chapter will mainly focus on audio for
traditional systems, like 5.1, 7.1 and 35/70 mm film, with the
front speakers behind a perforated screen.

Different manufacturers/installers/exhibitors might have other re-

commendations for speaker placements than those described in

PLACEMENT
SPEAKER
this book.

5.1 channel audio systems have Left, Centre and Right front speak-
ers behind (or above) the screen. Left and Right surround with
speakers on the side and rear walls, with the split between left
and right in the centre on the rear wall. There is also a dedicated

SPEAKER PLACEMENT
120 121
 subwoofer channel (0.1 channel) with speakers in front, usually
below the front speaker (see later in this chapter).

7.1 channel systems have the same front/subwoofer configuration,

but the surround is divided in 4 channels: Left Side, Left Rear,
Right Rear and Right Side surround channels.

The number of speakers and placements are the same for 5.1 and
7.1 channel systems.

For 70 mm film and 35 mm film with SDDS sound (Sony Dynamic

Digital Sound), and for some immersive audio installations, there If there are 5 front speakers, Left Extra should be placed midway
might be 5 front speakers. The two additional speakers (Left Ex- between Centre and Left speaker, and correspondingly with Right
tra and Right Extra) are placed in the middle between the centre Extra and Right speakers, at the same height as the other front
channel and Left or Right front speaker. speakers.

Screens with 1.85:1 aspect ratio (fixed picture width):

9.1 Front speakers The centre speaker is placed on the picture’s vertical center-
line, with the acoustic centre midway between 2/3 picture height
for 1.85:1 and 2.39:1 formats, but always so that the speaker’s
Speaker placements behind a perforated screen are described here. height is within the top and bottom picture lines for both. See
illustrations below, showing two situations: One with common
Screens with 2.39:1 aspect ratio (fixed picture height): picture bottom line for 1.85:1 and 2.39:1 formats, and one with

PLACEMENT
SPEAKER
The centre speaker should always be placed on the picture’s verti- common picture centre line (horizontal) for 1.85:1 and 2.39:1.
cal centerline, with its acoustic centre at 2/3 of the picture height
from the picture bottom line. The Left and Right speakers should The Left and Right speakers should be placed at the same height
be placed at the same height, midway between the edges of the as the Centre speaker, inside the picture frame but close to the
2.39:1 and the 1.85:1 picture frame. See illustration on opposite edge.
page.

122 123
 If there are 5 front speakers, Left extra should be placed midway
between Centre and Left speaker, and the same should be done
with Right extra and Right speakers, at the same height as the
other front speakers.


Speaker placement in 1.85:1
screen format with common
picture centre line (horisontal).


Speaker placement in 1.85:1
9.2 Subwoofers
screen format with common
picture bottom line. If there is more than one subwoofer cabinet, clustering them will
increase their efficiency. The cabinet(s) should be placed close to

PLACEMENT
SPEAKER
the picture’s vertical centre line, but not on the auditorium centre
line, to avoid acoustical issues.

Usually the subwoofers are placed below the centre speaker. Sub-
woofers may also be placed below the screen frame.

124 125
 9.3 Rear surround speakers Ensure that the speakers are not in conflict with the porthole/pro-
jection window, and not in conflict with people’s heads when they
Different manufacturers/installers might have alternative recom- stand up or walk.
mendations to those described in this book.

Both in 5.1 and 7.1 audio formats, the surround channels are split
at the centre of the rear wall. This favors an even number of rear
surround speakers, if the auditorium is symmetric to the screen
centre line.

The distance from the left or right corner to the first speaker should
be in the range of 0.9–1.2 m.

The speakers should be evenly distributed on the wall with a dis- Rear surround speakers location (example).
tance (d) between each of them (c–c) in the range of 1.0 –2.5 m
(maximum 3 m). Smaller spacing will provide better distribution of
the sound, especially if the last row is close to the rear wall.

