Storm Drainage System

Figure 3-9 Inlet Design Computation Form

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3.5 Storm Drains

3.5.1 Introduction

After the tentative location of inlets has been determined and the inlets sized, the next logical step is the computation
of the rate of discharge to be carried by each drain pipe and the determination of the size and gradient of pipe required
to carry this discharge. The procedure is carried out for each section of pipe starting at the most upstream inlet and
proceeding downstream. It should be recognized that the rate of discharge to be carried by any particular section of drain
pipe is not necessarily the sum of the inlet design discharge rates of all inlets above that section of pipe, but as a general
rule is somewhat less than this total. In other words, the inlets are designed to assure that the full pipe capacity is
utilized. It is useful to understand that the time of concentration is most influential and as the time of concentration
grows larger, the proper rainfall intensity to be used in the design grows smaller.
For ordinary conditions, drain pipes should be sized on the assumption that they will flow full or practically full under
the design discharge but will not be placed under pressure head. The Manning Formula is recommended for capacity
calculations.

3.5.2 Design Criteria

The standard recommended maximum and minimum slopes for storm drains shall conform to the following criteria:

1. The maximum hydraulic gradient shall not produce a velocity that exceeds 20 feet per second.

2. The minimum desirable physical slope shall be 0.5 percent or the slope which will produce a velocity of 3.0
feet per second when the storm drain is flowing full, whichever is greater.

In order to determine if design flows can be accommodated by the storm drains system without causing flooding, or
causing flows to exit the system at unacceptable locations, the designer shall determine the hydraulic gradient. The
following design criteria shall be followed when determining the elevation along the hydraulic grade line (HGL):

! The hydraulic grade line shall be 0.75 feet below the intake lip of any affected inlet, any manhole cover,
or any entering nonpressurized system.
! The energy grade line shall not rise above the intake lip of any affected inlet, any manhole cover or any
entering nonpressurized system.

All storm drains should be designed such that velocities of flow will not be less than 3.0 feet per second at design
flow, with a minimum slope of 0.5 percent. For very flat flow lines the general practice is to design components so that
flow velocities will increase progressively throughout the length of the pipe system.

Location and Alignment

In new subdivisions the center of the street is reserved for storm drain system. When construction of a storm drain
system is necessary in the older parts of the town, the location is determine by the City. No structures may be placed
over a public storm drain system.

Depth of Cover
The desired depth of cover above a storm drain pipe shall be 2 to 3 feet, with 1.5 feet being the absolute minimum
at an inlet location. Depth of cover greater than 3 feet shall be avoided due to the possibility of the storm drain blocking
access of sanitary sewer service lines to the main sanitary sewer lines.

Material and Joints

Only reinforced concrete storm drain pipe shall be used within the City limits, unless approved by the Director of
Public Works and Utilities. Construction of pipe and joint shall conform to the City of Lincoln Standard Specification.

Bar Grates on End Sections

An open pipe inlet from an open channel (similar to a culvert inlet) into a closed pipe storm drain shall be designed
and constructed with flared end sections with a bar grate. No bar grate is required on the end section of a pipe outlet into
an open channel unless directed by the Director of Public Works and Utilities.

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3.5.3 Design Procedures

The design of storm drain systems is generally divided into the operations listed below. Supporting documentation
shall be submitted with development plans for review:
1. The first step is the determination of inlet location and spacing as outlined earlier in this chapter.

2. The second step is the preparation of a plan layout of the storm drain system establishing the following design
data:

a. Location of storm drains.

b. Direction of flow.
c. Location of manholes.
d. Location of existing facilities such as water, gas, or underground cables.

3. The design of the storm drain system is then accomplished by determining drainage areas, computing runoff
by rational method, and computing the hydraulic capacity by Manning's equation.
4. The storm drain design computation sheet (Figure 3-12) shall be used to summarize the preliminary system
design computations.

5. The hydraulic grade line computation from Figure 3-14 shall be used to determine the hydraulic gradient. The
hydraulic grade line profile shall be provided on the storm drain system plans for the minor design storm.

