Color As Iconic Form

Color
as
Iconic
Form
A Concise Treatise
On the Proportional
Mixture of Pigments
Carl W. Rush
2020
Color as Iconic Form All Rights Reserved © 2020 Carl W. Rush 1 of 73

Publisher, Carl W Rush
Kitchener, Canada
Copyright ©2020 by Carl W Rush

All Rights Reserved
Printed in Canada
First edition, 2021
ISBN 978-1-7778353-0-9
LCC ND1286 Painting Technique
ND1489 Color, Study & Teaching

Contents
Page
List of Illustrations 4
Introduction 6
The Geometric Value Scale 8
Matching Hue and/or Tone to Value 13
The Geometric Uniform Hue Content Scale 22
A Relief Intensity Scale 25
An Apparently Uniform Intensity Scale 36
The Uniform Intensity Array
and the Perspective Array 42
Applications and Limitations 48
Bibliography 56
Glossary 58
Appendix 1 – Hue and Tone Values Chart 62
Appendix 2 – Hue Content Percent Charts 66

List of Illustrations
Page
Diagram 1 Arithmetic Proportion by Volume and
Geometric Proportion by Volume 10
Diagram 2 Geometric Pigment Mixing Procedure 11
Diagram 3 Value Matching Mixing Procedure 15
Diagram 4 Procedure to produce a Geometric

Uniform Hue Content Scale and the
percent of Hue, White and Black for each 23
tone
Diagram 5 Percent of Hue, White and Black for each

tone in an Array of Uniform Hue Content
Scales 27
Diagram 6 Selected Tones for a Relief Scale and the

percent of Hue, White and Black for each 34
tone
Diagram 7 Percent of Hue, White and Black for each

tone in an Apparently Uniform Intensity
Scale 37
Diagram 8 Mixing the Uniform Intensity Array and

the Perspective Array 45
Diagram 9 Percent of Hue, White and Black for the

Uniform Intensity Array 46
Diagram 10 Percent of Hue, White and Black for the

Perspective Array 47

Page
Figure 1 Comparison of an Arithmetic Value Scale
and a Geometric Value Scale 12
Figure 2-1 to 2-6 Value Matching 16-21
Figure 3 6 Examples of Uniform Hue Content

Scales 24
Figure 4-1 to 4-6 6 Arrays of Uniform Hue Content Scales 28-33
Figure 5 6 Relief Scales 35
Figure 6 6 Apparently Uniform Intensity Scales 38
Figure 7-1 to 7-3 Comparison of Uniform Hue Content

Scales, Relief Scales and Apparently
Uniform Intensity Scales 39-41
Figure 8 An Array of Apparently Uniform Intensity

Scales 43
Figure 9 The Perspective Array 44
Figure 10-1 to 10-2 Scales made with Substitutions for Black

and/or White 51-52
Figure 11 Comparison of Uniform Hue Content 53

Scales at 50%, 25% and 12.5%
Figure 12-1 to 12-2 Staggered Arrays 54-55

Introduction
Some skills essential to the painter are often characterized as an

innate ability available only to the gifted or as the result of many
years of experience, the result of endless trial and error attempts.
Sometimes mastery of color is characterized as something that
cannot be taught, the result of a happy accident that cannot be
explained or replicated.
However, when the phenomenon in question can be
appropriately described and repeatable demonstrations provided,
obstacles and frustration can be overcome. This approach will
also accurately train the painter’s eye. That is the aim of this
concise treatise.
In the Western tradition of painting, the predominance of a type

of modelling sequence can define historical periods. For example,
the medieval period predominately used up modelling (increasing
amounts of white added to a pigment resulting in the most
intense hue in the dark value).1 The renaissance period frequently
made use of down modelling (increasing amounts of black added to
a pigment resulting in the most intense hue in the light value).2
Relief modelling (the most intense hue is located at the middle
values) is a hallmark of the baroque period3 where various
methods were employed.
This treatise presents a systematic and reliable method for

producing a sequence of tones from light to dark in a concave
sequence (the most intense tones are found in the extreme light
and dark values of the scale), a convex sequence (the most intense
tones are found in the middle values of the scale) and also a
1
Cennini [1960], 49 and Hall [1992], 16.
2
Cennini [1960], 55 and Alberti [1966], 82 and Shearman [1962], 17.
3
Alberti [1966], 83 and Dempsey [1977], 32.

uniform intensity sequence (all values of the scale appear equally
intense), allowing for complete mastery over the modelling
sequence.
The material presented here contains two remarkable

relationships. The first, geometrically proportional pigment
mixtures, allows for procedures that can be quantified and for
outcomes that can be duplicated. The other, the relationship
between the resulting pigment stimuli in a Uniform Hue Content
Scale and the apparent perception is constant, namely, that a
value scale where each tone contains a uniform proportion of hue
in relation to varying amounts of black and white, consistently
induces the perception of a concave series of tones (the middle
value is the least intense tone and the lightest and darkest values
are the most intense). The second relationship is consistent across
all colours and, like the Geometric Value Scale (described in the
first chapter), is isomorphic, that is, it contains a structural
similarity to the perception of light. Hence, the use of the Peircian
term, iconic4, in the title of this treatise. The proportions in the
pigments resemble the proportions in visual perception.
Painters are most often left to resolve the challenges of color

mastery in pigment on their own. Systematic approaches are
frequently criticised or dismissed as pedantic, inauthentic or
wanting spontaneity. The methods presented here are easily
executed in any studio. Practice and see for yourself.
4
Short [2007], 214ff.