Given the width of the rear wall and the spacing between the speak-
ers, the number of rear speakers should be easy to calculate.
9.4 Side surround speakers
Different manufacturers/installers might have alternative recom-
With immersive audio formats, the number and distance between mendations to those described in this book.
the speakers might be decided by the manufacturer.
For 5.1 or 7.1 sound systems, it is common to place the surround
All rear surround speakers must be mounted at the same height (h) speakers with equal height from floor to speaker. The height should
and offer a good coverage of the auditorium. If the ceiling height be in the range of 2.5 – 3.5 m above the floor. If the room height in
allows for it, the speakers should be mounted at a height of h, the rear is low, the height of the rear side surround speaker might
2.5–3 m above the floor. If not, they should be mounted right below be a little lower.
the ceiling.

126 127
 For immersive audio systems there might be more surround speak-
ers, closer to the screen, and the number and placement might be
calculated according to instructions from the manufacturer of the
audio system. Be sure to consult requirements from manufactur-
ers/dealers if such systems are an option.

Side surround speaker location for 5.1/7.1 channel system.

As an alternative, common for immersive audio systems, or to pre-

pare for immersive audio, the side surround speakers can be
placed on the side walls, along an axis running from the height of
the rear surround speakers to the acoustic centre of the front speak-
ers (shown as a straight red line in the illustration for alternative

Alternative side surround speaker location for 5.1/7.1 channel system and for immersive audio
surround speaker placement below). systems (immersive audio systems might require other locations and number of speakers).

The distance between the speakers (d) on the side walls should
be between 1.0 and 2.5 (max. 3) metres, like on the rear wall.
Smaller distance will give more even distribution of the sound in
the auditorium. 9.5 Mounting surround speakers
When placing the side surround speakers, use a similar spacing There are many different surround speaker models available. Usu-
as the one used for the rear speakers. If the spacing comes out ally they are mounted on brackets where they can be tilted in the

PLACEMENT
SPEAKER
different than the rear wall, the spacing should be slightly smaller desired direction for best coverage.
for the rear speakers.
To mount the surround speakers on the wall, make sure that the
The rear side surround speaker should be placed 0.9–1.2 m from wall can safely carry the weight of the bracket with the speaker. It
the rear wall corner. The front side surround speaker (closest to the is often necessary to strengthen the walls with studding (for exam-
screen) should be placed around Row 1 or 2. ple plywood).

128 129
 The weight of each surround speaker varies between models and On the studwork’s side facing the screen, the following layers are
large auditoriums usually have larger speaker models. As a guide- mounted (back to front):
line, one can use this: Small speakers weigh up to 10 kg, while
large ones can weigh as much as 30 kg or more. Confirm the weight ___ 1 layer 12–15 mm gypsum board.
and mounting system with the sound installer or take account for
___ 1 layer 12–15 mm plywood.
more heavy speakers.
___ 1 layer 12–15 mm gypsum board.

___ 1 layer 50–100 mm sound absorption layer that

must be matte black on the side facing the screen.

9.6 Baffle wall

A baffle wall is an acoustical wall behind the screen, installed to
improve sound clarity and localisation. This wall should be bigger
than the screen, with its edge – if possible – 0.9 m or more outside
of the left and right front speaker. Usually the baffle wall is built
wall-to-wall and floor-to-ceiling, inside the room but separate from
the room construction.

If the screen is flat, the baffle wall should be flat. If the screen is
curved, the baffle wall can either be curved (following the screen
curve) or angled so that the wall has approximately the same angle
as the screen in each speaker’s position.

PLACEMENT
SPEAKER
Usually the wall is built as a studwork in fireproof 2”x 4” wood for Cross section detail (example) of a baffle wall, with different layers and thickness.
a small baffle wall. Larger walls will require thicker studs, or the
wall can be built in steel or other materials. There are also simpler
and lighter prefab baffle walls (so called “Bafflettes”) available. Each layer is attached to the previous layer inside with screws. The
Make sure that the studs are not in conflict with the front speakers. length of the screws should not go through the next layer, to keep
the layers independent from each other.

130 131
 The joints and the screws/bolts on the last, sound absorption layer
must be matte black.

The gap between the sound absorber and the screen should be
150–200 mm. If the gap is much bigger it will have a negative
effect on the auditorium sound.

The rear side of the stud should be open.

When speaker models are decided, a shelf can be built on the back Cut-out for speakers behind the screen
of the baffle wall, as part of the baffle construction (see illustration
on facing page). The vertical position of the shelf is calculated so
that the acoustic centre of the speaker is positioned 2/3 of the
screen height above the bottom picture line (see Speaker place-
ment chapter above).

