Vaishnavism

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Vaishnavism is one of the major Hindu denominations along

with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism.[1] According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson
and Grim, the Vaishnava tradition is the largest group within Hinduism, constituting
about 641 million or 67.6% of Hindus.[2] It is also called Vishnuism since it
considers Vishnu as the Supreme Being, ie Mahavishnu.[3][4] Its followers are called
Vaishnavites or Vaishnavas (IAST: Vaiṣṇava), and it also includes some other sub-
sects like Krishnaism and Ramaism, which consider Krishna and Rama as the
Supreme Being respectively.[5][6]
The ancient emergence of Vaishnavism is unclear, and broadly hypothesized as
a fusion of Vedic deities with various regional non-Vedic religions. It has 1st
millennium BCE Vedic roots in the Vedic deity Bhaga, who gave rise
to Bhagavatism,[7][8] and in the Vedic water deity Nara c.q. Narayana.[9] Non-Vedic
roots are found in a merger of several popular non-Vedic theistic traditions such as
 the cult of Vāsudeva-Krishna[10][11] and Gopala-Krishna.[10][12], which developed in the 7th
to 4th century BCE.[13][10] In the early centuries CE, the tradition was finalized as
Vaishnavism,[10][14][15] when it developed the avatar doctrine, wherein the aligned deities
are revered as distinct incarnations of supreme Vedic
God Vishnu. Rama, Krishna, Narayana, Kalki, Hari, Vithoba, Venkateswara, Shrinath
ji, and Jagannath are among the names of popular avatars all seen as different
aspects of the same supreme being.[16][17][18]
The Vaishnavite tradition is known for the loving devotion to an avatar of Vishnu
(often Krishna), and as such has been key to the spread of the Bhakti movement in
South Asia in the 2nd millennium CE.[19][20] It has four main categories
of sampradayas (denominations, sub-schools): the medieval-
era Vishishtadvaita school of Ramanuja, the Dvaita school of Madhvacharya,
the Dvaitadvaita school of Nimbarkacharya, and the Pushtimarg of Vallabhacharya.[21]
[22]
 Ramananda (14th century) created a Rama-oriented movement, now the largest
monastic group in Asia.[23][24]
Key texts in Vaishnavism include the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita,
the Pancaratra (Agama) texts, Naalayira Divya Prabhandham and the Bhagavata
Purana.[25][26][27][28]

Contents

 1History
o 1.1Origins
 1.1.1Northern India
 1.1.2Southern India
o 1.2Gupta era
o 1.3Early medieval period
o 1.4Later medieval period
o 1.5Modern times
 2Beliefs
o 2.1Theism with many varieties
 2.1.1Vishnuism and Krishnaism
 2.1.2Vishnu
 2.1.3Krishna
 2.1.4Radha Krishna
 2.1.5Avatars
 2.1.6Vyuhas
o 2.2Restoration of dharma
 3Texts
o 3.1Scriptures
 3.1.1Vedas and Upanishads
 3.1.1.1Vaishnava Upanishads
 3.1.2Bhagavad Gita
 3.1.3Vaishnava Agamas
o 3.2Other texts
 3.2.1Mahabharata and Ramayana
 3.2.2Puranas
 3.2.3Sectarian texts
o 3.3Attitude toward scriptures
 4Practices
o 4.1Bhakti
o 4.2Tilaka
o 4.3Initiation
o 4.4Pilgrimage sites
o 4.5Holy places
 5Traditions
o 5.1Four sampradayas and other traditions
 5.1.1List
o 5.2Early traditions
 5.2.1Bhagavats
 5.2.2Pancaratra
 5.2.2.1Vaikhanasas
o 5.3Early medieval traditions
 5.3.1Smartism
 5.3.2Alvars
o 5.4Contemporary traditions
 5.4.1Sri Vaishnava
 5.4.2Gaudiya Vaishnavism
 5.4.3Warkari tradition
 5.4.4Ramanandi tradition
 5.4.5Northern Sant tradition
 5.4.6Minor traditions
 5.4.6.1Odia Vaishnavism
 5.4.6.2Mahanubhava Sampradaya
 5.4.6.3Sahajiya and Baul tradition
 5.4.6.4Ekasarana Dharma
 5.4.6.5Radha-vallabha Sampradaya
 5.4.6.6Pranami Sampradaya
 5.4.6.7Swaminarayan Sampradaya
 6Vaishnavism versus other Hindu traditions
 7Demography
 8Academic study
 9Mantras
 10See also
 11Explanatory notes
 12Citations
 13General sources
o 13.1Web sources
o 13.2Printed sources
 14External links

History[edit]
Main article: Historical Vishnuism
Vaishnavism originates in the latest centuries BCE and the early centuries CE, with
the cult of the heroic Vāsudeva, a leading member of the Vrishni heroes, which was
then amalgamated with Krishna, hero of the Yadavas, and still several centuries later
with the "divine child" Bala Krishna of the Gopala traditions, followed by a syncretism
of these non-Vedic traditions with the Mahabharata canon, thus affiliating itself
with Vedism in order to become acceptable to the orthodox establishment.
Krishnaism first became associated with bhakti yoga in the medieval period.[note 1]
Origins[edit]
Northern India[edit]

Vāsudeva on a coin of Agathocles of Bactria, circa 190–180 BCE.[30][31] This is "the earliest unambiguous
image" of the deity.[32]

The inscription of the Heliodorus pillar that was made by Indo-Greek envoy Heliodorus in 110 BCE, in what
is modern Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh). The inscription states Heliodorus is a Bhagavata devoted to the
"God of gods" Vāsudeva.[33][34]

See also: Vāsudeva Krishna and Bala Krishna

The ancient emergence of Vaishnavism is unclear, the evidence inconsistent and
scanty.[9] Although Vishnu was a Vedic solar deity,[11] he is mentioned less often
compared to Agni, Indra, and other Vedic deities, thereby suggesting that he had a
minor position in the Vedic religion. [35] According to Dalal, the origins may be in Vedic
deity Bhaga, who gave rise to Bhagavatism.[7] According to Preciado-Solís, there are
other Vedic deities, such as water deity Nara (also mentioned as Narayana-
Purusha in the Brahmanas layer of the Vedas), who together form the historical roots
of Vaishnavism.[9]
According to Dandekar, what is understood today as Vaishnavism did not originate in
Vedism at all, but emerged from the merger of several popular theistic traditions
which developed after the decline of Vedism at the end of the Vedic period, closely
before the second urbanisation of northern India, in the 7th to 4th century BCE. [36] It
initially formed around Vāsudeva, a deified leader of the Vrishnis, and one of
the Vrishni heroes.[10] Later, Vāsudeva was amalgamated with Krishna "the deified
tribal hero and religious leader of the Yadavas",[10][11] to form the merged
deity Bhagavan Vāsudeva-Krishna,[10] due to the close relation between the tribes of
the Vrishnis and the Yadavas.[10] This was followed by a merger with the cult
of Gopala-Krishna of the cowherd community of the Abhıras[10] in the 4th century CE.
[12]
 The character of Gopala Krishna is often considered to be non-Vedic. [37] According
to Dandekar, such mergers consolidated the position of Krishnaism between the
heterodox sramana movement and the orthodox Vedic religion. [10] The "Greater
Krsnaism", states Dandekar, then adopted the Rigvedic Vishnu as Supreme deity to
increase its appeal towards orthodox elements. [10]
Syncretism of various traditions and Vedism resulted in Vaishnavism. [14][15] At this
stage that Vishnu of the Rig Veda was assimilated into non-Vedic Krishnaism and
became the equivalent of the Supreme God.[11] The appearance of Krishna as one of
the Avatars of Vishnu dates to the period of the Sanskrit epics in the early centuries
CE. The Bhagavad Gita was incorporated into the Mahabharata as a key text for
Krishnaism.[8]
Finally, the Narayana worshippers were also included, which further brahmanized
Vaishnavism.[38] The Nara-Narayana worshippers may have originated in Badari, a
northern ridge of the Hindu Kush, and absorbed into the Vedic orthodoxy as Purusa
Narayana.[38] Purusa Narayana may have later been turned into Arjuna and Krsna. [38]
In the late-Vedic texts (~1000 to 500 BCE), the concept of a
metaphysical Brahman grows in prominence, and the Vaishnavism tradition
considered Vishnu to be identical to Brahman, just like Shaivism and Shaktism
consider Shiva and Devi to be Brahman respectively. [39]
This complex history is reflected in the two main historical denominations of
Vishnavism. The Bhagavats, worship Vāsudeva-Krsna, and are followers of
brahmanic Vaishnavism, while the Pacaratrins regard Narayana as their founder,
and are followers of Tantric Vaishnavism.[38]
Southern India[edit]
According to Hardy,[note 2] there is evidence of early "southern Krishnaism," despite the
tendency to allocate the Krishna-traditions to the Northern traditions. [40] South Indian
texts show close parallel with the Sanskrit traditions of Krishna and his gopi
companions, so ubiquitous in later North Indian text and imagery. [42] Early writings
in TAMIZH culture such as Manimekalai and the Cilappatikaram present Krishna, his
brother, and favourite female companions in the similar terms. [42] Hardy argues that
the Sanskrit Bhagavata Purana is essentially a Sanskrit "translation" of the bhakti of
the Tamil alvars.[43]
Devotion to southern Indian Mal (Tirumal) may be an early form of Krishnaism, since
Mal appears as a divine figure, largely like Krishna with some elements of Vishnu.
[44]
 The Alvars, whose name can be translated "sages" or "saints", were devotees of
Mal. Their poems show a pronounced orientation to the Vaishnava, and often
Krishna, side of Mal. But they do not make the distinction
between Krishna and Vishnu on the basis of the concept of the Avatars.[44] Yet,
according to Hardy the term "Mayonism" should be used instead of "Krishnaism"
when referring to Mal or Mayon.[40]
Gupta era[edit]
Vishnu in three incarnations (Chaturvyuha): Vishnu himself or Vāsudeva-Krishna in human form, Varaha as
a boar, Narasimha as a lion. Gupta art, Mathura, mid-5th century CE. Boston Museum.[45]