The Geometric Value Scale
The consistent, convenient production of a value scale, from

darkest to lightest values, in equal perceptual steps, is an
indispensible skill for painters.
Difficulties understanding the required proportions are often the

main concern. A value scale in equal perceptual steps appears to
be an arithmetic structure (i.e. the addition of one unit produces
the next step) however, a geometric structure (i.e. the doubling of
existing units produces the next step)5 is required to produce a
perception of equal steps.6
Perceptual psychologists have described or demonstrated the

geometric stimuli to arithmetic perception relationship in various
ways (Plateau7, Weber-Fechner Psychophysical Law8 and
Steven’s Power Law9).
Diagram 1 shows the difference between Arithmetic Proportion

by Volume and Geometric Proportion by Volume.
A simple pigment mixing procedure (described and

demonstrated below) produces convenient, reliable and
consistent results and is a practical approximation of the
geometric proportion.
5
Nichomachus of Gerasa [1952], 843.
6
Birren [1961], 22 ff., and Albers [1975], 54 and 132.
7
Laming and Laming [1996], 134-144.
8
Fechner [1966], 112.
9
Stevens [1957], 153-181.

For example, for a grey scale made with black and white
pigments, first mix a tone with equal parts black and white. A
middle grey is produced.
Next, take a portion of the middle grey and double its volume
adding only white. Another lighter grey is produced. Take a
portion of the lighter grey and double its volume adding only
white. An even lighter grey is produced. Repeat the procedure
with each successively lighter grey until a nearly white grey is
produced.
For the dark end of the scale, start with a portion of the original
middle grey and double its volume adding only black. Repeat the
procedure with each successively darker grey until a nearly black
grey is produced.
The result is 9 perceptually equal value steps from very dark grey
to a very light grey.
Diagram 2 shows the pigment mixing procedure, doubling the

volume of the resulting grey by adding only white or by adding
only black.
Figure 1 compares an Arithmetic Value Scale and a Geometric

Value Scale made with the oil pigments Titanium White and Vine
Black.
Astute painters will appreciate the utility and myriad

applications of an accurate, convenient and reliable value scale
including contrast/chiaroscuro perspective10 and the crowding of
lights and/or darks amongst others.
10
Dempsey [1977], 13.

Diagram 1
Arithmetic Volume Progression
6 5 4 3 2 3 4 5 6
+1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1
Geometric Volume Progression
32 16 8 4 2 4 8 16 32
X2 X2 X2 X2 22 23 24 25

Diagram 2
Geometrically Proportional Pigment

Mixtures
1 part black
1 part white
2 parts 1 part black
1 part white
Plus
2 parts white 1 part black
4 parts 3 parts white
Plus 1 part black
4 parts white 7 parts white
8 parts Plus
8 parts white 1 part black
16 parts 15 parts white
Plus
16 parts white
32 parts
1 part black
1 part white
1 part black
1 part white 2 parts
3 parts black
Plus
1 part white
7 parts black 2 parts black
Plus
1 part white 4 parts black 4 parts
15 parts black Plus 8 parts
1 part white 8 parts black
Plus 16 parts
16 parts black
32 parts

Figure 1 Comparison of an Arithmetic Value Scale
(right) and Geometric Value Scale (left)

Matching Hues and Tones to Value
The ability to accurately determine the value of any hue or tone is

another indispensible skill for the painter. Human vision however
is often misled in judging value by the intensity of some hues,
others by their darkness and others by the effects of surrounding
tones.
Mixing a few short geometric scales with a hue or tone and a few
adjacent greys from the Geometric Value Scale will resolve any
missteps (and eliminate any subjective errors). The resulting short
geometric scales will be of three types: one darkest near the value
scale (indicating that the hue or tone is lighter than that value), a
second, darkest near the hue or tone (indicating that the hue or
tone is darker than that value) and, thirdly, a scale with little or no
change in value (indicating a match of values).
For example, select a tone. Mix a Geometric Value Scale as

illustrated in the previous chapter.
Select a grey value from the value scale that is near to the value of
the selected tone and mix the grey and the selected tone in equal
parts. Next, mix a portion of the resulting tone in equal parts first
with the same grey value and then another portion in equal parts
with the selected tone to create a short three tone scale. Evaluate
the result.
Repeat mixing another short geometric scale with the appropriate
adjacent (lighter or darker) grey from the value scale. Repeat the
procedure until the matching value (a short geometric scale with
little or no change in value) is found.

Diagram 3 illustrates the procedure for mixing three short
geometric scales with the Geometric Value Scale to find a
matching value for any hue or tone.
Figure 2 shows the results of the value matching procedure for 6

tones.
Appendix 1 lists some of the values I have already matched to the

geometric value scale.