3.5.4 Capacity

Storm drain capacity for reinforced concrete pipe can be determined using Figure 3-13. For non-standard applications,
hydraulic capacity can be determined using the information provided below.

Formulas for Gravity and Pressure Flow

The most widely used formula for determining the hydraulic capacity of storm drain pipes for gravity and pressure
flows is the Manning Formula and it is expressed by the following equation:

V = [1.486 R2/3S1/2]/n (3.6)

Where: V = mean velocity of flow (ft/s)

R= the hydraulic radius (ft) - the area of flow divided by the wetted flow surface or wetted perimeter (A/WP)
S= the slope of hydraulic grade line (ft/ft)
n= Manning's roughness coefficient

In terms of discharge, the above formula becomes:

Q = [1.486 AR2/3S1/2]n (3.7)

Where: Q = rate of flow (cfs)

A = cross sectional area of flow (ft2)

For pipes flowing full, the above equations become:

V = [0.590 D2/3S1/2]/n (3.8)

Q = [0.463 D8/3S1/2]/n (3.9)

Where: D = diameter of pipe (ft)

The Manning's equation can be written to determine friction losses for storm drain pipes as:

Hf = [2.87 n2V2L]/[S4/3] (3.10)

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Hf = [29 n2LV2]/[(R4/3)(2g) (3.11)

Where: Hf = total head loss due to friction (ft)

D = diameter of pipe (ft)
L = length of pipe (ft)
V = mean velocity (ft/s)
R = hydraulic radius (ft)
g = acceleration of gravity - 32.2 ft/s 2

3.5.4.1 Street Right-of-way and Overland Swale

Street right-of-ways convey the portion runoff in excess of pipe capacity, whether planned or not. Street right-of-way
capacity is determined using Manning’s equation for open channel flow conditions.
Q = 1.486 AR2/3S1/2 (3.6)
n

The City of Lincoln uses standard street and right-of-way cross-sections for municipal streets, the formula can be
simplified to:
Q = K S1/2, where conveyance constant, K = 1.486 AR2/3
n
Area, wetted perimeter, and roughness coefficient are constant, the only variable being the street slope.
(i.e., For residential For overland swales
A = 21.662 square feet, A = 22.5 square feet,
R = 0.360 feet, and R = 0.149 feet, and
n(wtd) = 0.026 n = 0.032)

The following table gives the conveyance constants for residential, commercial and major two-lane streets and a 30-
foot wide swale with 10:1 side slopes.

Table 3-6 Conveyance Constants for Standard Street Right-of-Ways and 30' Swale

Residential 620
Business with parking 970
Business without parking 790
Major two-lane 1100
30-foot Swale 780

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Figure 3-10 Swale Capacity Chart

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Table 3-7 Values of 1.486/n x A x Rb for Circular Concrete and Corrugated Metal Pipe
Source: ACPA, Design Data 4, Hydraulic Capacity of Sewers, Table III

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Figure 3-11 Right-of-Way Capacity Chart

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Column (1) - Contributing area at the point-of-study
Column (2) - Coefficient of runoff for Rational Method, see Table 2-3 and Table 2-4
Column (3) - Product of area and coefficient of runoff, C x A or Col. (3) = Col. (1) x Col. (2)
Column (4) - Summation of Col. (3) for all contributing drainage basins to the point-of-study
Column (5) - Time of concentration to the point of study for the drainage basin or the accumulated travel time of the
aggregate drainage basins, whichever is greater, Tc
Column (6) - Minor storm rainfall intensity, from Figure 2-3
or I = 42.456 F0.1943 / (Tc+14.0) 0.7912; F = Average Return Frequency
Column (7) - Peak rate of flow for minor storm runoff at the point-of-study, Qr = CIA
or Col. (7) = Col. (4) x Col. (6)
Column (8) - Preliminary pipe slope
Column (9) - Pipe length segment from center to center of structures
Column (10) - Preliminary pipe size required to convey minor storm runoff. Indicate diameter or span x rise
Column (11) - Capacity of pipe for full flow conditions

Q = 1.486 A Rb S½ or Figure 3-13

0.013

Column (12) - Velocity in the pipe for full-flow conditions, V = Q/A or Figure 3-13
Column (13) - Time of travel in pipe segment, Tp = L or Col. (13) = Col. (9) / Col. (12) / 60
60V