Most of the Gupta kings, beginning with Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) (375-413

CE) were known as Parama Bhagavatas or Bhagavata Vaishnavas.[46][38] But following
the Huna invasions, especially those of the Alchon Huns circa 500 CE, the Gupta
Empire declined and fragmented, ultimately collapsing completely, with the effect of
discrediting Vaishnavism, the religion it had been so ardently promoting. [47] The newly
arising regional powers in central and northern India, such as the Aulikaras,
the Maukharis, the Maitrakas, the Kalacuris or the Vardhanas preferred
adopting Saivism instead, giving a strong impetus to the development of the worship
of Shiva, and its ideology of power.[47] Vaisnavism remained strong mainly in the
territories which had not been affected by these events: South India and Kashmir.[47]
Early medieval period[edit]
Main article: Alvars
After the Gupta age, Krishnaism rose to a major current of Vaishnavism, [29] and
Vaishnavism developed into various sects and subsects, most of them
emphasizing bhakti, which was strongly influenced by south Indian religiosity.
[38]
 Modern scholarship posit Nimbarkacharya (c.7th century CE) to this period who
propounded Radha Krishna worship and his doctrine came to be known as (dvaita-
advaita).[48]
Vaishnavism in the 8th century came into contact with the Advaita doctrine of Adi
Shankara. Many of the early Vaishnava scholars such as Nathamuni, Yamunacharya
and Ramanuja, contested the Advaita Vedanta doctrines and proposed Vishnu
bhakti ideas instead.[49][50] Vaishnavism flourished in predominantly Shaivite Tamil
Nadu during the seventh to tenth centuries CE with the twelve Alvars, saints who
spread the sect to the common people with their devotional hymns. The temples that
the Alvars visited or founded are now known as Divya Desams. Their poems in
praise of Vishnu and Krishna in Tamil language are collectively known
as Naalayira Divya Prabandha (4000 divine verses).[51][52]
Later medieval period[edit]
See also: Bhakti movement

Krishna with Gopis, painted c. 1660.

The Bhakti movement of late medieval Hinduism started in the 7th century, but
rapidly expanded after the 12th century.[53] It was supported by the Puranic literature
such as the Bhagavata Purana, poetic works, as well as many
scholarly bhasyas and samhitas.[54][55][56]
This period saw the growth of Vashnavism Sampradayas (denominations or
communities) under the influence of scholars such as Ramanujacharya, Vedanta
Desika, Madhvacharya and Vallabhacharya.[57] Bhakti poets or teachers such
as Manavala
Mamunigal, Namdev, Ramananda, Sankardev, Surdas, Tulsidas, Eknath, Tyagaraja, 
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and many others influenced the expansion of
Vaishnavism.Even Meera (princess of Mehwar and Rajasthan) took part in this
specific movement.[58][59][60] These Vaishnavism sampradaya founders challenged the
then dominant Shankara's doctrines of Advaita Vedanta, particularly Ramanuja in
the 12th century, Vedanta Desika and Madhva in the 13th, building their theology on
the devotional tradition of the Alvars (Sri Vaishnavas).[61]
In North and Eastern India, Vaishnavism gave rise to various late Medieval
movements Ramananda in the 14th century, Sankaradeva in the 15th
and Vallabha and Chaitanya in the 16th century. Historically, it was Chaitanya
Mahaprabhu who founded congregational chanting of holy names of Krishna in the
early 16th century after becoming a sannyasi.[62]
Modern times[edit]
During the 20th century, Vaishnavism has spread from India and is now practiced in
many places around the globe, including North
America, Europe, Africa, Russia and South America. A pioneer of Vaishnavite
mission to the West has become sannyasi Baba Premananda Bharati (1858–1914),
an author of the first full-length trearment of Bengali Vaishnavism in English Sree
Krishna—the Lord of Love and founder in 1902 the "Krishna Samaj" society in New
York City and a temple in Los Angeles.[63] The global status of Vaishnavism is largely
due to the growth of the ISKCON movement, founded by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami
Prabhupada in 1966.[64][65][66]

Beliefs[edit]
Theism with many varieties[edit]
Vaishnavism is centered on the devotion of Vishnu and his avatars. According to
Schweig, it is a "polymorphic monotheism, i.e. a theology that recognizes many
forms (ananta rupa) of the one, single unitary divinity," since there are many forms of
one original deity, with Vishnu taking many forms. [67] Okita, in contrast, states that the
different denominations within Vaishnavism are best described as
theism, pantheism and panentheism.[68]
The Vaishnava sampradaya started by Madhvacharya is a monotheistic tradition
wherein Vishnu (Krishna) is omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent. [69] In
contrast, Sri Vaishnavism sampradaya associated with Ramanuja has monotheistic
elements, but differs in several ways, such as goddess Lakshmi and god Vishnu are
considered as inseparable equal divinities.[70] According to some scholars, Sri
Vaishnavism emphasizes panentheism, and not monotheism, with its theology of
"transcendence and immanence",[71][72] where God interpenetrates everything in the
universe, and all of empirical reality is God's body. [73][74] The Vaishnava sampradaya
associated with Vallabhacharya is a form of pantheism, in contrast to the other
Vaishnavism traditions.[75] The Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition of Chaitanya, states
Schweig, is closer to a polymorphic bi-monotheism because both goddess Radha
and god Krishna are simultaneously supreme.[76]
Vaishnavism precepts include the avatar (incarnation) doctrine, wherein Vishnu
incarnates numerous times, in different forms, to set things right and bring back the
balance in the universe.[77][78][79] These avatars include Narayana, Vasudeva, Rama and
Krishna; each the name of a divine figure with attributed supremacy, which each
associated tradition of Vaishnavism believes to be distinct. [80]
Vishnuism and Krishnaism[edit]
The term "Krishnaism" (Kṛṣṇaism) has been used to describe a large group of
independent traditions-sampradayas within Vaishnavism regarded Krishna as the
Supreme God, while "Vishnuism" may be used for sects focusing on Vishnu in which
Krishna is an Avatar, rather than a transcended Supreme Being.[5][6] Vishnuism
believes in Vishnu as the supreme being. When all other Vaishnavas recognise
Krishna as one of Vishnu's avatars, though only the Krishnites identify the Supreme
Being (Svayam Bhagavan, Brahman, a source of the Tridev) with Lord Krishna and
his forms (Radha Krishna, Vithoba and others), those manifested themselves as
Vishnu. This is its difference from such groups as Ramaism, Radhaism, Sitaism, etc.
[5][81]
 As such Krishnaism is believed to be one of the early attempts to make
philosophical Hinduism appealing to the masses.[82] In common language the term
Krishnaism is not often used, as many prefer a wider term "Vaishnavism", which
appeared to relate to Vishnu, more specifically as Vishnu-ism.
Vishnu[edit]
In Vishnu-centered sects Vishnu or Narayana is the one supreme God. The belief in
the supremacy of Vishnu is based upon the many avatars (incarnations) of Vishnu
listed in the Puranic texts, which differs from other Hindu deities such
as Ganesha, Surya or Durga.[citation needed]
To the devotees of the Srivaishnava Sampradaya "Lord Vishnu is the Supreme
Being and the foundation of all existence." [83]
Krishna[edit]

Relationship between different forms of Krishna as Paripurna avatara of Vishnu and as Svayam Bhagavan
in Chaitanya school of Vaishnavism.[84]

Main article: Krishna
In the Krishnaism group of independent traditions of Vaishnavism, such as
the Nimbarka Sampradaya (the first Krishnaite Sampradaya developed
by Nimbarka c. 7th century CE), Ekasarana Dharma, Gaudiya
Vaishnavism, Mahanubhava, Rudra Sampradaya (Pushtimarg), Vaishnava-
Sahajiya and Warkari, devotees worship Krishna as the One Supreme form of God,
and source of all avatars, Svayam Bhagavan.[5][85]
Krishnaism is often also called Bhagavatism—perhaps the earliest Krishnite
movement was Bhagavatism with Krishna-Vasudeva (about 2nd century BCE)[86]—
after the Bhagavata Purana which asserts that Krishna is "Bhagavan Himself," and
subordinates to itself all other
forms: Vishnu, Narayana, Purusha, Ishvara, Hari, Vasudeva, Janardana etc.[87]
Krishna is often described as having the appearance of a dark-skinned person and is
depicted as a young cowherd boy playing a flute or as a youthful prince giving
philosophical direction and guidance, as in the Bhagavad Gita.[88]
Krishna is also worshiped across many other traditions of Hinduism, and Krishna and
the stories associated with him appear across a broad spectrum of different
Hindu philosophical and theological traditions, where it is believed that God appears
to his devoted worshippers in many different forms, depending on their particular
desires. These forms include the different avataras of Krishna described in
traditional Vaishnava texts, but they are not limited to these. Indeed, it is said that the
different expansions of the Svayam bhagavan are uncountable and they cannot be
fully described in the finite scriptures of any one religious community. [89][90] Many of
the Hindu scriptures sometimes differ in details reflecting the concerns of a particular
tradition, while some core features of the view on Krishna are shared by all. [91]
Radha Krishna[edit]
Main article: Radha Krishna
Radha Krishna is the combination of both the feminine as well as the masculine
aspects of God. Krishna is often referred as Svayam bhagavan in Gaudiya
Vaishnavism theology and Radha is Krishna's internal potency and supreme
beloved.[92] With Krishna, Radha is acknowledged as the supreme goddess, for it is
said that she controls Krishna with her love.[93] It is believed that Krishna enchants the
world, but Radha enchants even him. Therefore, she is the supreme goddess of all. [94]
[95]
 Radha and Krishna are avatars of Lakshmi and Vishnu respectively.
Radha Krishna at Kirti temple