Diagram 3
Value Matching Procedure
Geometric Gray Value Scale
Select a portion of the equal

parts grey and tone and
double its volume adding
only a grey
First, mix equal parts grey and tone
Select a portion of the equal

parts grey and tone and
double its volume adding
only the tone
Darker near the grey value Darker near the tone

Tone is lighter than the grey Tone is darker than the grey
Uniform Values indicate a value match
Selected Tone

Figure 2-1 Value Matching






The Geometric Uniform Hue Content Scale
Mixing a geometric scale (same method as a Geometric Value

Scale described in that chapter) using a light tone, made of equal
parts hue and white, and a dark tone, made of equal parts hue
and black, will produce a scale of tones from light to dark where
each tone contains 50% hue.
Note the apparent intensity of the tones in this scale. It is

apparent that the tones in the middle values of the scale are
significantly duller than the tones at the extreme light and
extreme dark ends of the scale.
In Geometric Uniform Hue Content Scales although the hue

content remains constant in each tone, the intensity of the tones
is apparently a concave series. Dull tones recede (located in the
middle tones of the scale) and intense tones advance11 (located
in the extreme light and dark tones of the scale).
Diagram 4 shows the percentage of hue, white and black for each
tone in a Geometric Uniform Hue Content Scale and the
procedure to produce it.
Figure 3 shows 6 examples of Geometric Uniform Hue Content

Scales.12
11
Itten [2004], 123.
12
The yellow-orange and yellow-green scales contain substitutions for black and white. See comments on page 48.

Diagram 4
Procedure to produce a Uniform Hue Content Scale and the
percent of Hue, White and Black in each tone of a Geometric
Uniform Hue Content (50%) Scale
B 0
W 1 Light tone, equal parts hue and white
H 1
B 1.6 5. Take a portion of the tone below and double its

W 48.4
H 50
volume adding only the light tone
B 3.1
4. Take a portion of the tone below and double its W 46.9
volume adding only the light tone H 50
B 6.3 3. Take a portion of the tone below and double its

W 43.8
H 50
volume adding only the light tone
B 12.5
2. Take a portion of the middle tone and double its W 37.5
volume adding only the light tone H 50
B 25
W 25 1 .Middle tone, equal parts light tone and dark tone
H 50
6. Take a portion of the middle tone and double its B 37.5

volume adding only the dark tone W 12.5
H 50
B 43.8
W 6.3 7. Take a portion of the tone above and double its
H 50 volume adding only the dark tone
8. Take a portion of the tone above and double its B 46.9

W 3.1
volume adding only the dark tone H 50
B 48.4 9. Take a portion of the tone above and double its

W 1.6
H 50
volume adding only the dark tone
B 1
W 0 Dark tone, equal parts hue and black
H 1

Figure 3 6 Examples of Uniform Hue Content Scales

A Relief Intensity Scale
Once it has been demonstrated that a light to dark Uniform Hue

Content Scale produces a light to dark concave series in perception,
it follows logically that a Relief Intensity Scale and an Apparently
Uniform Intensity Scale will be found in a series of tones from
light to dark that contain more hue in the middle values.
By continuing to utilize geometric mixing proportions, an Array

of tones (a series of Uniform Hue Content Scales), using the same
hue, can be produced where the increases in hue content can be
quantified.
For example, start by mixing a Uniform Hue Content Scale as

described in that chapter. Now, expand the light tone, equal parts
hue and white pigments, into a geometric scale by taking a
portion of the light tone and doubling its volume adding only
hue. Continue to produce tones in this way, taking a portion of
the succeeding tone and doubling its volume by adding only hue
until a tone is produced that nearly matches the hue. Do the same
thing with the dark tone, equal parts hue and black pigments.
In the same way that the 50% Uniform Hue Content Scale was
made produce additional Uniform Hue Content Scales using the
pairs of light and dark tones that contain the same proportion of
hue. Because the value of each pair is approaching the value of
the original hue, as the hue content increases, the resulting
Uniform Hue Content Scales will contain fewer tones (eliminating
the ones that approach the value of the light or dark tone that
produced them). If one light and one dark tone are eliminated
from each successive scale, an array is produced in a triangular

shape of 9,7,5,3 and 1 tone(s) per scale respectively, as shown in
Diagram 5.
Diagram 5 also shows the proportion of hue, white and black

pigment in an Array of Uniform Hue Content Scales.
Figure 4 shows 6 Arrays of Uniform Hue Content Scales.
By selecting the tones along the two sides of the triangle opposite
the first 9 tone Uniform Hue Content Scale, a Relief Scale with
proportional increases of the hue content towards the middle
value is produced.
Diagram 6 shows the selected tones for a Relief Scale and the
increasing proportion of hue towards the middle value.
Figure 5 shows the selected tones of 6 Relief Scales arranged as

linear scales.
Note the apparent intensity relationships of the selected tones in

the scales shown in Figure 5. This arrangement produces a convex
series of tones, where the most intense tone is the middle value.