Column (14) - 100-year storm rainfall intensity, from Figure 2-3

or I100 = 103.882 / (Tc + 14)0.7912
Column (15) - Peak rate of flow for 100-year storm runoff at the point-of-study, Q100 = CI100A
or Col. (15) = Col. (4) x Col. (14)
Column (16) - Slope of overland flow route for 100-year storm runoff
Column (17) - Street and right-of-way width
Column (18) - Street capacity for flow to the limits of right-of-way for LSP-640

Q = 1.486 A Rb S½
n

K = 1.486 A Rb, is constant for full depth flow conditions.

n

K for each standard street and ROW width is provided below (e.g., K 26/60 for a 26' street with a 60-
foot ROW)

Residential K(26/60) = 620 Business with parking K(38/72) = 970

Major two lane K(32/80) = 1100 Business without parking K(33/66) = 790
30-foot Swale Kswale = 780
or See Figure 3-10 or Figure 3-11

Column (19) - Combined capacity of the street and minor drainage systems must be equal to or greater than the peak
rate of flow for the 100-year storm.
Column (20) - Swale width, where flow from major storms is not contained in the street system an overland flow
route must be provided.
Column (21) - Combined capacity of the swale and minor systems must be equal to or greater than the peak rate of
flow for the major storm.
Column (22) - Clarifying comments

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Figure 3-12 Storm Drain Computation Form

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Figure 3-13 Nomograph For Solution of Manning’s Formula In Storm Drains

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3.5.5 Hydraulic Gradient

In order to determine if design flows can be accommodated by the storm drains system without causing flooding, or
causing flows to exit the system at unacceptable locations, the designer shall determine the hydraulic gradient.
Computing the hydraulic gradient will determine the elevation to which water will rise in inlets and manholes. The
following sections provide the necessary procedures and equations to determine the hydraulic gradient.

3.5.5.1 Friction Losses

Energy losses from pipe friction may be determined by rewriting the Manning equation.

Sf = [Qn/1.486 A(R2/3)]2 (3.12)

Then the head losses due to friction may be determined by the formula:

Hf = SfL (3.13)

Where: Hf = friction head loss (ft)

Sf = friction slope (ft/ft)
L = length of outflow pipe (ft)

3.5.5.2 Velocity Head Losses

From the time storm water first enters the sewer system at the inlet until it discharges at the outlet, it will encounter
a variety of hydraulic structures such as inlets, manholes, junctions, bends, contractions, enlargements and transitions,
which will cause velocity head losses. Velocity losses may be expressed in a general form derived from the Bernoulli
and Darcy-Weisback equations.

H = KV2/2g (3.14)

Where: H = velocity head loss (ft)

K = loss coefficient for the particular structure
V = velocity of flow (ft/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft/s)

3.5.5.3 Entrance Losses

Following are the equations used for entrance losses.

Htm = V2/2g (3.15)

He = KV2/2g (3.16)

Where: Htm = terminal (beginning of run) loss (ft)

He = entrance loss for outlet structure (ft)
K = 0.5 (assuming square-edge)
(Other terms defined above.)

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3.5.5.4 Junction Losses

Incoming Opposing Flows

The head loss at a junction, Hj1 for two almost equal and opposing flows meeting head on with the outlet direction
perpendicular to both incoming directions, head loss is considered as the total velocity head of outgoing flow.

Hj1 = (V2)/2g (3.17)

Where: Hj1 = junction losses (ft)

(Other terms are defined above.)

Changes in Direction of Flow

When main storm drain pipes or lateral lines meet in a junction, velocity is reduced within the chamber and specific
head increases to develop the velocity needed in the outlet pipe. The sharper the bend (approaching 90o) the more severe
this energy loss becomes. When the outlet conduit is sized, determine the velocity and compute head loss in the chamber
by the formula:

Hb = Kb(V2)/2g (3.18)

Where: Hb = bend head loss (ft)

Kb = junction loss coefficient

The following Table 3-8 lists the values of Kb for various changes in flow direction and junction angles.