While there are much earlier references to the worship of this form of God, it is
since Jayadeva Goswami wrote a famous poem Gita Govinda in the twelfth century
CE, that the topic of the spiritual love affair between the divine Krishna and his
consort Radha, became a theme celebrated throughout India. [96] It is believed that
Krishna has left the "circle" of the rasa dance to search for Radha. The Chaitanya
school believes that the name and identity of Radha are both revealed and
concealed in the verse describing this incident in Bhagavata Purana.[97] It is also
believed that Radha is not just one cowherd maiden, but is the origin of all the gopis,
or divine personalities that participate in the rasa dance.[98]
Avatars[edit]
Main article: Dashavatara
According to The Bhagavata Purana, there are twenty-two avatars of Vishnu,
including Rama and Krishna. The Dashavatara is a later concept.[38]
Vyuhas[edit]
Main article: Caturvyūha
The Pancaratrins follow the vyuhas doctrine, which says that God has four
manifestations (vyuhas), namely Vasudeva, Samkarsana, Pradyumna, and
Aniruddha. These four manifestations represent "the Highest Self, the individual self,
mind, and egoism."[38]
Restoration of dharma[edit]
Vaishnavism theology has developed the concept of avatar (incarnation) around
Vishnu as the preserver or sustainer. His avataras, asserts Vaishnavism, descend to
empower the good and fight evil, thereby restoring Dharma. This is reflected in the
passages of the ancient Bhagavad Gita as:[99][100]
Whenever righteousness wanes and unrighteousness increases I send myself forth.
For the protection of the good and for the destruction of evil,
and for the establishment of righteousness,
I come into being age after age.

— Bhagavad Gita 4.7–8[101][102]

In Vaishnava theology, such as is presented in the Bhagavata Purana and
the Pancaratra, whenever the cosmos is in crisis, typically because the evil has
grown stronger and has thrown the cosmos out of its balance, an avatar of Vishnu
appears in a material form, to destroy evil and its sources, and restore the cosmic
balance between the everpresent forces of good and evil. [99][79] The most known and
celebrated avatars of Vishnu, within the Vaishnavism traditions of Hinduism,
are Krishna, Rama, Narayana and Vasudeva. These names have extensive
literature associated with them, each has its own characteristics, legends and
associated arts.[99] The Mahabharata, for example, includes Krishna, while
the Ramayana includes Rama.[17]

Texts[edit]
The Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Agamas are the scriptural
sources of Vaishnavism,[27][103][104] while the Bhagavata Purana is a revered and
celebrates popular text, parts of which a few scholars such as Dominic Goodall
include as a scripture.[103] Other important texts in the tradition include the
Mahabharata and the Ramayana, as well as texts by
various sampradayas (denominations within Vaishnavism). In many Vaishnava
traditions, Krishna is accepted as a teacher, whose teachings are in the Bhagavad
Gita and the Bhagavata Purana.[29][note 1]
Scriptures[edit]
Vedas and Upanishads[edit]
Vaishnavism, just like all Hindu traditions, considers the Vedas as the scriptural
authority.[105][106] All traditions within Vaishnavism consider the Brahmanas,
the Aranyakas and the Upanishads embedded within the four Vedas as Sruti, while
Smritis, which include all the epics, the Puranas and its Samhitas, states Mariasusai
Dhavamony, are considered as "exegetical or expository literature" of the Vedic
texts.[106]
The Vedanta schools of Hindu philosophy, that interpreted the Upanishads and
the Brahma Sutra, provided the philosophical foundations of Vaishnavism. Given the
ancient archaic language of the Vedic texts, each school's interpretation varied, and
this has been the source of differences between the sampradayas (denominations)
of Vaishnavism.[107] These interpretations have created different traditions within
Vaishnavism, from dualistic (Dvaita) Vedanta of Madhvacharya,[108] to nondualistic
(Advaita) Vedanta of Madhusudana Sarasvati.[109]
Axiology in a Vaishnava Upanishad
The charity or gift is the armour in the world,
All beings live on the gift of the other,
Through gifts strangers become friends,
Through gifts, they ward off difficulties,
On gifts and giving, everything rests,
That is why charity is the highest.
—Mahanarayana Upanishad 63.6 [110][111]

Vaishnava Upanishads[edit]
Along with the reverence and exegetical analysis of the ancient Principal
Upanishads, Vaishnava-inspired scholars authored 14 Vishnu avatar-focussed
Upanishads that are called the Vaishnava Upanishads. [112] These are considered part
of 95 minor Upanishads in the Muktikā Upanishadic corpus of Hindu literature.[112]
[113]
 The earliest among these were likely composed in 1st millennium BCE, while the
last ones in the late medieval era.[114][115][116]
All of the Vaishnava Upanishads either directly reference and quote from the ancient
Principal Upanishads or incorporate some ideas found in them; most cited texts
include the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chandogya Upanishad, Katha
Upanishad, Isha Upanishad, Mundaka Upanishad, Taittiriya Upanishad and others.
[117][118]
 In some cases, they cite fragments from the Brahmana and Aranyaka layers of
the Rigveda and the Yajurveda.[117]
The Vaishnava Upanishads present diverse ideas, ranging from bhakti-style theistic
themes to a synthesis of Vaishnava ideas with Advaitic, Yoga, Shaiva and Shakti
themes.[117][119]
Vaishnava Upanishads
 Vaishnava Vishnu Composition
Topics Reference
Upanishad Avatar date
Mahanarayana Narayana, Atman, Brahman, Rudra,
Narayana 6AD - 100 CE [117][119]

Upanishad Sannyasa
Mantra, Narayana is one without a
Narayana
Narayana Medieval second, eternal, same as all gods and [120]

Upanishad
universe
Rama Rahasya ~17th century Rama, Sita, Hanuman, Atman,
Rama [121][122]

Upanishad CE Brahman, mantra

Rama tapaniya ~11th to 16th Rama, Sita, Atman, Brahman, mantra,
Rama [121][123]

Upanishad century sannyasa

Kali-Santarana Rama,
~14th century Hare Rama Hare Krishna mantra [124]

Upanishad Krishna
Gopala Tapani before the 14th Krishna, Radha, Atman, Brahman,
Krishna [125]

Upanishad century mantra, bhakti

Krishna ~12th-16th Rama predicting Krishna birth,
Krishna [126]

Upanishad century symbolism, bhakti

Vasudeva Krishna, ~2nd Brahman, Atman, Vasudeva, [127]

Upanishad Vasudeva millennium Krishna, Urdhva Pundra, Yoga

Garuda The kite-like bird vahana (vehicle) of
Vishnu Medieval [128][129]

Upanishad Vishnu
medieval, after
Hayagriva Mahavakya of Principal Upanishads,
Hayagriva the 10th century [118][130]

Upanishad Pancaratra, Tantra

CE
Dattatreya Narayana, 14th to 15th Tantra, yoga, Brahman, Atman, [131]

Upanishad Dattatreya century Shaivism, Shaktism

Tarasara Rama, ~11th to 16th Om, Atman, Brahman, Narayana, [132]

Upanishad Narayana century Rama, Ramayana

Primordial nature,
Avyakta before the 7th
Narasimha cosmology, Ardhanarishvara, [115]

Upanishad century
Brahman, Atman
Nrisimha
before the 7th Atman, Brahman, Advaita, Shaivism,
Tapaniya Narasimha [133]

century CE Avatars of Vishnu, Om

Upanishad
Bhagavad Gita[edit]
The Bhagavad Gita is a central text in Vaishnavism, and especially in the context of
Krishna.[134][135][136] The Bhagavad Gita is an important scripture not only within
Vaishnavism, but also to other traditions of Hinduism. [137][138] It is one of three important
texts of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy, and has been central to all
Vaishnavism sampradayas.[137][139]
The Bhagavad Gita is a dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna, and presents Bhakti,
Jnana and Karma yoga as alternate ways to spiritual liberation, with the choice left to
the individual.[137] The text discusses dharma, and its pursuit as duty without craving
for fruits of one's actions, as a form of spiritual path to liberation. [140] The text, state
Clooney and Stewart, succinctly summarizes the foundations of Vaishnava theology
that the entire universe exists within Vishnu, and all aspects of life and living is not
only a divine order but divinity itself. [141] Bhakti, in Bhagavad Gita, is an act of sharing,
and a deeply personal awareness of spirituality within and without. [141]
The Bhagavad Gita is a summary of the classical Upanishads and Vedic philosophy,
and closely associated with the Bhagavata and related traditions of Vaishnavism. [142]
[143]
 The text has been commented upon and integrated into diverse Vaishnava
denominations, such as by the medieval era Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta school
and Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta school, as well as 20th century Vaishnava
movements such as the Hare Krishna movement by His Divine Grace A. C.
Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada.[144]
Vaishnava Agamas[edit]
The Pancaratra Samhitas (literally, five nights) is a genre of texts where Vishnu is
presented as Narayana and Vasudeva, and this genre of Vaishnava texts is also
known as the Vaishnava Agamas.[25][26] Its doctrines are found embedded in the stories
within the Narayaniya section of the Mahabharata.[145] Narayana is presented as the
ultimate unchanging truth and reality (Brahman), who pervades the entirety of the
universe and is asserted to be the preceptor of all religions. [145][146]
The Pancaratra texts present the Vyuhas theory of avatars to explain how the
absolute reality (Brahman) manifests into material form of ever changing reality
(Vishnu avatar).[145][147] Vasudeva, state the Pancaratra texts, goes through a series of
emanations, where new avatars of him appear. This theory of avatar formation
syncretically integrates the theories of evolution of matter and life developed by
the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy.[148][147] These texts also present cosmology,
methods of worship, tantra, Yoga and principles behind the design and building of
Vaishnava temples (Mandira nirmana).[148][149][150] These texts have guided religiosity and
temple ceremonies in many Vaishnava communities, particularly in South India. [148]
The Pancaratra Samhitas are tantric in emphasis, and at the foundation of tantric
Vaishnava traditions such as the Sri Vaishnava tradition. [151][152] They complement and
compete with the vedic Vaishnava traditions such as the Bhagavata tradition, which
emphasize the more ancient Vedic texts, ritual grammar and procedures. [151][150] While
the practices vary, the philosophy of Pancaratra is primarily derived from the
Upanishads, its ideas synthesize Vedic concepts and incorporate Vedic teachings. [153]
[154]