For each speaker there must be a cut-out in the baffle wall, appro-
ximately 5 cm larger than the speakers on each side. The speaker
fronts must be approximately in line with the front of the baffle
wall, but angled, pointing to the Reference Listening Position
(RLP). The RLP is on the screen centre axis, at 2/3 of the distance
from the screen to the rear wall, in ear height (1200 mm above
floor level).

PLACEMENT
SPEAKER
The screen frame with masking system (if any) can be mounted on
the front of the baffle wall.

The final baffle wall design should be made by the sound installer, Baffle wall
when the speaker models have been selected and the picture size
and position is decided. Baffle wall design with 3 front speakers and double subwoofer cabinets.

132 133
 9.6.1 The room behind the baffle wall

There must be access to the room behind the baffle wall. Sometimes
it is easy to make a door from a room or a corridor next to the au-
ditorium, but often access must be through the baffle wall. If so,
there should be a door or hatch on one side of the screen, or below
it. The front of the door should be covered with the same sound
absorption material as the baffle wall, making it almost invisible.
If space is limited, the hatch can be as small at 600 x 600 mm
(enough for a person to pass through).

There must be working light in the room behind the baffle wall.

Sometimes amplifiers for the front loudspeakers and subwoofers

and other equipment are placed behind the baffle wall. If so, there
must be power supply for the amplifiers here.

In the baffle room, there should also be power supply for screen
masking (if any) and other equipment in the screen area.

PLACEMENT
SPEAKER
134 135
 10 Auditorium shapes
Cinema auditoriums may have different shapes and dimensions to
fit inside the building structure and, for instance, efficiently stack-
ing auditoriums in a multiplex, enabling good logistics in the com-
plex, making the room look magnificent and impressive, improving
the acoustics and so on.

Different shapes will usually have both advantages and disadvan-

tages, especially with respect to projection, sightlines, acoustics
and design. Some shapes commonly seen in auditoriums are com-
mented upon in this section, referring to other sections in this
book.

10.1 Room height

The room height in a cinema auditorium depends on where it is
measured. If the room is shaped like a shoebox, the room height is
often given by the height from floor at Row 1 to the ceiling. Usually
there is an internal acoustical ceiling, inside the room. This may
be horizontal or sloped, often lower on the screen end of the room.

AUDITORIUM
SHAPES
With a stadium, the height will be lower in the rear end of the room.
In a cinema auditorium it must therefore always be specified where
the height is measured.

AUDITORIUM SHAPES
136 137
 Height from the ceiling to the internal acoustical treated roof, can
be in the range of 400–600 mm, but may be larger or smaller de-
10.2 Parallel side walls
pending on how the room is designed. The room above the ceiling For many reasons, parallel side walls – making the room shaped
can be used to mount downlights or other luminaries, emergency like a shoebox - are very common when it comes to cinema design.
lighting, pipes for cabling between the projection room and the A shoebox shape is usually more effective than other shapes when
stage, surround speakers etc. auditoriums are stacked in a multiplex. The shape can give a good
balance between the seating area and the picture size, given that
Above the screen there should be a minimum height to the ceiling the ratio between the room length and width is not too big or not
of 50–100 mm, to avoid conflict between the projection beam and too small. To have enough width for a large picture size, the ratio
the ceiling. should be lower than 1.4 –1.5. For efficient use of the area, with-
out seats outside the acceptable seating area (see Seating area in
For better acoustics, the height from floor to the acoustical ceiling the Viewing conditions chapter), a ratio below 1.2 –1.3 might be
should be 3000 mm or more on the last row. less effective (depending on aisles and seating layout).

From an acoustical point of view, the optimal room height can be Parallel side walls must be acoustically treated to avoid flutter
calculated relative to the room’s length to width ratio (see below). echo (see the Echo section in the Acoustics chapter above).