Diagram 5 - An Array of Uniform Hue Content Scales
B 0 B 0 B 0 B 0 B 0
W 1 W 1 W 1 W 1 W 1 Light Tone
H 31 H 15 H 7 H 3 H 1
B 1.6
W 48.4
H 50
B 1.6 B 3.1
W 23.4 W 46.9
H 75 H 50
B 1.6 B 3.1 B 6.3

W 10.9 W 21.9 W 43.8
H 87.5 H 75 H 50
B 1.6 B 3.1 B 6.3 B 12.5

W 4.7 W 9.4 W 18.8 W 37.5
H 93.8 H 87.5 H 75 H 50
B 1.6 B 3.1 B 6.3 B 12.5 B 25

W 1.6 W 3.1 W 6.3 W 12.5 W 25
H 96.9 H 93.8 H 87.5 H 75 H 50
B 4.7 B 9.4 B 18.8 B 37.5

W 1.6 W 3.1 W 6.3 W 12.5
H 93.8 H 87.5 H 75 H 50
B 10.9 B 21.9 B 43.8

W 1.6 W 3.1 W 6.3
H 87.5 H 75 H 50
B 23.4 B 46.9
W 1.6 W 3.1
H 75 H 50
B 48.4
W 1.6
H 50
B 1 B 1 B 1 B 1 B 1
W 0 W 0 W 0 W 0 W 0 Dark Tone
H 31 H 15 H 7 H 3 H 1

Figure 4-1 Array of Uniform Hue Content Scales






Diagram 6
Selected Tones for a Relief Scale and the percent of Hue, White
and Black for each tone
B 1.6
W 48.4
H 50
B 1.6
W 23.4
H 75
B 1.6
W 10.9
H 87.5
B 1.6
W 4.7
H 93.8
B 1.6
W 1.6
H 96.9
B 4.7
W 1.6
H 93.8
B 10.9
W 1.6
H 87.5
B 23.4
W 1.6
H 75
B 48.4
W 1.6
H 50

Figure 5 6 Relief Scales

An Apparently Uniform Intensity Scale
Following the demonstrations that a Uniform Hue Content Scale

produces a concave series in perception and that a Relief Scale
such as the one produced in that chapter produces a convex series
of tones in perception, the Apparently Uniform Intensity Scale
will lie in between the two (in terms of the hue content).
A simple average of the concave series and the convex series

produces the desired result, an Apparently Uniform Intensity
Scale.
For example, produce two, 9 tone scales, using the same hue, one
a Uniform Hue Content Scale and the other, a Relief Scale. Mix
equal portions of the two lightest tones from each scale to
produce an average tone. Continue mixing equal portions of each
successive pair of tones, from light to dark, to create a new scale
of 9 average tones.13
Diagram 7 shows the resulting proportions of hue, white and

black by averaging the tones from a Uniform Hue Content Scale
(concave series) and a Relief Scale (convex series).
Figure 6 shows 6 Apparently Uniform Intensity Scales.
Figure 7 compares Uniform Hue Content Scales, Relief Scales and

Apparently Uniform Intensity Scales for six hues.
13
The lightest and darkest tones of the Uniform Hue Content Scale and the Relief Scale are respectively identical
and do not require actual mixing.

Diagram 7
The Proportions of Hue, White and Black in an Apparently
Uniform Intensity Scale
( Uniform Hue Content Scale + Relief Scale ) /2 = Uniform Intensity Scale
B 1.6 B 1.6 B 1.6

W 48.4 W 48.4 W 48.4
H 50 H 50 H 50
B 3.1 B 1.6 B 2.4

W 46.9 W 23.4 W 35.2
H 50 H 75 H 62.5
B 6.3 B 1.6 B 4
W 43.8 W 10.9 W 27.4
H 50 H 87.5 H 68.8
B 12.5 B 1.6 B 7.1

W 37.5 W 4.7 W 21.1
H 50 H 93.8 H 71.9
B 25 B 1.6 B 13.3
W 25 W 1.6 W 13.3
H 50 H 96.9 H 73.5
B 37.5 B 4.7 B 21.1

W 12.5 W 1.6 W 7.1
H 50 H 93.8 H 71.9
B 43.8 B 10.9 B 27.4

W 6.3 W 1.6 W 4
H 50 H 87.5 H 68.8
B 46.9 B 23.4 B 35.2

W 3.1 W 1.6 W 2.4
H 50 H 75 H 62.5
B 48.4 B 48.4 B 48.4

W 1.6 W 1.6 W 1.6
H 50 H 50 H 50

Figure 6 6 Apparently Uniform Intensity Scales

Figure 7-1 Comparison of Uniform Hue Content Scales,
Relief Scales and Apparently Uniform Intensity Scales



The Uniform Intensity Array and the Perspective Array
An Array of Apparently Uniform Intensity Scales can be made by

averaging each of the vertical scales in an Array of Uniform Hue
Content Scales with the horizontally corresponding tones of the
Relief Scale from that same array of Uniform Hue Content Scales
and is shown in Figure 8.
Similarly, another array of averaged scales, the Perspective Array,
can be created by averaging each of the concentric Relief Scales
from an array of Uniform Hue Content Scales with the
horizontally corresponding tones of the 9 tone Uniform Hue
Content Scale from that same array of Uniform Hue Content
Scales and is shown in Figure 9.
Diagram 8 indicates which tones from an array of Uniform Hue

Content Scales should be mixed in equal parts to create the Array
of Uniform Intensity Scales (top) and the Perspective Array
(bottom). See also Note 13 on page 36.
Diagram 9 and 10 respectively show the Percent of Hue, White

and Black for each tone in the Array of Uniform Intensity Scales
and the Perspective Array.
Note that the Array of Uniform Intensity Scales contains

increasingly more intense scales in relation to the 9 tone
Apparently Uniform Intensity Scale and that the Perspective
Array contains increasingly dull scales in relation to the 9 tone
Apparently Uniform Intensity Scale. Also note that the vertical
scales of the Perspective Array are Apparently Uniform Intensity
Scales as well. Finally, note the arrangement of the Perspective
Array with each successive scale having less intensity and value
range.