The three most studied texts of this genre of Vaishnava religious texts
are Paushkara Samhita, Sattvata Samhita and Jayakhya Samhita.[148][155] The other
important Pancaratra texts include the Lakshmi Tantra and Ahirbudhnya Samhita.[26]
[156]
 Scholars place the start of this genre of texts to about the 7th or 8th century CE,
and later.[148][157]
Other texts[edit]
Mahabharata and Ramayana[edit]
Main articles: Mahabharata and Ramayana
The two Indian epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana present Vaishnava
philosophy and culture embedded in legends and dialogues. [158] The epics are
considered the fifth Veda in Hindu culture. [159] The Ramayana describes the story
of Rama, an avatara of Vishnu, and is taken as a history of the 'ideal king', based on
the principles of dharma, morality and ethics.[160] Rama's wife Sita, his
brother Lakshman, with his devotee and follower Hanuman all play key roles within
the Vaishnava tradition as examples of Vaishnava etiquette and behaviour. Ravana,
the evil king and villain of the epic, is presented as an epitome of adharma, playing
the opposite role of how not to behave. [161]
The Mahabharata is centered around Krishna, presents him as the avatar of
transcendental supreme being.[162] The epic details the story of a war between good
and evil, each side represented by two families of cousins with wealth and power,
one depicted as driven by virtues and values while other by vice and deception, with
Krishna playing pivotal role in the drama.[163] The philosophical highlight of the work is
the Bhagavad Gita.[164][105]
Puranas[edit]
Main articles: Bhagavata Purana and Vishnu Purana

The Krishna stories have inspired numerous dramatic and dance arts in Indian culture. [165][166]

The Puranas are an important source of entertaining narratives and histories, states

Mahony, that are embedded with "philosophical, theological and mystical modes of
experience and expression" as well as reflective "moral and soteriological
instructions".[167]
More broadly, the Puranic literature is encyclopedic, [168][169] and it includes diverse
topics such as cosmogony, cosmology, genealogies of gods, goddesses, kings,
heroes, sages, and demigods, folk tales, travel guides and pilgrimages, [170] temples,
medicine, astronomy, grammar, mineralogy, humor, love stories, as well as theology
and philosophy.[171][172][173] The Puranas were a living genre of texts because they were
routinely revised,[174] their content is highly inconsistent across the Puranas, and each
Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves inconsistent. [175]
[176]
 The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of many authors over
the centuries.[175][176]
Of the 18 Mahapuranas (great Puranas), many have titles based on one of the
avatars of Vishnu. However, quite many of these are actually, in large part, Shiva-
related Puranas, likely because these texts were revised over their history. [177] Some
were revised into Vaishnava treatises, such as the Brahma Vaivarta Purana, which
originated as a Puranic text dedicated to the Surya (Sun god). Textual cross
referencing evidence suggests that in or after 15th/16th century CE, it went through
a series of major revisions, and almost all extant manuscripts of Brahma Vaivarta
Purana are now Vaishnava (Krishna) bhakti oriented. [178] Of the extant manuscripts,
the main Vaishnava Puranas are Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana, Nāradeya
Purana, Garuda Purana, Vayu Purana and Varaha Purana.[179] The Brahmanda
Purana is notable for the Adhyatma-ramayana, a Rama-focussed embedded text in
it, which philosophically attempts to synthesize Bhakti in god Rama
with Shaktism and Advaita Vedanta.[180][181][182] While an avatar of Vishnu is the main
focus of the Puranas of Vaishnavism, these texts also include chapters that revere
Shiva, Shakti (goddess power), Brahma and a pantheon of Hindu deities. [183][184][185]
The philosophy and teachings of the Vaishnava Puranas are bhakti oriented (often
Krishna, but Rama features in some), but they show an absence of a "narrow,
sectarian spirit". To its bhakti ideas, these texts show a synthesis
of Samkhya, Yoga and Advaita Vedanta ideas.[186][187][188]
In Gaudiya Vaishnava, Vallabha Sampradaya and Nimbarka sampradaya, Krishna is
believed to be a transcendent, Supreme Being and source of all avatars in the
Bhagavata Purana.[189] The text describes modes of loving devotion to Krishna,
wherein his devotees constantly think about him, feel grief and longing when Krishna
is called away on a heroic mission.[190]

Jiva Gosvami's Bhajan Kutir at Radha-kunda. Jiva Goswamis Sandarbhas summarize Vedic sources

of Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition's accretion of the concept Krishna to be the supreme Lord. [191]

Sectarian texts[edit]
In the Warkari movement the following scriptures are considered sacred in addition
to general body of the common writing:[citation needed]

 Dyaneshawri
 Tukaram-Gatha
 Sopandevi
 Namdev-Gatha
 Eknathi-Bhagwat
The Chaitanya movement has the following texts.

 Sad Sandarbhas
 Brahma Samhita
Attitude toward scriptures[edit]
Chaitanya Vaishnava traditions refer to the writings of previous acharyas in their
respective lineage or sampradya as authoritative interpretations of scripture.[192] While
many schools like Smartism and Advaitism encourage interpretation
of scriptures philosophically and metaphorically and not too literally, [193] Chaitanya
Vaishnavism stresses the literal meaning (mukhya vṛitti) as primary and indirect
meaning (gauṇa vṛitti) as secondary: sākṣhād upadesas tu shrutih - "The instructions
of the shruti-shāstra should be accepted literally, without fanciful or allegorical
interpretations."[192][194]

Practices[edit]
Bhakti[edit]
The Bhakti movement originated among Vaishnavas of South India during the 7th-
century CE,[195] spread northwards from Tamil Nadu
through Karnataka and Maharashtra towards the end of 13th-century,[196] and gained
wide acceptance by the fifteenth-century throughout India during an era of political
uncertainty and Hindu-Islam conflicts.[197][198][199]
The Alvars, which literally means "those immersed in God", were Vaishnava poet-
saints who sang praises of Vishnu as they travelled from one place to another.
[200]
 They established temple sites such as Srirangam, and spread ideas about
Vaishnavism. Their poems, compiled as Divya Prabhandham, developed into an
influential scripture for the Vaishnavas. The Bhagavata Purana's references to the
South Indian Alvar saints, along with its emphasis on bhakti, have led many scholars
to give it South Indian origins, though some scholars question whether this evidence
excludes the possibility that bhakti movement had parallel developments in other
parts of India.[201][202]
Vaishnava bhakti practices involve loving devotion to a Vishnu avatar (often
Krishna), an emotional connection, a longing and continuous feeling of presence.
[203]
 All aspects of life and living is not only a divine order but divinity itself in
Vaishnava bhakti.[141] Community practices such as singing songs together
(kirtan or bhajan ), praising or ecstatically celebrating the presence of god together,
usually inside temples, but sometimes in open public are part of varying Vaishnava
practices.[204] These help Vaishnavas socialize and form a community identity. [205]
Tilaka[edit]
Left: A Vaishnava Hindu with Tilaka (Urdhva Pundra).[206]
Right: A Shaiva Hindu with Tilaka (Tripundra)[207][208]

Vaishnavas mark their foreheads with tilaka made up of Chandana, either as a daily

ritual, or on special occasions. The different Vaishnava sampradayas each have
their own distinctive style of tilaka, which depicts the siddhanta of their particular
lineage. The general tilaka pattern is of a parabolic shape resembling the letter U or
two or more connected vertical lines on and another optional line on the nose
resembling the letter Y, which usually represents the foot of Vishnu and the centre
vertical line symbolizing his manhood. Alternate interpretations suggest that the
symbol is representation of male and female parts in union. [209][210]
Initiation[edit]

Nathdwara
Rameshwaram

Guruvayur

Dwarka

Ayodhya

Mathura

Vrindavan

Varanasi

Vaishno Devi

Pandharpur

Udupi

Tirupati

Srirangam

Badrinath

Jagannath

Mayapur

Major pilgrimage and temple sites in Vaishnavism. Orange markers are UNESCO world heritage sites.
In tantric traditions of Vaishnavism, during the initiation (diksha) given by
a guru under whom they are trained to understand Vaishnava practices, the initiates
accept Vishnu as supreme. At the time of initiation, the disciple is traditionally given a
specific mantra, which the disciple will repeat, either out loud or within the mind, as
an act of worship to Vishnu or one of his avatars. The practice of repetitive prayer is
known as japa.
In the Gaudiya Vaishnava group, one who performs an act of worship with the name
of Vishnu or Krishna can be considered a Vaishnava by practice, "Who chants the
holy name of Krishna just once may be considered a Vaishnava." [211]
Pilgrimage sites[edit]
Important sites of pilgrimage for Vaishnavas include Guruvayur
Temple, Srirangam, Kanchipuram, Vrindavan, Mathura, Ayodhya, Tirupati, Pandharp
ur (Vitthal), Puri (Jaggannath), Nira Narsingpur
(Narasimha), Mayapur, Nathdwara, Dwarka, Udipi (Karnataka), Shree Govindajee
Temple (Imphal), Govind Dev Ji Temple (Jaipur) and Muktinath.[212]
Gowda Saraswath Brahmins(mothertongue-Konkani/Marathi) temples at Goa,
[213]