Room height vs room size.
Note: Enter drawing with
ratio of length to width

10.3 Angled side walls

of room. Proceed up to
red line, and then move
horizontally to find ratio
of height to width.
Height of room divided by width

Example: Length to width

is 1.5:1 Move from 1.5 In many auditoriums, the side walls are not parallel. If the walls
up to the red line, then
horizontally to 0.65. are only slightly angled, this will be good for acoustics and still
Height should be 0.65 x
width. Bad acoustics may allow for a large picture size.
well result from any design
outside the hatched area.
(Source: Dolby) If the room is wider in the rear than in the front, this shape may

AUDITORIUM
SHAPES
give more seats per square meter, since there are more seats per
row in the rear part of the auditorium (see illustration on following
page).
Length of room divided by width

138 139
 If the side walls are angled with the screen wall wider than the rear 10.4 P rojection room above the
rear part of the auditorium
wall, the screen might look larger and more impressive. But with
less seats per row in the rear part, this shape will give less seats
per square metre (see illustration below).
Sometimes the projection room is built inside the shoebox, above
the rear part of the auditorium. This will give projection condi-

Right: Auditorium with tions like those described for Boothless projection (See Projection
parallel side walls
Below right: Auditorium chapter), with larger projection angle/distortion and less sightline
with the rear wall wider
than the front wall clearance.
Below left: Auditorium
with the front row wider
than the rear wall. The area under the projection room will have significantly different
All auditoriums have the acoustics than the area in front of the projection room. It will be
same length and the same
width on the screen wall. practically impossible to offer equal and correct sound reproduc-
Seat width (c-c) = 700 mm,
Row distance = 1400 mm tion in both areas, and usually the area under the projection room
(2000 mm on the crossing
aisle).
will not be good in terms of acoustics. If the auditorium is planned
to have an immersive audio system, it will be very complicated and
expensive to find an acceptable solution.

AUDITORIUM
SHAPES
Projection room above the rear part of the auditorium.

140 141
 10.5 Balcony
In the past, balconies were sometimes used in large auditoriums
for various reasons, such as increasing capacity and making the
room look magnificent (like a theatre). With a sloped floor on the
low level, the balcony level did not have to be very high. With the
screen mounted high on the front wall, the sightlines on the lower
level were not too bad and the rake on the balcony did not to have
to be too steep. The projector was usually located above the bal-
cony, making the projection angle (very) large. Alternatively, the 
Auditorium with 2-row balcony and the projector below the balcony.
projector could be mounted below the balcony, but then the front Clearance for the top of the projection beam under the balcony is critical.
Height of the rail in front of balcony must comply with current rules and
level of the balcony had to be high to make clearance for the pro- still give acceptable sightlines to picture bottom even for a small person.
Might be difficult to achieve.
jection beam above the seating under the balcony.

A balcony will divide the auditorium into three different acoustical

zones, making it extremely difficult to achieve acceptable sound
reproduction in all three zones. And it will be even more compli-
cated and expensive to ensure acceptable sound for all seats with
an immersive audio system.

Today balconies are rarely used, because it is very difficult to com-

bine large screensize and good sightline clearance with acceptable
projection distortion, in addition to complicated acoustics.

AUDITORIUM
SHAPES
142 143
 11 Accessibility
In this book, the Accessibility chapter is limited to aspects that
have an influence on the design of the auditorium.

11.1 Wheelchairs
11.1.1 Wheelchair access

All auditoriums should be accessible for wheelchairs. In most

territories this is regulated by law, but regulations vary from one
territory to the other. Local rules may make it mandatory to allow
access for a minimum number of wheelchairs in an auditorium, as
well as limit where they can be parked and outline necessary space
available for each.

In any case, people in wheelchairs should have access to the au-

ditorium through the same corridors and entrances as all other pa-
trons. Using alternative access, like entrances through emergency
exits etc., may make the wheelchair users feel like they are a bur-
den to the cinema and not very welcome, and may give the cinema
a bad reputation. It may also demand extra effort from the staff to
let them in and out.

ACCESSIBILITY
ACCESSIBILITY
144 145
 11.1.2 Ramps 11.1.3 Space for a wheelchair

There are different rules for ramp slope angles, width, length etc Wheelchairs come in many different shapes and sizes. Required
in different countries. Be sure to comply with valid regulations and spaces for wheelchairs are different, depending on local regula-
recommendations. tions. Consider making larger than recommended minimum space
for wheelchairs, to accommodate for larger models and easier ac-
The gradient of the ramp must not be too steep. The gradient is cess.
often limited by the length of the ramp and the rise height. For
longer ramps the maximum gradient is usually between 1:15 and The minimum parking area for a wheelchair may be different in dif-
1:20, and for short ramps down to 1:12 might be acceptable. ferent countries. Often it is in the range of 900 x 1400 mm (WxD).