Figure 8 Array of Apparently Uniform
Intensity Scales

Figure 9 The Perspective Array

Diagram 8 – Mixing Procedure for the Array of Uniform Intensity Scales (top)
and the Perspective Array (bottom)
To create an Array of Uniform Intensity Scales average each of the tones of the Relief Scale
(left) with the horizontally corresponding tones of each of the Uniform Hue Content Scales
(right) from the same Array of Uniform Hue Content Scales (See Note 13 on page 36)
To create the Perspective Array average each of the tones in the Uniform Hue Content Scale
(right) with each of the horizontally corresponding tones from the concentric Relief Scales
(left) from the same Array of Uniform Hue Content Scales (See Note 13 on page 36)

Diagram 9 - Percentages of Hue, White and Black for the tones
in an Apparently Uniform Intensity Array
B 1.6
W 48.4
H 50
B 2.4 B 1.6
W 35.2 W 23.4
H 62.5 H 75
B 4 B 2.35 B 1.6
W 27.4 W 16.4 W 10.9
H 68.8 H 81.25 H 87.5
B 7.1 B 3.95 B 2.35 B 1.6

W 21.1 W11.75 W 7.05 W 4.7
H 71.9 H 84.4 H 90.65 H 93.8
B 13.3 B 7.05 B 3.95 B 2.35 B 1.6

W 13.3 W 7.05 W 3.95 W 2.35 W 1.6
H 73.5 H 85.95 H 92.2 H 95.35 H 96.9
B 21.1 B 11.75 B 7.05 B 4.7

W 7.1 W 3.95 W 2.35 W 1.6
H 71.9 H 84.4 H 90.65 H 93.8
B 27.4 B 16.4 B 10.9

W 4 W 2.35 W 1.6
H 68.8 H 81.25 H 87.5
B 35.2 B 23.4
W 2.4 W 1.6
H 62.5 H 75
B 48.4
W 1.6
H 50

Diagram 10 – Percentages of Hue, White and Black for the tones in
a Perspective Array
B 1.6
W 48.4
H 50
B 2.35 B 3.1
W35.15 W 46.9
H 62.5 H 50
B 3.95 B 4.7 B 6.3

W27.35 W32.85 W 43.8
H 68.75 H 62.5 H 50
B 7.05 B 7.8 B 9.4 B 12.5

W 21.1 W23.45 W28.15 W 37.5
H 71.9 H 68.75 H 62.5 H 50
B 13.3 B 14.05 B 15.65 B 18.75 B 25

W 13.3 W14.05 W15.65 W18.75 W 25
H 73.45 H 71.9 H 68.75 H 62.5 H 50
B 21.1 B 23.45 B 28.15 B 37.5

W 7.05 W 7.8 W 9.4 W 12.5
H 71.9 H 68.75 H 62.5 H 50
B 27.35 B 32.85 B 43.8

W 3.95 W 4.7 W 6.3
H 68.75 H 62.5 H 50
B 35.15 B 46.9
W 2.35 W 3.1
H 62.5 H 50
B 48.4
W 1.6
H 50

Applications & Limitations
The ability to produce any or all modelling sequences at will is a

hallmark of the master colorist and is not possible solely by the
mixture of complimentary pigments. Knowing the relationships
between hue content and intensity perception is an advantage
whether one adheres to geometric mixing or another mixing
procedure.
The advantage of having any modelling sequence at one’s
disposal is patently obvious to painters of both figurative and
non-objective paintings. It allows the depiction of any figure, in
any orientation and in any location in pictorial space. Any
comment on its use in non-objective painting would be
unnecessarily limiting.
Some comments on the substitution of colors for white and/or

black in generating modelling sequences may be helpful. The
result of mixing light hues with black often produces an
undesirable shift in hue towards green. It can be countered by
substituting a neutral or warm dark hue, such as Old Holland
Neutral Tint, Sepia, Raw, Burnt or Red Umber for black. As well,
mixtures of white with hue may be undesirable and white can be
substituted with another very light hue or tone to suit the
painter’s purpose. Some examples of scales made with hue
substitutions for black and/or white are included in Figure 10,
which shows an Array of Uniform Hue Content Scales and one
Apparently Uniform Intensity Scale.
The main limitation in producing Uniform Hue Content Scales,

Relief Scales and Apparently Uniform Intensity Scales with
geometric mixtures is that the value range produced will not be
comparable with the value range produced by geometric

mixtures of solely black and white. Use of the value matching
method demonstrated in that chapter will help to determine the
precise nature of the limitations in any case.
The restriction of value range may be addressed by mixing a

Uniform Hue Content Scale with a light and a dark tone that each
contain 25% hue or each contain 12.5% hue (rather than the
original example of 50%), albeit the overall intensity of the
resulting scale will be reduced. It can be accomplished by
extending, with further geometric mixing towards white and
black, the scales of light tones and dark tones used to mix a
Uniform Hue Content Scale and Array to include tones that
contain less than 50% hue. The comparison of three Uniform Hue
Content Scales with 50%, 25% and 12.5% uniform hue content is
shown in Figure 11. This method works best with intense hues.
As well, the restriction of value range in the case of dark hues

may be addressed by staggering the alignment of the light tone
scale and the dark tone scale used to produce the Uniform Hue
Content Scale and/or Array. Shifting the light tone scale to the
left of the dark tone scale will expand the value range obtainable,
however it will also change the uniform hue content of the
resulting scales to an Up Modelling Scale. The effect on the hue
content of staggering the light tone scale to the left is shown in
charts in Appendix 2. The effect on perception will depend on the
degree of change and the value of the pigment used. An average
of the Relief Scale and the Up Modelling Scale can still produce an
Apparently Uniform Intensity Scale in many cases and any
sacrifices in intensity relations may be acceptable in light of the
increase in value range.