Table 3-8 Values Of Kb For Change In Direction Of Flow In Lateral

K Degree of Turn (In Junction)

0.19 15
0.35 30
0.47 45
0.56 60
0.64 75
0.70 90 and greater

K values for other degree of turns can be obtained by interpolating between values.

Table 3-9 lists the values for the junction loss coefficient for various conditions at pipe junctions.

Table 3-9 Values Of K At Junctions

For no bends at junctions - K = 0.20

For bends at junctions of 25 degrees - K = 0.30
For bends at junctions of 45 degrees - K = 0.40
For bends at junctions of 90 degrees - K = 0.60
For junctions of three pipes - K = 0.80
For junctions of four or more pipes - K = 1.00

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Several Entering Flows

The computation of losses in a junction with several entering flows utilizes the principle of conservation of energy.
For a junction with several entering flows, the energy content of the inflows is equal to the energy content of outflows
plus additional energy required by the collision and turbulence of flows passing through the junction. The total junction
losses can be determined from equation 3-17. See also Figure 3-14.

Hj2 = [(Q4V42)-(Q1V12)-(Q2V22)+(KQ1V12)]/(2gQ4)] (3.19)

Where: Hj2 = junction losses (ft)

Q = discharges (cfs)
V = horizontal velocities (ft/s) (V3 is assumed to be zero)
g = acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft/s 2)
K = bend loss factor

Where subscript nomenclature is as follows:

Q1 = 90o lateral (cfs)

Q2 = straight through inflow (cfs)
Q3 = vertical dropped-in flow from an inlet (cfs)
Q4 = main outfall = total computed discharge (cfs)
V1,V2,V3,V4 are the horizontal velocities of foregoing flows, respectively, in feet per second
V3 assumed to be = 0

Also Assume:

! Hb = K(V12)/2g for change in direction.

! No velocity head of an incoming line is greater than the velocity head of the outgoing line.
! Water surface of inflow and outflow pipes in junction to be level.

When losses are computed for any junction condition for the same or a lesser number of inflows, the above equation
will be used with zero quantities for those conditions not present. If more directions or quantities are at the junction,
additional terms will be inserted with consideration given to the relative magnitudes of flow and the coefficient of velo-
city head for directions other than straight through.

3.5.5.5 Summary

The final step in designing a storm drain system is to check the hydraulic grade line (HGL) as described in the next
section of this chapter. Computing the HGL will determine the elevation, under design conditions, to which water will
rise in various inlets, manholes, junctions, and etc. The following design criteria shall be followed when determining
the elevation at the HGL:

! The hydraulic grade line shall be 0.75 feet below the intake lip of any affected inlet, any manhole cover,
or any entering nonpressurized system.
! The energy grade line shall not rise above the intake lip of any affected inlet, any manhole cover or any
entering nonpressurized system.

A summary of energy losses which shall be considered is presented in Figure 3-14.

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Figure 3-14 Summary Of Energy Losses

Source: AASHTO Model Drainage Manual, 1991

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Figure 3-15 Energy And Hydraulic Grade Lines For Storm drain Under Constant Discharge

Source: AASHTO Model Drainage Manual, 1991

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3.5.6 Hydraulic Grade Line Design Procedure

The hydraulic grade line is calculated beginning at the system outlet proceeding upstream. Conditions expected at
the outlet for the minor design storm shall be used for the starting water surface elevation.

Column (1) - Design flow to be conveyed by pipe segment.

Column (2) - Length of pipe segment.
Column (3) - Pipe Size; Indicate pipe diameter or span x rise.
Column (4) - Constant K, from American Concrete Pipe Association Design Data:

Kp = 1,486 ARb ; or from Table 3-7

n

Column (5) - Flowline Outlet Elevation of pipe segment.