Maharastra, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu all these temples belong to Kashi
Mutt Samsthan at Varanasi, Uttar Padesh. Lord Venkatramana is worshipped in
these Temples across the Konkan Coast named after these Brahmins who were
brought from North India to the South by Lord Parashuram.
Holy places[edit]
Main articles: Vrindavana and Goloka
Vrindavana is considered to be a holy place by several traditions of Krishnaism. It is
a center of Krishna worship and the area includes places
like Govardhana and Gokula associated with Krishna from time immemorial. Many
millions of bhaktas or devotees of Krishna visit these places of pilgrimage every year
and participate in a number of festivals that relate to the scenes from Krishna's life
on Earth.[29][note 3]
On the other hand, Goloka is considered the eternal abode of Krishna, Svayam
bhagavan according to some Vaishnava schools, including Gaudiya
Vaishnavism and the Swaminarayan Sampradaya. The scriptural basis for this is
taken in Brahma Samhita and Bhagavata Purana.[214]

Traditions[edit]
Four sampradayas and other traditions[edit]
The Vaishnavism traditions may be grouped within four sampradayas, each
exemplified by a specific Vedic personality. They have been associated with a
specific founder, providing the following scheme: Sri Sampradaya (Ramanuja),
Brahma Sampradaya (Madhvacharya), Rudra Sampradaya
(Vishnuswami, Vallabhacharya),[215] Kumaras Sampradaya (Nimbarka).[216][note 4] These
four sampradayas emerged in early centuries of the 2nd millennium CE, by the 14th
century, influencing and sanctioning the Bhakti movement.[57]
The philosophical systems of Vaishnava sampradayas range from
qualified monistic Vishishtadvaita of Ramanuja, to theistic Dvaita of Madhvacharya,
to pure nondualistic Shuddhadvaita of Vallabhacharya. They all revere an avatar of
Vishnu, but have varying theories on the relationship between the soul (jiva)
and Brahman,[167][219] on the nature of changing and unchanging reality, methods of
worship, as well as on spiritual liberation for the householder stage of life
versus sannyasa (renunciation) stage.[21][22]
Beyond the four major sampradayas, the situation is more complicated, [220] with the
Vaikhanasas being much older[221] than those four sampradayas, and a number of
additional traditions and sects which originated later, [222] or aligned themselves with
one of those four sampradayas.[217] Krishna sampradayas continued to be founded
late into late medieval and during the Mughal Empire era, such as
the Radhavallabha, Haridasi, Gaudiya and others.[223]
List[edit]

TABLE OF VAISHNAVA TRADITIONS

Main
Samp theologi
Philosop Founde Foun (Sub)scho
raday cal (Sub)schools Worship
hy r ded ol-founder
a precept
or

1st
Vāsudeva,
mille
Bhagavatism (V Bala
nniu unknown
asudevism)[1][86] Krishna, Gopala-
m
Krishna
BCE

Histori
cal 3rd
traditi centu Sage Nara
Pancharatra[224] Vishnu
ons ry yana
BCE

4th Sage
Vaikhanasa centu Vaikhanas Vishnu
ry CE a

Pillai
12th- Lokachary
Natham Iyengar Thenkal 14th a
Vishnu + Lakshmi
Vishishta uni (10t ai centu Manavala
Sri dvaita h ry Mamuniga
Sampr Laksmi ("qualifie century) l
adaya d [225]

monism") Ramanu
jacharya 14th
Iyengar Vadaka Vedanta
centu Vishnu + Lakshmi
lai Desika
ry
 13th-
Dvaita (" Madhva 14th
Haridasa Unknown Lord Hari
dualism") charya centu
ry

Achintya
Bheda
Brahm
Abheda
a Gaudiya 16th Chaitanya
Brahma ("differen
Sampr Vaishnavism[note centu Mahaprabh Radha Krishna
ce and
adaya 5]
ry u
non-
differenc
e")

Achintya Prabhu
Mahanam
Bheda 1890s Jagadband Radha Krishna
Sampradaya
Abheda hu

c. Vallabhach Radha
Pushtimarg
1500 arya Krishna, Shrinathji
Shuddha
Rudra dvaita Vishnus
Sampr Shiva ("pure wami[note
adaya nondualis 6] Charan
18th
m") Das a
Charan Dasi centu Radha Krishna
Dhusar of
ry[227]
Dehra

7th or
Kumar Dvaitadv
Four 12th–
a aita Nimbark
Kumara 13th Radha Krishna
Sampr ("duality acharya
s Narada centu
adaya in unity")
ry

Sant ( Dnyanesh
13th
Sant Warkari war
centu Vithoba (Krishna)
Mat) Sampradaya (Jñāneśvar
ry
traditi )[note 7]
ons

14th
Ramanandi Ramanand
centu Rama
Sampradaya a
ry

Kabir panth[1][229] 15th Kabir, a Vishnu, Narayana, 

centu disciple of Govinda,[230] Rama
ry Ramanand
 a

16th–
17th Dadu
Dadu panth[1] non-sectarian
centu Dayal
ry

Other Odia Vaishnavi Early

traditi sm Midd
Jagannath
ons (Jagannathism) le
[18]
Ages

12-
Mahanubhava 13th Chakradha
Pancha-Krishna
Sampradaya centu ra
ry

Vaishnava- 15th
Vidyapati, 
Sahajiya centu Radha Krishna
Chandidas
(tantric) ry

16th Srimanta
Ekasarana
centu Sankardev Krishna
Dharma
ry a

Hith
16th
Harivansh Radha, Radha
Radha-vallabha centu
Mahaprabh Krishna
ry
u

17th
Pranami Devchandr
centu Krishna
Sampradaya a Maharaj
ry

Swaminarayan,
Swaminarayan Swaminara
1801 Radha
Sampradaya yan
Krishna, Lakshmi
Narayan

Ram
Ramsnehi
1817 Charan (in Rama
Sampradaya
spirator)
Kapadi Rama
 Sampradaya
Sage Valm
Balmikism Rama, Valmiki
iki

Early traditions[edit]
Bhagavats[edit]
The Bhagavats were the early worshippers of Krishna, the followers of Bhagavat, the
Lord, in the person of Krishna, Vasudeva, Vishnu or Bhagavan.[231] The
term bhagavata may have denoted a general religious tradition or attitude of theistic
worship which prevailed until the 11th century, and not a specific sect, [221][232] and is
best known as a designation for Vishnu-devotees. [232] The earliest scriptural evidence
of Vaishnava bhagavats is an inscription from 115 BCE, in which Heliodoros,
ambassador of the Greco-Bactrian king Amtalikita, says that he is a bhagavata of
Vasudeva.[233] It was supported by the Guptas, suggesting a widespread appeal, in
contrast to specific sects.[231]

Heliodorus pillar

Heliodorus pillar in Vidisha, India.

Period/culture late 2nd century BCE

Place Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh, India.

Present location Vidisha, India

 Heliodorus pillar

Pancaratra[edit]
Main articles: Pancaratra and Narayana
The Pāñcarātra is the tradition of Narayana-worship. [145] The term pāñcarātra means
"five nights," from pañca, "five,"and rātra, "nights,"[234][145] and may be derived from the
"five night sacrifice" as described in the Satapatha Brahmana, which narrates how
Purusa-Narayana intends to become the highest being by performing a sacrifice
which lasts five nights.[145]
The Narayaniya section of the Mahabharata describes the ideas of the Pāñcarātras.
[145]
 Characteristic is the description of the manifestation of the Absolute through a
series of manifestations, from the vyuha manifestations of Vasudeva and pure
creation, through the tattvas of mixed creation into impure or material creation. [25]
The Pāñcarātra Samhitas developed from the 7th or 8th century onward, and
belongs to Agamic or Tantras,[235][148] setting them at odds with vedic orthodoxy.
[151]
 Vishnu worshipers in south India still follow the system of Pancharatra worship as
described in these texts.[148]
Although the Pāñcarātra originated in north India, it had a strong influence on south
India, where it is closely related with the Sri Vaishnava tradition. According to
Welbon, "Pāñcarātra cosmological and ritual theory and practice combine with the
unique vernacular devotional poetry of the Alvars, and Ramanuja, founder of the Sri
Vaishnava tradition, propagated Pāñcarātra ideas."[236] Ramananda was also
influenced by Pāñcarātra ideas through the influence of Sri Vaishnavism,
whereby Pāñcarātra re-entered north India.[236]
Vaikhanasas[edit]
Main article: Vaikhanasas
The Vaikhanasas are associated with the Pāñcarātra, but regard themselves as a
Vedic orthodox sect.[221][237] Modern Vaikhanasas reject elements of
the Pāñcarātra and Sri Vaishnava tradition, but the historical relationship with the
orthodox Vaikhanasa in south India is unclear.[citation needed] The Vaikhanasas may have
resisted the incorporation of the devotic elements of the Alvar tradition, while
the Pāñcarātras were open to this incorporation.[236]
Vaikhanasas have their own foundational text, the Vaikhanasasmarta Sutra, which
describes a mixture of Vedic and non-Vedic ritual worship. [221] The Vaikhanasas
became chief priests in a lot of south Indian temples, where they still remain
influential.[221]
Early medieval traditions[edit]
Smartism[edit]
Main article: Smarta Tradition
The Smarta tradition developed during the (early) Classical Period of Hinduism
around the beginning of the Common Era, when Hinduism emerged from the
interaction between Brahmanism and local traditions. [238][239] According to Flood,
Smartism developed and expanded with the Puranas genre of literature.[240] By the
time of Adi Shankara,[238] it had developed the pancayatanapuja, the worship of five
shrines with five deities, all treated as equal,
namely Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesha, Surya and Devi (Shakti),[240] "as a solution to varied
and conflicting devotional practices."[238]
Traditionally, Sri Adi Shankaracharya (8th century) is regarded as the greatest
teacher and reformer of the Smarta.[241][242] According to Hiltebeitel, Adi Shankara
Acharya established the nondualist interpretation of the Upanishads as the
touchstone of a revived smarta tradition.[238][note 8]
Alvars[edit]