An example of a staggered Array and an average of a Relief Scale
and an Up Modelling Scale are shown in Figure 12.
(Conversely, staggering the light tone scale to the right of the

dark tone scale will restrict the value range of the resulting scales
and change the hue content of the resulting scales to a Down
Modelling Scale. See the charts in Appendix 2 for the hue content
of Arrays staggering the light tone scale to the right.)
Various selections from any of the Arrays may be put to various

uses. For example, concentric Relief Scales might be selected for
objects receding in pictorial space or various segments of scales
might be selected to implement chiaroscuro/contrast perspective.
Astute painters will no doubt find many other applications.

Figure 10-1 Scales made with Substitutions for
Black and/or White (Indian Yellow
Orange Lake and White substituted for
White and Bright Violet substituted for
Black)

Figure 10-2 Scales made with Substitutions for
Black and/or White (Sap Green and
White substituted for White and
Dioxazine Violet and White substituted
for Black)

Figure 11 Comparison of Uniform Hue Content Scales
at 50%, 25% and 12.5%

Figure 12-1 Staggered Array (2 columns left)

Figure 12-2 Staggered Array (4 columns left)

Bibliography
Albers, Josef. Interaction of Color. Revised Edition. New Haven, Yale University Press,
1975.
Alberti, Leon Battista. On Painting. Trans. John R. Spencer. New Haven, Yale University
Press, 1966.
Birren, Faber. Color, Form and Space. New York, Reinhold Publishing Corporation,
1961.
Cennini, Cennino d’Andrea. The Craftsman’s Handbook. Trans. Daniel V. Thompson Jr.
New York, Dover Publications Inc., 1960.
Dempsey, Charles. Annibale Carracci and the Beginnings of Baroque Style. Gluckstadt,
Augustin, 1977.
Fechner, Gustav. Elements of Psychophysics. Trans. Helmut E. Adler. Ed. Edwin W.

Boring and Davis H. Howes. New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1966.
Hall, Marcia B. Color and Meaning: Practice and Theory in Renaissance Painting.
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1992.
Itten, Johannes. The Art of Color, The subjective experience and objective rationale of
color. Trans. Ernst van Haagen. Toronto, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2004.
Jacobson, Egbert. Basic Color: An Interpretation of the Ostwald Color System. Chicago,
Paul Theobald, 1948.
Laming, J. and Laming, D. “J. Plateau: On the measurement of the physical sensations
and on the law which links the intensity of these sensations to the intensity of the
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Nichomachus of Gerasa. Introduction to Arithmetic. Chicago, Great Books of the

Western World, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 1952.
Ostwald, Wilhelm. The Color Primer. New York, VanNorstrand Reinhold Company,
1969.
Pope, Arthur. Tone Relations in Painting. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1922.
Ross, Denamn Waldo. A Painter’s Palette. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1919.

Short, T. L. Peirce’s Theory of Signs. New York, Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Shearman, John. ‘’Leonardo’s Colour and Chiaroscuro.’’ Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte.

25:1 (1962), 13-47.
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and Newton, 1935.

Glossary
Apparently Uniform Intensity Scale, a scale of values from light

to dark where all tones have the same or similar apparent
intensity. In this text it refers to a value scale made with an
average of a Uniform Hue Content Scale and a Relief Scale.
Arithmetic proportion, a series of terms where successive terms

are calculated by adding one unit to the previous term. For
example, 1,2,3,4...
Array, a series of scales sometimes arranged as a triangle.
Chiaroscuro/contrast perspective, the systematic reduction of

value contrast in modelling objects when they are located further
in depth.
Colour, a perceptual experience (usually characterized by hue)

and its related concepts, memories and imaginings. In painting,
colour is represented by pigments and mixtures thereof.
Complimentary Colour, two colours opposite each other on a

colour wheel that when mixed produce a neutral grey.
Concave series or sequence, a value scale where the middle

values are the least intense tones and the light and dark values
are the most intense tones. Synonymous with Uniform Hue
Content Scale.
Convex series or sequence, a value scale where the middle values

are the most intense tones and the light and dark values are the
least intense tones. Synonymous with Relief Scale.

Down modelling, a modelling sequence of tones from light to
dark made by adding increasing amounts of black to a pigment,
resulting in the lightest tone of the sequence or scale being the
most intense.
Geometric proportion, a series of terms where successive terms

are calculated by doubling the previous term. For example,
2,4,8,16...
Geometric Value Scale, a scale of values from light to dark that

are apparently equal perceptual steps in value.
Hue, a component of colour, pigment and/or tone that refers to

its prismatic quality such as blue, green, yellow, red etc. It is
sometimes used to refer to a pigment other than black or white
pigments.
Icon, a mark or image that resembles in some way the reference

object, for example, the outline of a hand or a photo of a building.
It differs from a Symbol, which is a mark or image that arbitrarily
refers to the reference, for example, the letter “t” referring to the
sound “tuh” and from an Index, which is a mark or image that
refers to the occurrence and/or is evidence of an event, such as
footprints or a bullet hole.
Intensity, a component of colour, pigment and/or tone that refers

to its vividness or dullness.
Isomorphic, having a structural or formal similarity such as an

icon.