Column (6) - Flowline Inlet Elevation of pipe segment.
Column (7) - Barrel Area is the full cross sectional area of the pipe.
Column (8) - Barrel Velocity is the full velocity in the pipe as determined by:

V = Q/A or Col. (8) = Col. (1) / Col. (7)

Column (9) - Barrel Velocity Head = V2/2g or Col. (8)2 / 2g

Where, g = 32.2 ft/sec2 (acceleration due to gravity)

Column (10) - Tailwater (TW) Elevation; this is the water surface elevation at the outlet of the pipe segment. If
the pipe’s outlet is not submerged by the TW and the TW depth is less than (D+dc)/2, set the TW
elevation equal to (D+dc)/2. This will keep the analysis simple yet still obtain reasonable results
(D = pipe barrel height and dc = critical depth, both in ft. See Appendix 4-B for determination of
dc).

Column (11) - Friction Loss = S1 x L or S1 x Col. (2)

Where, S1 is the friction slope or head loss per lineal foot of pipe as determined by Manning’s
Equation expressed in the form:

S1 = Sf = (Q / Kp )2; K from Table 3-7

Column (12) - Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) Elevation just inside the entrance of the pipe barrel; this is
determined by adding the friction loss to the TW elevation:

Col. (12) = Col. (11) + Col. (10)

If this elevation falls below the pipe’s inlet crown, it no longer represents the true HGL when
computed in this manner. The true HGL will fall somewhere between the pipe’s crown and either
normal flow depth or critical flow depth, whichever is greater. To keep the analysis simple and
still obtain reasonable results (i.e., erring on the conservative side), set the HGL elevation equal to
the crown elevation.

Column (13) - Entrance Head Loss = Ke x V2 / 2g or Ke x Col. (9) Where, Ke = Entrance Loss Coefficient (0.5
assuming square-edge ) This is the head lost due to flow contractions at the pipe entrance.

Column (14) - Exit Head Loss = 1.0 x V2 / 2g or 1.0 x Col. (9)

This is the velocity head lost or transferred downstream.

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Column (15) - Outlet Control Elevation = Col. (12) + Col. (13) + Col. (14)
This is the maximum headwater elevation assuming the pipe’s barrel and inlet/outlet
characteristics are controlling capacity. It does not include structure losses or approach velocity
considerations.

Column (16) - Inlet Control Elevation (See Figure 4-2 for computation of inlet control on culverts). This is the
maximum headwater elevation assuming the pipe’s inlet is controlling capacity. It does not
include structure losses or approach velocity considerations.

Column (17) - Approach Velocity Head; this is the head (energy) being supplied by the discharge form an
upstream pipe or channel section, which serves to reduce the headwater elevation. If the discharge
is from a pipe, the approach velocity head is equal to the barrel velocity head computed for the
upstream pipe. If the upstream pipe outlet is significantly higher in elevation (as in a drop
manhole) or lower in elevation such that its discharge energy would be dissipated, an approach
velocity head of zero should be assumed.

Column (18) - Bend Head Loss = Kb x V2 / 2g or kb x Col. (17)

Where, Kb = Bend Loss Coefficient (from Table 3-7). This is the loss of head/energy required to
change direction of flow in an access structure.

Column (19) - Junction Head Loss; this is the loss in head (energy) that results from the turbulence created when
two or more streams are merged into one within the access structure. Table 3-8 can be used to
determine junction loss coefficients for use in the following equations given in Figure 3-14.

Column (20) - Headwater (HW) Elevation; this is determined by combining the energy heads in Columns 17, 18,
and 19 with the highest control elevation in either Column 15 or 16, as follows:

Col. (20) = Col. (15 or 16) - Col. (17) + Col. (18) + Col. (19)

Column (21) - Top of curb elevation at an inlet or rim elevation at a storm sewer manhole.

Column (22) - Inlet capacity is reduced if the hydraulic gradeline elevation interferes with the napping effect
during weir or orifice flow conditions.

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Figure 3-16 Hydraulic Grade Line Computation Form

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Figure 3-17 Hypothetical Storm Drain System Layout

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3.6 Computer Programs

There are numerous proprietary and non-proprietary computer models that may be used to design components of
the minor storm drainage system. The reader is referred to the user manual for any particular program to determine
its suitability for solving storm drainage problems.

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References
U. S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, 1984. Drainage of Highway Pavements.
Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 12.

American Concrete Pipe Association, March 1968, Design Data.

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