If the ramp is long, there must be landing for each given rise height In addition to parking, there must be space for access and turning.
(usually between 500 –1000 mm) or for each given ramp length. This may be given as a circle with a diameter that allows for turning
If the total rise height is large, for example over 2000 mm, risers the wheelchair, typical around 1500 mm, or as a rectangle where
should not be used. the wheelchair can move forward and turn. Common demands for
the size of this rectangle 1300 x 1800 mm. Again, check valid
The width of the ramp might be given by the conditions of use or regulations.
might be given by regulations. Minimum 1200 –1500mm is com-
mon.

A ramp must have handrails on both sides, with a height from the
ramp floor usually in the range of 900 –1100mm.

Ramps should not replace stairways, as many disabled people find

ramps hard to use.

Avoid using stairlifts and similar devices for vertical transport of

wheelchairs, especially inside the auditorium. They are expensive,
ugly, (potentially) noisy and most of all: wheelchair users do not

Necessary space for a wheelchair. The red rectangle marks space needed for access.
like them! Demands for the maneuver space varies between different countries/regions.

ACCESSIBILITY
146 147
 11.1.4 Number of wheelchair spaces Wheelchairs should be placed on the same level, and not isolated
from the rest of the seating area.
There may be regulations for number of wheelchair spaces in an
auditorium. If not, as a rule of thumb, it is common to go by 1% If the wheelchairs must be placed on the first row, make sure that
of total number of seats as fixed wheelchair spaces (minimum1). the vertical sightline from eye to top of the picture in any format
In addition, most seating models can be delivered as removable is less than 35°, using 1250 mm as average eye height for wheel-
seats, making it possible to have a flexible additional area for chair users.
wheelchairs, with regular seats when the wheelchair space is not
in use.

Next to the wheelchair position there should be a seat for an ac- 11.1.6 Entrance and exit doors
companying person.
To make the auditorium easily accessible for wheelchairs, the ent-
If possible, wheelchair positions should be paired, so two wheel- rance/exit doors used by wheelchairs must be step-less. There are
chair users can sit together. step-less systems available that also comply with fire regulations,
etc.

Exit doors in a cinema auditorium should have a power assisted

11.1.5 Wheelchair locations door opening system. The opening mechanism should be easily
accessible.
There may be regulations on where wheelchairs can be placed in
an auditorium. In addition to accessibility, some countries do not The powered door system can also be used to automatically close
accept wheelchairs on the first row. Even if this is not a require- the door when the film starts and open it at the end of the film.
ment, it is recommended not to have them on the first row. The
first row is usually not preferred by the audience and wheelchair
users in general do not feel comfortable sitting there.

Try to find a solution where wheelchairs have access to a premium

seating area.

ACCESSIBILITY
148 149
 11.2 For hearing impaired people 11.3 For visual impaired people
DCPs (digital film) have an allocated channel for the hearing im- DCPs has an allocated channel for the visually impaired (VI).
paired (HI). But in many countries these tracks are not available in This soundtrack is a narrative description of the film, explain-
the local language. Instead foreign films are subtitled, and in some ing the scenes. In many countries the VI track is not available in
countries even domestic films are subtitled. the local language. Instead, some countries provides the narrati-
ve soundtrack, usually only on domestic films, via other systems
Many cinemas install inductive loops for hearing aid users. With available for users on their mobile phones.
such systems, it is possible for users to receive a mono mix of the
film sound via their own hearing aid device. Inductive loops can It is important to facilitate for visually impaired cinema-goers
also be used for other purposes, when the cinema auditorium is when planning the lighting, and surfaces in the room. If there is
used for is used for conferences, etc. a change in the floor level, or other elements that can have an im-
pact when walking, the level change or elements must be marked
To prevent crosstalk between different auditoriums and other with colors and lighting, so they are easy to see. There are different
rooms, a customised double loop is recommended. Each of the rules in different countries, and there is a lot of literature available
loops is usually a cable mounted underneath the seating construc- on how to make the auditorium more accessible for the visually
tion or using a flat cable under the floor covering in the seating impaired without sacrificing the quality of the film experience.
area, covering every seat.
Some visually impaired people have a guide dog and want to bring
Directions for the cable layout and mounting can be given by the the dog with them into the auditorium. For them, there should be
installer or the manufacturer of inductive loop systems. seats available where the dog can rest in front of, or under, the seat.