Modelling sequence, an arrangement of tones to indicate
volume.
Pigment, in this treatise means a manufacturer’s paint

preparation taken directly from the tube, unadulterated and not
mixed with any other pigment(s). In this treatise, once a pigment
has been mixed with another pigment, it will be referred to as a
tone. Some manufacturer’s paint preparations do contain more
than one pigment; this treatise will refer to these preparations as
pigments.
Relief Intensity Scale, a scale of values from light to dark that

contains the highest proportion of hue and the most intense tones
in the middle values. Synonymous with Convex Series or
Sequence.
Relief modelling, a modelling sequence of tones from light to

dark where the middle value is the most intense tone. It may be
created by a variety of methods such as a combination of up and
down modelling, a selection of tones from an array that are in the
appropriate relationship or a combination of scumbling and
glazing etc.
Scale, a proportionally mixed sequence of tones from light to

dark.
Tone, any mixture of pigments.

Uniform Hue Content Scale, a scale of values from light to dark
where each tone contains the same proportion of hue but varying
proportions of white and/or black. Perceptually, a Uniform Hue
Content Scale appears dull in the middle values and intense in
light and dark values. Synonymous with Concave Series or
Sequence.
Uniform intensity series or sequence, a value scale where all

tones from light to dark have the same or similar apparent
intensity. Synonymous with Apparently Uniform Intensity Scale.
Up modelling, a modelling sequence of tones from dark to light

made by adding increasing amounts of white to a pigment,
resulting in the darkest tone of the sequence or scale being the
most intense.
Value, a component of colour, pigment and/or tone that refers to

its lightness or darkness.

Appendix 1 – Hue and Tone Values
Manufacturer Abbreviations WN – Windsor and Newton
OH – Old Holland
Wm – Williamsburg
1 = lightest
5 = equal parts white and black
9 = darkest
Value of Value of Value of
Pigment Name & Manufacturer equal parts pure hue equal parts
hue and black hue and white
OH vine black 5
WN payne’s gray 5
WN blue black 6
OH warm grey light 3

WN raw umber green shade 3
WN raw umber light 4
OH raw umber 4
WN raw umber 5
WN burnt umber 5
OH red umber 5
OH sepia extra 5
OH warm sepia extra 5
OH red ochre 4
OH caput mortem 5
WN mars violet deep 7 6
OH mars brown 6
OH yellow brown 6 4/5

OH – Old Holland
Wm – Williamsburg
1 = lightest
9 = darkest
OH brilliant yellow light 1
OH transparent oxide yellow lake 7 4
OH yellow ochre deep 3
OH gamboge lake extra 3
Wm stil de grain 4
Wm quinacridone gold 4
OH italian earth 5
WN cadmium yellow 3 1
WN cadmium yellow pale 1
OH naples yellow extra 4 3
OH yellow green 5
OH cadmium green deep 7 5
WN cadmium green pale 7 5 4
OH cinnabar green deep extra 3
OH cobalt green turquoise 3/4
OH green earth 4
OH cadmium green light 4
Holbein olive green 5
WN sap green 5
WN chromium oxide 5

OH – Old Holland
Wm – Williamsburg
1 = lightest
9 = darkest
OH king’s blue light 3
WN cerulean 3
OH manganese blue deep 4
OH cobalt blue turquoise 4/5
OH indigo 6
OH old delft blue 6
OH cobalt blue deep 9 4
OH cobalt blue 8 6
OH turquoise blue deep 6 5
OH & Wm ultramarine violet 4

Wm quinacridone violet 6
OH blue violet 6
OH schevenings violet (thioindigoid) 6
WN windsor violet (dioxazine) 8
OH bright violet 6
OH cobalt violet dark 8 5

OH – Old Holland
Wm – Williamsburg
1 = lightest
9 = darkest
WN & OH quinacridone magenta 4
OH ultramarine red pink 7/8 4
OH scheveningen purple brown 7 5
OH cadmium red purple 7 6
WN indian red 6
WN cadmium red deep 8 7 5
OH burgundy wine red (anthraquinone) 8 6
WN transparent maroon (benzimidazalone) 9 5
OH red gold lake 3

OH golden barok red 7 5
OH vermillion 5
OH cadmium orange 5
OH mars red orange 7/8 6
OH indian yellow orange lake 6 3

Appendix 2-1 Hue Content Percent Charts
Light tone scale staggered one column left
B 0 B 0 B 0 B 0 B 0
W 1 W 1 W 1 W 1 W 3
H 15 H 7 H 3 H 1 H 1
B 0.1 B 0.2 B 0.4 B 0.8 B 1.6