Nammalvar

Main article: Alvars
The Alvars, "those immersed in god," were twelve [198] Tamil poet-saints of South
India who espoused bhakti (devotion) to the Hindu god Vishnu or
his avatar Krishna in their songs of longing, ecstasy and service.[243] The Alvars
appeared between the 5th century to the 10th century CE, though the Vaishnava
tradition regards the Alvars to have lived between 4200 BCE - 2700 BCE.
The devotional writings of Alvars, composed during the early medieval period
of Tamil history, are key texts in the bhakti movement. They praised the Divya
Desams, 108 "abodes" (temples) of the Vaishnava deities. [244] The collection of their
hymns is known as Divya Prabandha. Their Bhakti-poems has contributed to the
establishment and sustenance of a culture that opposed the ritual-oriented Vedic
religion and rooted itself in devotion as the only path for salvation. [245]
Contemporary traditions[edit]
Gavin Flood mentions five most important contemporary Vaisnava orders. [222]
Sri Vaishnava[edit]
Main article: Sri Vaishnavism
The Sri Vaishnava community consists of both Brahmans and non-Brahmans. [246] It
existed along with a larger purana-based Brahamanic worshippers of Vishnu, and
non-Brahmanic groups who worshipped and felt possessed by non-Vishnu village
deities.[246] The Sri Vaishnavism movement grew with its social inclusiveness, where
emotional devotionalism to personal god (Vishnu) has been open without limitation to
gender or caste.[61][note 9]
The most striking difference between Srivaishnavas and other Vaishnava groups lies
in their interpretation of Vedas. While other Vaishnava groups interpret Vedic deities
like Indra, Savitar, Bhaga, Rudra, etc. to be same as their Puranic counterparts,
Srivaishnavas consider these to be different names/roles/forms of Lord Narayan
citing solid reasons thus claiming that the entire Veda is dedicated for Vishnu
worship alone. Srivaishnavas have remodelled Pancharatra homas like Sudarshana
homa, etc. to include Vedic Suktas like Rudram in them, thus giving them a Vedic
outlook.
Sri Vaishnavism developed in Tamil Nadu in the 10th century. [248] It incorporated two
different traditions, namely the tantric Pancaratra tradition and the puranic Vishnu
worship of northern India with their abstract Vedantic theology, and the southern
bhakti tradition of the Alvars of Tamil Nadu with their personal devotion. [248][61] The
tradition was founded by Nathamuni (10th century), who along with Yamunacharya,
combined the two traditions and gave the tradition legitimacy by drawing on the
Alvars.[225] Its most influential leader was Ramanuja (1017-1137), who developed
the Visistadvaita ("qualified non-dualism") philosophy. [249] Ramanuja challenged the
then dominant Advaita Vedanta interpretation of the Upanishads and Vedas, by
formulating the Vishishtadvaita philosophy foundations for Sri Vaishnavism from
Vedanta.[61]
Sri Vaishnava includes the ritual and temple life in the tantra traditions of Pancaratra,
emotional devotionalism to Vishnu, contemplative form bhakti, in the context of
householder social and religious duties.[61] The tantric rituals, refers to techniques and
texts recited during worship, and these include Sanskrit and Tamil texts in South
Indian Sri Vaishnava tradition.[250] According to Sri Vaishnavism theology, moksha can
be reached by devotion and service to the Lord and detachment from the world.
When moksha is reached, the cycle of reincarnation is broken and the soul is united
with Vishnu after death, though maintaining their distinctions, in vaikuntha, Vishnu's
heaven.[251] Moksha can also be reached by total surrender and saranagati, an act of
grace by the Lord.[252] Ramanuja's Sri Vaishnavism subscribes
to videhamukti (liberation in afterlife), in contrast to jivanmukti (liberation in this life)
found in other traditions within Hinduism, such as the Smarta and Shaiva traditions.
[253]

Two hundred years after Ramanuja, the Sri Vaishnava tradition split into
the Vadakalai ("northern culture") and Tenkalai ("southern culture").
The Vatakalai relied stronger on the Sanskrit scriptures, and emphasized bhakti by
devotion to temple-icons, while the Tenkalai relied more on the Tamil heritage and
total surrender.[252]
Gaudiya Vaishnavism[edit]
Main article: Gaudiya Vaishnavism
See also: Manipuri Vaishnavism
Gaudiya Vaishnavism, also known as Chaitanya Vaishnavism [254] and Hare Krishna,
was founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1533) in India. "Gaudiya" refers to
the Gauḍa region (present day Bengal/Bangladesh) with Vaishnavism meaning "the
worship of Vishnu or Krishna". Its philosophical basis is primarily that of
the Bhagavad Gita and Bhagavata Purana.
The focus of Gaudiya Vaishnavism is the devotional worship (bhakti)
of Radha and Krishna, and their many divine incarnations as the supreme forms
of God, Svayam Bhagavan. Most popularly, this worship takes the form of singing
Radha and Krishna's holy names, such as "Hare", "Krishna" and "Rama", most
commonly in the form of the Hare Krishna (mantra), also known as kirtan. It sees the
many forms of Vishnu or Krishna as expansions or incarnations of the one Supreme
God, adipurusha.
After its decline in the 18-19th century, it was revived in the beginning of the 20th
century due to the efforts of Bhaktivinoda Thakur. His son Srila Bhaktisiddhanta
Sarasvati Thakura founded sixty-four Gaudiya Matha monasteries in India, Burma
and Europe.[255] Thakura's disciple Srila Prabhupada went to the west and spread
Gaudiya Vaishnavism by the International Society for Krishna
Consciousness (ISKCON).
The Manipuri Vaishnavism is a regional variant of Gaudiya Vaishnavism with a
culture-forming role among the Meitei people in the north-eastern Indian state
of Manipur.[256] There, after a short period of Ramaism penetration, Gaudiya
Vaishnavism spread in the early 18th century, especially from beginning its second
quarter. Raja Gharib Nawaz (Pamheiba) was initiated into the Chaitanya tradition.
Most devotee ruler and propagandist of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, under the influence
of Natottama Thakura's disciples, was raja Bhagyachandra, who has visited the holy
for the Chaytanyaits Nabadwip.[257]
Warkari tradition[edit]
Main article: Warkari
The Warkari sampradaya is a non-Brahamanical[258][259] bhakti tradition which
worships Vithoba, also known as Vitthal, who is regarded as a form of
Krishna/Vishnu. Vithoba is often depicted as a dark young boy, standing arms
akimbo on a brick, sometimes accompanied by his main consort Rakhumai (a
regional name of Krishna's wife Rukmini). The Warkari-tradition is geographically
associated with the Indian state of Maharashtra.[260]
The Warkari movement includes a duty-based approach towards life, emphasizing
moral behavior and strict avoidance of alcohol and tobacco, the adoption of a
strict lacto-vegetarian diet and fasting on Ekadashi day (twice a month), self-restraint
(brahmacharya) during student life, equality and humanity for all rejecting
discrimination based on the caste system or wealth, the reading of Hindu texts, the
recitation of the Haripath every day and the regular practice of bhajan and kirtan.
The most important festivals of Vithoba are held on the eleventh (ekadashi) day of
the lunar months" Shayani Ekadashi in the month of Ashadha, and Prabodhini
Ekadashi in the month of Kartik.[260]
The Warkari poet-saints are known for their devotional lyrics, the abhang, dedicated
to Vithoba and composed in Marathi. Other devotional literature includes the
Kannada hymns of the Haridasa, and Marathi versions of the generic aarti songs
associated with rituals of offering light to the deity. Notable saints and gurus of the
Warkaris include Jñāneśvar, Namdev, Chokhamela, Eknath, and Tukaram, all of
whom are accorded the title of Sant.
Though the origins of both his cult and his main temple are debated, there is clear
evidence that they already existed by the 13th century. Various Indologists have
proposed a prehistory for Vithoba worship where he was previously a hero stone, a
pastoral deity, a manifestation of Shiva, a Jain saint, or even all of these at various
times for various devotees.
Ramanandi tradition[edit]
Main articles: Ramananda and Ramanandi Sampradaya
The Ramanandi Sampradaya, also known as the Ramayats or the Ramavats, [261] is
one of the largest and most egalitarian Hindu sects India, around the Ganges Plain,
and Nepal today.[262] It mainly emphasizes the worship of Rama,[261] as well
as Vishnu directly and other incarnations.[263] Most Ramanandis consider themselves
to be the followers of Ramananda, a Vaishnava saint in medieval India.
[264]
 Philosophically, they are in the Vishishtadvaita (IAST Viśiṣṭādvaita) tradition.[261]
Its ascetic wing constitutes the largest Vaishnava monastic order and may possibly
be the largest monastic order in all of India.[265] Rāmānandī ascetics rely upon
meditation and strict ascetic practices, but also believe that the grace of god is
required for them to achieve liberation.
Northern Sant tradition[edit]
Main articles: Sant Mat, Kabir panth, and Dadu Dayal
Kabir was a 15th-century Indian mystic poet and sant, whose writings influenced
the Bhakti movement, but whose verses are also found in Sikhism's scripture Adi
Granth.[229][266][267] His early life was in a Muslim family, but he was strongly influenced by
his teacher, the Hindu bhakti leader Ramananda, he becomes a Vaishnavite with
universalist leanings. His followers formed the Kabir panth.[229][1][268][266][269]
Dadu Dayal (1544—1603) was a poet-sant from Gujarat, a religious reformer who
spoke against formalism and priestcraft. A group of his followers near Jaipur,
Rajasthan, forming a Vaishnavite denomination that became known as the Dadu
Panth.[1][270]
Minor traditions[edit]
Odia Vaishnavism[edit]
See also: Jagannath
The Odia Vaishnavism (a.k.a. Jagannathism)—the particular cult of the
god Jagannath (lit. ''Lord of the Universe'') as the supreme deity, an abstract form of
Krishna, the Purushottama, and Para Brahman—was origined in the Early Middle
Ages.[271] Jagannathism was a regional state temple-centered version of Krishnaism,
[272]
 but can also be regarded as a non-sectarian syncretic Vaishnavite and all-Hindu
cult.[273] The notable Jagannath temple in Puri, Odisha became particularly significant
within the tradition since about 800 CE. [274]
Mahanubhava Sampradaya[edit]
Main article: Mahanubhava
The Mahanubhava Sampradaya/Pantha founded in Maharashtra during the period of
12-13th century. Sarvajna Chakradhar Swami a Gujarati acharya was the main
propagator of this Sampradaya. The Mahanubhavas venere Pancha-Krishna ("five
Krishnas"). Mahanubhava Pantha played essential role in the growth
of Marathi literature.[275]
Sahajiya and Baul tradition[edit]
Main articles: Vaishnava-Sahajiya and Baul
Since 15th century in Bengal and Assam flourished Tantric Vaishnava-Sahajiya
inspired by Bengali poet Chandidas, as well as related to it Baul groups, where
Krishna is the inner divine aspect of man and Radha is the aspect of woman. [276]
Ekasarana Dharma[edit]
Main article: Ekasarana Dharma
The Ekasarana Dharma was propagated by Srimanta Sankardev in
the Assam region of India.It considers Krishna as the only God.[277] Satras are
institutional centers associated with the Ekasarana dharma. [278][279]
Radha-vallabha Sampradaya[edit]
Main article: Radha-vallabha
The Radha-centered Radha-vallabha Sampradaya founded by the Mathura bhakti
poet-saint Hith Harivansh Mahaprabhu in the 16th century occupies a unique
position among other traditions. In its theology, Radha is worshiped as the supreme
deity, and Krishna is in a subordinate position. [280]
Pranami Sampradaya[edit]
Main articles: Pranami and Pranami Sampraday
The Pranami Sampradaya (Pranami Panth) emerged in the 17th century in Gujarat,
based on the Radha-Krishna-focussed syncretic Hindu-Islamic teachings of
Devchandra Maharaj and his famous successor, Mahamati Prannath. [281]
Swaminarayan Sampradaya[edit]
Main article: Swaminarayan Sampradaya
The Swaminarayan Sampradaya was founded in 1801 in Gujarat by Sahajanand
Swami from Uttar Pradesh, who is worshipped as Swaminarayan, the supreme
manifestation of God, by his followers. The first temple built in Ahmedabad in 1822.
[282]