For the hearing impaired the HI track can be used to make subtitles
available on separate devices, like pads or phones, and there are
also available glasses where the subtitles are generated in the
glasses. Such devices require that the subtitles are available in
local language.

ACCESSIBILITY
150 151
 Thanks 30 years ago, I had the great pleasure of getting to know Ioan Allen
who was the Senior Vice President for Dolby Laboratories in San
This book would not have been written without the advice and in- Francisco. Since then, he has been a good friend and one of my
spiration of many people, companies and published literature. main inspirators. He has always been an important link between
filmmakers and cinemas and has written books and many articles
The EDCF (European Digital Cinema Forum) is planning to publish aimed at improving the cinema auditorium experience. Thank you,
a Best Practices Guide for Image and Sound, initiated and led by Ioan!
Julian Pinn (Julian Pinn Ltd). I was asked to be the principal au-
thor for the part called Architectural Aspects. Without this initia- A special thanks to Mike Bradbury, CTO for Odeon Cinemas UK,
tive, this book would not have been written. I owe a lot of thanks to for sharing his knowledge and always fighting to improve the cine-
Julian for his initiative and to the cowriters for their valuable input, ma-going experience.
especially Matt Jahans from Harkness and Tom Bert from Barco.
Also a special thanks to Rick Williams (Freeney Williams Ltd) for
UNIC (the International Union of Cinemas) went through a major lots of useful feedback and inspiration regarding accessibility.
upgrade when they moved to Brussels in 2011 and strengthened
the organisation under the leadership of Phil Clapp (President), And last but not least: Thanks to filmmakers for making great films
Jan Runge and later Laura Houlgatte (CEO). UNIC also established that are screened in cinema auditoriums, and thanks to people
a Technology Group, which I have had the great pleasure of being a who choose to come and see them as intended by the filmmakers
part of. Its work is now very well organised by Guillaume Branders. in the great cinema auditoriums.
I owe him a lot of thanks for all the good work he has done and for
his inspiration and help with this book, and his colleagues (Lucy
and Chris) for helping me with the language.

I have been working for Film&Kino (the nonprofit trade organisa-

tion for Norwegian cinemas) since 1984. As their consultant in
cinema technology and cinema design, they have trusted me and
always given me the tools I have needed to develop this service.
Most of my knowledge I have acquired by working for Film&Kino
on cinema projects. Huge thanks to them and all the cinema own-
ers and staff, architects, engineers and consultants I have had the
pleasure of working with.

152 153
 Literature ___ Regulations on technical requirements for
building works (TEK 10 and TEK 17) (Norway)
___ Planning a cinema (Philips NL, 1964)
___ Dimensioning for wheelchairs (SINTEF) (Norway)
___ Guidelines for Design of Effective Cine Theatres
(William Sczabo 1986) ___ Publications from The Norwegian Association
of Disabled (Norway)
___ Technical Guidelines for Dolby Stereo Theatres
(Ioan Allen/Dolby, 1984)

___ Various French standards and recommendations

(CST, Paris)

___ DolbyAtmos® Specifications Issue 3

(Dolby Laboratories, 2015)

___ Manuals etc from THX Lucasfilm ® (1985-2000)

___ Manuals, brochures, articles etc from manufacturers

(Christie, Barco, Dolby, Harkness, QSC, Samsung, Skeie,
Figueras, Ferco, Mulitivision, Ecophon, iGuzzini, Orbik)

___ DCI Specification, Version 1.3

___ ISDCF, various documents

___ EN 12727 Standard: Furniture-Ranked Seating-

Requirements for safety, strength and durability

___ Providing Services To Disabled People (UKCA, July 2016)

154 155
Imprint:

Copyright Rolv Gjestland 2020

All rights reserved
Published by UNIC
Version 1.2 (February 2020)

Design: Sandra Ruderer

158