This project talks about the Endocrine

System. The parts, functions diseases and

how to keep it healthy.

The
Endocrine
System

Sarthak Agarwal 10-B

Biology Project
INTRODUCTION

The endocrine system is the

body's network of glands that
produce more than fifty
different known hormones or
chemical messengers to
maintain and regulate basic bodily functions. It is second only to the nervous system as the great
controlling system of the body. Whereas nerve impulses from the nervous system immediately prod the
body into action, hormones from the endocrine system act more slowly to achieve their widespread and
varied effects. The bodily processes regulated by the endocrine system go on for relatively long periods of
time. Some go on continuously. These life processes include growth and development, reproduction,
immunity (the body's ability to resist disease), and homeostasis (the body's ability to maintain the
balance of its internal functions).

Endocrine glands (endo means "inside") secrete or release substances that are used in the body. These
glands lack ducts, releasing their secretions directly into the surrounding tissues and blood. Those
secretions—hormones—then travel in the cardiovascular system to various points throughout the body.

The word hormone comes from a Greek word meaning "to arouse" or "to set in motion." Hormones
control or coordinate the activities of other tissues, organs, and organ systems in the body. Most
hormones are composed of amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. The smaller class of hormones
are steroids, which are built from molecules of cholesterol (fat-like substance produced by the liver).

Each type of hormone affects only specific tissue cells or organs, called target cells or target organs. Each
target cell has receptors on its membrane or inside of it to which a particular hormone can attach or
bind. Only once this binding has occurred does the hormone bring about a change in the workings of a
cell. Some hormones affect nearly every cell in the body; others affect only a single organ. Some cells
have numerous receptors, acting as a target cell for many different hormones.
PARTS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Unlike the organs or parts of other body systems, the
principal endocrine glands are not physically connected
together, but are scattered throughout the body. Located
in the skull are the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and
pineal gland; in the throat are the thyroid gland and
parathyroid glands; in the upper part of the chest is the
thymus; in the abdominal region are the

The Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is not a gland, but a small region of the

brain containing many control centers for body functions
and emotions. Composed of gray matter (brain tissue
consisting of nerve cells that lack inner protective coverings), it is about the size of an almond and
weighs only about 1/300 of the total mass of the brain.

The Pituitary Gland

Located at the base of the brain behind the nose, the pituitary gland is a small, oval gland approximately
the size of a grape. It hangs by a thin piece of tissue from the interior surface of the hypothalamus. The
pituitary is divided into two distinct lobes or regions: the anterior pituitary (the front lobe) and the
posterior pituitary (the rear lobe). The anterior pituitary produces and secretes six hormones. The
posterior pituitary secretes two hormones, but does not produce them. Those hormones are made by
the hypothalamus, which uses the posterior pituitary as a storage area for the hormones until they are
needed.

The pineal gland

The pineal gland or body is a small cone-shaped gland located deep in the rear portion of the brain
(pineal comes from the Latin word "pinea," meaning "pine cone"). Scientists are still somewhat mystified
as to the endocrine function of this gland, which secretes the hormone melatonin.

The thyroid gland

One of the largest endocrine glands in the body, the thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped gland that wraps
around the front and sides of the trachea (windpipe) at the base of
the throat just below the larynx (upper part of the trachea
containing the vocal cords). It is divided into two lobes connected
by a band of tissue called the isthmus. Because the thyroid contains
a large number of blood vessels, it is deep red in color.

The thymus
The thymus is a soft, flattened, pinkish-gray mass of lymphoid tissue located in the upper chest under
the breastbone. In a fetus and newborn infant, the thymus is relatively large (about the size of an
infant's fist). Up until about the age of puberty, the thymus continues to grow.

The pancreas

The pancreas is a soft, pink, triangular-shaped gland that measures about 6 inches (15 centimeters) in
length. It lies behind the stomach, extending from the curve of the duodenum (first part of the small
intestine) to the spleen. Primarily a digestive organ, the pancreas secretes pancreatic juice into the
duodenum through the pancreatic duct. The digestive enzymes in this juice helps break down
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in the small intestine. While a part of the digestive system, the
pancreas is also a part of the endocrine system, producing hormones that maintain blood glucose
(sugar) levels.

Adrenal glands

The adrenals are two glands, each sitting like a cap on top of each kidney.
The adrenals are divided into two distinct layers: the adrenal cortex (outer
layer) and the adrenal medulla (inner layer). The adrenal cortex makes up
about 80 percent of each adrenal gland. It is grayish yellow in color due to
the presence of stored fats, especially cholesterol and various fatty acids.
The cortex is extremely important to bodily processes; if it stops functioning,
death occurs in just a few days. The cortex secretes about thirty steroid
hormones,

The ovaries

The ovaries are the gonads or sex organs in females. The two almond-sized ovaries are located on each
side of the pelvis, one at the end of each fallopian tube. The ovaries are attached to the uterus or womb
by an ovarian ligament. The ovaries secrete two groups of steroid hormones, estrogens and
progesterone. Estrogens spur the development of the secondary sex characteristics: enlargement of the
breasts, appearance of hair under the arms and in the genital area, and the accumulation of fat in the
hips and thighs. Estrogens also act with progesterone to stimulate the growth of the lining of the uterus,
preparing it to receive a fertilized egg.