Vaishnavism versus other Hindu traditions[edit]

The Vaishnavism sampradayas subscribe to various philosophies, are similar in
some aspects and differ in others. When compared with Shaivism, Shaktism and
Smartism, a similar range of similarities and differences emerge. [283]
 Comparison of Vaishnavism with other traditions

Shakta Smarta
Vaishnava Refere
Shaiva Traditions Traditio Traditi
Traditions nces
ns ons

Vedas and
Scriptural Vedas and
Vedas and Upanishads Vedas and Upanishads Upanishad [78][106]

authority Upanishads
s

Vishnu Devi
Supreme as Mahavishnu or Shiva as Parashiva , as Adi None [283][284]

deity Krishna [citation needed]

Parashakti ,
as Vishwarupa[citation needed] [citation needed]

Brahman
Creator Vishnu Shiva Devi [283][285]

principle

Avatar Key concept Minor Significant Minor [78][286][287]

Recomme
Monastic life Accepts Recommends Accepts [78][288][289]

nds

Rituals, Bha Optional, Varies[290][291] Optional[293

Affirms Affirms [294]

kti [292] ]

Ahimsa and Affirms (Recommends Recomme

Recommends,[290] Opti
Vegetarianis and optional Optional nds, [295][296]

onal
m in Ekasarana Dharma) Optional

Free
will, Maya,  Affirms Affirms Affirms Affirms [283]

Karma

Brahman
Brahman (Vishnu) Brahman (Shiva), Brahman,
Metaphysics (Devi), [283]

and Atman (Soul, Self) Atman Atman

Atman

[298][299][300]
Epistemolog 1. Perception 1. Perception 1. 1.
y 2. Inference 2. Inference Perception Perception
 Comparison of Vaishnavism with other traditions

Shakta Smarta
Vaishnava Refere
Shaiva Traditions Traditio Traditi
Traditions nces
ns ons

2.
Inference
3.
Compariso
n and
analogy
2. 4.
3. Reliable testimony Inference Postulatio
(Pramana) 3. Reliable testimony
4. Self-evident[297] 3. Reliable n,
testimony derivation
5.
Negative/
cognitive
proof
6. Reliable
testimony

Vishishtadvaita (qualifi
ed Non
dualism), Dvaita (Duali
sm),
Shuddhadvaita (Pure
Non
Philosophy Dualism), Dvaitadvaita  Dvaita, Vishishtadvait Shakti-
Advaita [301][302]

(Darshanam) (Dualistic Non a, Advaita Advaita

Dualism),
Advaita (Non
Dualism), Achintya
Bhedabheda (Non
Dualistic
Indifferentiation)

Jivanmukt
a,
Jivanmukta, Shiva is
Videhamukti, Yoga, Bhakti, Advaita, Y
Salvation soul, Yoga,
champions householder Tantra, Yo oga, [253][303]

(Soteriology) champions monastic

life ga champions
life
monastic
life

Demography[edit]
There is no data available on demographic history or trends for Vaishnavism or other
traditions within Hinduism.[304] Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in
Vaishnavism compared to other traditions of Hinduism. Website Adherents.com
gives numbers as of year 1999.[305] Klaus Klostermaier and other scholars estimate
Vaishnavism to be the largest.[306][307] According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and
Grim, the Vaishnavism tradition is the largest group with about 641 million or 67.6%
of Hindus.[308] In contrast, Jones and Ryan estimate Vaishnavism to have perhaps 200
million followers, and it being the second largest tradition of Hinduism after Shaivism.
[105]
 The denominations of Hinduism, states Julius Lipner, are unlike those found in
major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy, individuals
revere gods and goddesses polycentrically, with many Vaishnava adherents
recognizing Sri (Lakshmi), Shiva, Parvati and others reverentially on festivals and
other occasions. Similarly, Shaiva, Shakta and Smarta Hindus revere Vishnu. [309][310]
Vaishnavism is one of the major traditions within Hinduism. [311] Large Vaishnava
communities exist throughout India, and particularly in Western Indian states, such
as western Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Gujarat and
Southwestern Uttar Pradesh .[212][213] Other major regions of Vaishnava presence,
particularly after the 15th century, are Odisha, Bengal and northeastern India
(Assam, Manipur).[312] Dvaita school Vaishnava have flourished in Karnataka where
Madhavacharya established temples and monasteries, and in neighboring states,
particularly the Pandharpur region.[313] Substantial presence also exists
in Tripura and Punjab[314]
Krishnaism has a limited following outside of India, especially associated with 1960s
counter-culture, including a number of celebrity followers, such as George Harrison,
due to its promulgation throughout the world by the founder-acharya of
the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) A.C. Bhaktivedanta
Swami Prabhupada.[315][316][317]

Academic study[edit]
Vaishnava theology has been a subject of study and debate for many devotees,
philosophers and scholars within India for centuries. Vaishnavism has its own
academic wing in University of Madras - Department of Vaishnavism.[318] In recent
decades this study has also been pursued in a number of academic institutions in
Europe, such as the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies, Bhaktivedanta College, and
Syanandura Vaishnava Sabha, a moderate and progressive Vaishnava body headed
by Gautham Padmanabhan in Trivandrum which intends to bring about a single and
precise book called Hari-grantha to include all Vaishnava philosophies.

Mantras[edit]
 Dwadashaakshara Mantra
 Hare Krishna (mantra)
 Om Namo Bhagavate Vasudevaya

See also[edit]
 Hindu denominations
 Divya Prabhandham
 Nanaghat Inscription – a 1st-century BCE Vaishnava inscription
 Vasu Doorjamb Inscription – a 1st-century CE inscription from Vaishnava
temple

Explanatory notes[edit]
1. ^ Jump up to:a b Klostermaier: "Present day Krishna worship is an amalgam of various
elements. According to historical testimonies Krishna-Vasudeva worship already flourished in and
around Mathuraseveral centuries before Christ. Next came the sect of Krishna Govinda. Later the
worship of Bala-Krishna, the Divine Child Krishna was added - a quite prominent feature of
modern Krishnaism. The last element seems to have been Krishna Gopijanavallabha, Krishna the
lover of the Gopis, among whom Radha occupies a special position. In some books Krishna is
presented as the founder and first teacher of the Bhagavata religion." [29]
2. ^ Friedhelm Hardy in his "Viraha-bhakti" analyses the history of Krishnaism, specifically all
pre-11th-century sources starting with the stories of Krishna and the gopi, and Mayon mysticism
of the Vaishnava Tamil saints, Sangam Tamil literature and Alvars' Krishna-centered devotion in
the rasa of the emotional union and the dating and history of the Bhagavata Purana.[40][41]
3. ^ Klostermaier: "Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana, certainly the most popular
religious books in the whole of India. Not only was Krsnaism influenced by the identification of
Krsna with Vishnu, but also Vaishnavism as a whole was partly transformed and reinvented in the
light of the popular and powerful Krishna religion. Bhagavatism may have brought an element of
cosmic religion into Krishna worship; Krishna has certainly brought a strongly human element into
Bhagavatism [...] The center of Krishna-worship has been for a long time Brajbhumi, the district
of Mathura that embraces also Vrindavana, Govardhana, and Gokula, associated with Krishna
from time immemorial. Many millions of Krishna bhaktas visit these places ever year and
participate in the numerous festivals that reenact scenes from Krshna's life on Earth." [29]
4. ^ (a) Steven Rosen and William Deadwyler III: "the word sampradaya literally means 'a
community'."[217]
(b) Federico Squarcini traces the semantic history of the word sampradaya, calling it a tradition,
and adds, "Besides its employment in the ancient Buddhist literature, the term sampradaya
circulated widely in Brahamanic circles, as it became the most common word designating a
specific religious tradition or denomination". [218]
5. ^ Based on a list of gurus found in Baladeva Vidyabhusana's Govinda-
bhasya and Prameya-ratnavali, ISKCON situates Gaudiya Vaishnavism within the Brahma
sampradaya, calling it Brahma-Madhva-Gaudiya Vaisnava Sampradaya.[217]
6. ^ Stephen Knapp: "Actually there is some confusion about him, as it seems there have
been three Vishnu Svamis: Adi Vishnu Svami (around the 3rd century BCE, who introduced the
traditional 108 categories of sannyasa), Raja Gopala Vishnu Svami (8th or 9th century CE), and
Andhra Vishnu Svami (14th century)." [226]
7. ^ Gavin Flood notes that Jñāneśvar is sometimes regarded as the founder of the Warkari
sect, but that Vithoba-worship predates him. [228]
8. ^ Hiltebeitel: "Practically, Adi Shankara Acharya fostered a rapprochement between
Advaita and smarta orthodoxy, which by his time had not only continued to defend
the varnasramadharmatheory as defining the path of karman, but had developed the practice
of pancayatanapuja ("five-shrine worship") as a solution to varied and conflicting devotional
practices. Thus one could worship any one of five deities (Vishnu, Siva, Durga, Surya, Ganesa) as
one's istadevata ("deity of choice")."[238]
9. ^ Vishnu is regionally called by other names, such as Ranganatha at Srirangam temple in
Tamil Nadu.[247]

Citations[edit]
1. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Dandekar 1987.
2. ^ Johnson, Todd M; Grim, Brian J (2013).  The World's Religions in Figures: An
Introduction to International Religious Demography. John Wiley & Sons. p.  400. ISBN 978-1-118-
32303-8.
3. ^ Pratapaditya Pal (1986). Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 BCE–700 CE. University of
California Press. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-0-520-05991-7.
4. ^ Stephan Schuhmacher (1994).  The Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion:
Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, Zen. Shambhala. p. 397.  ISBN  978-0-87773-980-7.
5. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Hardy 1987.
6. ^ Jump up to:a b Flood 1996, p. 117.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Dalal 2010, pp. 54–55.
8. ^ Jump up to:a b G. Widengren (1997). Historia Religionum: Handbook for the History of
Religions - Religions of the Present. Boston: Brill Academic Publishers. p.  270. ISBN 978-90-04-
02598-1.
9. ^ Jump up to:a b c Benjamín Preciado-Solís (1984). The Kṛṣṇa Cycle in the Purāṇas: Themes
and Motifs in a Heroic Saga. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 1–16.  ISBN  978-0-89581-226-1.
10. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k Dandekar 1987, p. 9499.
11. ^ Jump up to:a b c d "Vaishnava". philtar.ucsm.ac.uk. Archived from  the original on 5 February
2012. Retrieved  22 May  2008.
12. ^ Jump up to:a b Flood 1996, p. 120.
13. ^ Eliade, Mircea; Adams, Charles J. (1987). The Encyclopedia of religion. Macmillan.
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14. ^ Jump up to:a b Gonda 1993, p. 163.
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36. ^ "The origin of Vaiṣṇavism as a theistic sect can by no means be traced back to the
Ṛgvedic god Viṣṇu. In fact, Vaiṣṇavism is in no sense Vedic in origin. (...) Strangely, the available
evidence shows that the worship of Vāsudeva, and not that of Viṣṇu, marks the beginning of what
we today understand by Vaiṣṇavism. This Vāsudevism, which represents the earliest known
phase of Vaiṣṇavism, must already have become stabilized in the days of Pāṇini (sixth to fifth
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37. ^ Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar; Ramchandra Narayan Dandekar (1976). Ramakrishna
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88. ^ Geoffrey Parrinder (1996).  Sexual Morality in the World's Religion. Oneword. pp.  9–
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41078-2, pp. 1–11 and Preface
105. ^ Jump up to:a b c Constance Jones; James D. Ryan (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism.
Infobase. p. 474.  ISBN  978-0-8160-7564-5.
106. ^ Jump up to:a b c Mariasusai Dhavamony (1999). Hindu Spirituality. Gregorian Press. pp. 32–
34.  ISBN  978-88-7652-818-7.
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115.  ISBN  978-0-253-21358-7.
108. ^ Fowler 2002, pp. 288–309.
109. ^ Sanjukta Gupta (2013). Advaita Vedanta and Vaisnavism: The Philosophy of
Madhusudana Sarasvati. Routledge. pp. 1–12.  ISBN  978-1-134-15774-7.
110. ^ Deussen, Paul (1997). Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1. Motilal Banarsidass.
p. 264.  ISBN  978-81-208-1467-7.; Note: This hymn appears in Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa as well.
111. ^ Sanskrit original: Quote: दानं यज्ञानां वरूथं दक्षिणा लोके दातार | सर्वभूतान्युपजीवन्ति दानेनारातीरपानुदन्त दानेन | द्विषन्तो मित्रा
भवन्ति दाने सर्वं प्रतिष्ठितं तस्माद्दानं परमं वदन्ति ॥ ६॥; Source: Hattangadi, Sunder (1999).  "महानारायणोपनिषत्
(Mahanarayana Upanishad)"  (PDF)(in Sanskrit). Retrieved 23 January  2016.
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3650-0, pp. 60–88
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19-283576-5.
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118. ^ Jump up to:a b Ayyangar, TRS (1941). The Vaisnavopanisads. Jain Publishing Co. (Reprint
2006). ISBN 978-0-89581-986-4.
119. ^ Jump up to:a b Srinivasan, Doris (1997). Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes. BRILL Academic.
pp.  112–120.  ISBN  978-90-04-10758-8.
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Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1469-1 (2010 Reprint), pp. 803–805
121. ^ Jump up to:a b Lamb, Ramdas (2002).  Rapt in the Name. SUNY Press. pp.  191–
193.  ISBN  978-0-7914-5386-5.
122. ^ Catherine Ludvik (1994). Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the
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123. ^ Deussen, Paul (1997). Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2.  Motilal Banarsidass
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125. ^ B. V. Tripurari (2004). Gopala-tapani Upanisad. Audarya. pp.  xi–xiii, 3–11. ISBN 978-1-
932771-12-1.
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131. ^ Rigopoulos, Antonio (1998).  Dattatreya: The Immortal Guru, Yogin, and Avatara: A
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134. ^ James Mulhern (1959) A History of Education: A Social Interpretation p. 93
135. ^ Franklin Edgerton (1925) The Bhagavad Gita: Or, Song of the Blessed One, India's
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136. ^ Charlotte Vaudeville has said, it is the 'real Bible of Krsnaism'. Quoted in: Matchett,
2000
137. ^ Jump up to:a b c Flood 1996, pp. 124–128.
138. ^ Richard H. Davis (2014).  The "Bhagavad Gita": A Biography. Princeton University
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139. ^ E. Allen Richardson (2014).  Seeing Krishna in America: The Hindu Bhakti Tradition of
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146. ^ Guy L. Beck (1995).  Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound. Motilal Banarsidass.
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147. ^ Jump up to:a b F Otto Schrader (1973). Introduction to the Pāñcarātra and the Ahirbudhnya
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148. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g Flood 1996, p. 122.
149. ^ F Otto Schrader (1973). Introduction to the Pāñcarātra and the Ahirbudhnya Saṃhitā.
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150. ^ Jump up to:a b Dennis Hudson (2012). Katherine Anne Harper; Robert L Brown (eds.).  The
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154. ^ S. M. Srinivasa Chari (1994).  Vaiṣṇavism: Its Philosophy, Theology, and Religious
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155. ^ H Daniel Smith (1972), The three gems of the Pancharatra canon - An appraisal,
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158. ^ J. Gordon Melton; Martin Baumann (2010). Religions of the World: A Comprehensive
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162. ^ Bryant 2007, pp. 113–115.
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221-5, pp. 98–99
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detached chapters or sections, dealing with any imaginable subject, follow one another, without
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170. ^ Ariel Glucklich (2008). The Strides of Vishnu  : Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective:
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2. Quote:  The earliest promotional works aimed at tourists from that era were called  mahatmyas.
171. ^ Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman),
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pp. 1–5, 12–21
174. ^ Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3-447-02522-5,
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