The testes

The testes are the gonads in males. They are two small, egg-shaped structures suspended in the
scrotum, a loose sac of skin that hangs outside the pelvic cavity between the upper thighs. most
important of these is testosterone. This hormone spurs the growth of the male reproductive organs and
the production of sperm. In addition, testosterone brings about the male secondary sex characteristics:
deepening of the voice; appearance of hair under the arms, on the face, and in the genital area; and
increased growth of muscles and heavy bones.
FUNCTIONING

The main functions of the endocrine system and its hormone messengers are to maintain homeostasis
(a stable internal environment in the body) and to promote permanent structural changes. Maintaining
homeostasis is a response to a change in the body, such as low sugar or calcium levels in the blood.
Permanent structural changes, occurring over a period of time, are those associated with growth and
development.

Hormones bring about their effect on the body's cells mainly by altering the cells' metabolic activity—
increasing or decreasing the rate at which they work. The effect is often rapid, such as increased or
decreased heart rate. A few hormones, after binding to their target cells, cause those cells to produce
proteins, which lead to long-term effects such as growth or sexual maturity.

Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands in response to a stimulus. That stimulus may be either
changing blood levels of certain nutrients or other hormones. When a gland senses a change in the
composition of blood or tissue fluid (low blood sugar, for example) and releases its hormones, that
action is known as a direct response. When a gland releases its hormones because it has been
stimulated by other hormones released by other glands, that action is known as an indirect response.
DISEASES
As much as 10 percent of the population will experience some
endocrine disorder in their lifetime. Most endocrine disorders
are caused by an increased or decreased level of particular
hormones. Tumors (abnormal tissue growth) in endocrine glands
are one of the major causes of hormone overproduction.
Hormone underproduction is often due to defective receptors
on cells. The result is that the cells fail to notify an endocrine
gland when production of its particular hormone is too low.
Injury or disease of an endocrine gland can also result in low
hormone levels.

A chart tracking changing hormone

levels during an average ovarian cycle.

Acromegaly and gigantism

Acromegaly is a disorder in which the anterior pituitary produces too

much growth hormone (GH). This causes an increased growth in bone
and soft tissue, especially in the extremities—nose, jaw, fingers, and
toes. If the disorder occurs in children who have not yet fully developed,
the increased levels of GH also result in the exceptional growth of the
long bones. This condition, a variation of acromegaly, is known as
gigantism.

Addison's disease

Addison's disease is a disorder in which the adrenal cortex produces

too little cortisol and aldosterone, resulting in the disruption of
numerous bodily functions. About 4 in every 100,000 people suffer
from this disorder. It strikes men and women of all ages.
Cushing's syndrome

Cushing's syndrome is a disorder caused by an overproduction of

steroids—mostly cortisol—by the adrenal cortex, resulting in obesity
and muscular weakness. The disorder occurs in about 15 out of every 1
million people per year. It usually strikes adults (men and women)
between the ages of twenty and fifty.

Diabetes mellitus

Diabetes mellitus (commonly referred to simply as diabetes) is a

disorder in which the cells of the body cannot absorb glucose. This
condition is brought about either because the pancreas no longer
produces enough insulin or because the cells do not respond to the
effects of the insulin that is produced. Approximately 14 million
Americans—about 5 percent of the population-have diabetes, and
almost 50 percent of them are unaware they have it. Some
300,000 people in the United States die each year from the
disorder.

Hyperthyroidism

Hyperthyroidism is a disorder in which an overactive thyroid gland

produces too much thyroxine. It generally results from a tumor of
the thyroid. It can also be brought about by an autoimmune disorder
in which antibodies bind to the thyroid cells, forcing them to produce
excessive amounts of thyroxine. This latter form of hyperthyroidism
is known as Graves' disease.
KEEPING THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM HEALTHY
The endocrine glands and the hormones they secrete are involved in almost all aspects of normal body
functioning. Because it is so complex, the system operates on a delicate balance. If it malfunctions, a
variety of problems, both great and small, will result.

It is therefore important to monitor the system's workings and seek

appropriate treatment if a disorder begins to develop. Preventive
measures to protect the endocrine system can be taken. The systems of
the body respond well to a healthy diet and regular exercise, and the
endocrine system is no exception.

Some endocrine disorders are related to diet. Obesity can lead to Type II
diabetes, the most common endocrine disorder in the United States. A lack of iodine in the diet can lead
to goiter, or enlargement of the thyroid (with the introduction of iodized table salt, however, goiter is
uncommon in the United States). Eating a nutritious, healthy, balanced diet and keeping the body at a
healthy weight will diminish the risk of possibly developing certain endocrine disorders.

Stress taxes all body systems. Any condition that

threatens the body's homeostasis or steady state is a
form of stress. Conditions that cause stress may be
physical, emotional, or environmental. One of the main
functions of certain endocrine glands is to secrete
hormones that help the body respond to stressful
situations. However, that function is only meant to be
short-term. When stress lasts longer than a few hours,
higher energy demands are placed on the body. More hormones are then secreted to meet those
demands, but at a price. They tend to weaken the body's
defenses, leaving the body open to infection.
Stress over an extended period of time can result in high blood pressure and a lack of cortisol and other
steroid hormones released by the adrenal cortex. All this can lead to organ damage and failure.
Combining exercise with proper amounts of sleep, relaxation techniques, and positive thinking will help
reduce stress and keep hormone levels balanced.