W 6.1 W 12.1 W 24.2 W 48.4 W 72.7
H 93.8 H 87.7 H 75.4 H 50.8 H 25.8
B 0.2 B 0.4 B 0.8 B 1.6 B 3.1

W 5.9 W 11.7 W 23.4 W 46.9 W 70.3
H 93.9 H 87.9 H 75.8 H 51.6 H 26.6
B 0.4 B 0.8 B 1.6 B 3.1 B 6.3

W 5.6 W 10.9 W 21.9 W 43.8 W 65.6
H 94.1 H 88.3 H 76.6 H 53.1 H 28.1
B 0.8 B 1.6 B 3.1 B 6.3 B 12.5

W 4.7 W 9.4 W 18.8 W 37.5 W 56.3
H 94.5 H 89.1 H 78.1 H 56.3 H 31.3
B 1.6 B 3.1 B 6.3 B 12.5 B 25

W 3.1 W 6.3 W 12.5 W 25 W 37.5
H 95.3 H 90.6 H 81.3 H 62.5 H 37.5
B 2.3 B 4.7 B 9.4 B 18.8 B 37.5

W 1.6 W 3.1 W 6.3 W 12.5 W 18.8
H 96.1 H 92.2 H 84.4 H 68.8 H 43.8
B 2.7 B 5.5 B 10.9 B 21.9 B 43.8

W 0.8 W 1.6 W 3.1 W 6.3 W 9.4
H 96.5 H 93 H 86 H 71.9 H 46.9
B 2.9 B 5.9 B 11.7 B 23.4 B 46.9

W 0.4 W 0.8 W 1.6 W 3.1 W 4.7
H 96.7 H 93.4 H 86.7 H 73.4 H 48.4
B 3 B 6.1 B 12.1 B 24.2 B 48.4

W 0.2 W 0.4 W 0.8 W 1.6 W 2.3
H 96.8 H 93.6 H 87.1 H 74.2 H 49.2
B 1 B 1 B 1 B 1 B 1
W 0 W 0 W 0 W 0 W 0
H 31 H 15 H 7 H 3 H 1

Light tone scale staggered two columns left
B 0 B 0 B 0 B 0 B 0
W 1 W 1 W 1 W 3 W 7
H 7 H 3 H 1 H 1 H 1
B 0.1 B 0.2 B 0.4 B 0.8 B 1.6

W 12.1 W 24.2 W 48.4 W 72.7 W 84.8
H 87.8 H 75.6 H 51.2 H 26.6 H 13.7
B 0.2 B 0.4 B 0.8 B 1.6 B 3.1

W 11.7 W 23.4 W 46.9 W 70.3 W 82
H 88.1 H 76.2 H 52.3 H 28.1 H 14.8
B 0.4 B 0.8 B 1.6 B 3.1 B 6.2

W 10.9 W 21.9 W 43.8 W 65.6 W 76.6
H 88.7 H 77.3 H 54.7 H 31.3 H 17.2
B 0.8 B 1.6 B 3.1 B 6.3 B 12.5

W 9.4 W 18.8 W 37.5 W 56.3 W 65.6
H 89.8 H 79.7 H 59.4 H 37.5 H 21.9
B 1.6 B 3.1 B 6.2 B 12.5 B 25

W 6.2 W 12.5 W 25 W 37.5 W 43.8
H 92.2 H 84.4 H 68.8 H 50 H 31.2
B 2.3 B 4.7 B 9.4 B 18.8 B 37.5

W 3.1 W 6.2 W 12.5 W 18.8 W 21.9
H 94.5 H 89.1 H 78.1 H 62.5 H 40.6
B 2.7 B 5.5 B 10.9 B 21.9 B 43.8

W 1.6 W 3.1 W 6.2 W 9.4 W 10.9
H 95.7 H 91.4 H 82.8 H 68.8 H 45.3
B 2.9 B 5.9 B 11.7 B 23.4 B 46.9

W 0.8 W 1.6 W 3.2 W 4.7 W 5.5
H 96.3 H 92.6 H 85.2 H 71.7 H 47.7
B 3 B 6.1 B 12.1 B 24.2 B 48.3

W 0.4 W 0.8 W 1.6 W 2.3 W 2.7
H 96.6 H 93.2 H 86.3 H 73.4 H 48.8
B 1 B 1 B 1 B 1 B 1
W 0 W 0 W 0 W 0 W 0
H 31 H 15 H 7 H 3 H 1

Light tone scale staggered three columns left
B 0 B 0 B 0 B 0 B 0
W 1 W 1 W 3 W 7 W 15
H 3 H 1 H 1 H 1 H 1
B 0.1 B 0.2 B 0.4 B 0.8 B 1.6

W 24.2 W 48.4 W 72.7 W 84.8 W 90.8
H 75.7 H 51.4 H 27 H 14.5 H 7.6
B 0.2 B 0.4 B 0.8 B 1.6 B 3.1

W 23.4 W 46.9 W 70.3 W 82 W 87.9
H 76.4 H 52.7 H 28.9 H 16.4 H 9
B 0.4 B 0.8 B 1.6 B 3.1 B 6.3

W 21.9 W 43.8 W 65.6 W 76.6 W 82
H 77.7 H 55.5 H 32.8 H 20.3 H 11.7
B 0.8 B 1.6 B 3.1 B 6.3 B 12.5

W 18.8 W 37.5 W 56.3 W 65.6 W 70.3
H 80.5 H 60.9 H 40.6 H 28.1 H 17.2
B 1.6 B 3.1 B 6.3 B 12.5 B 25

W 12.5 W 25 W 37.5 W 43.8 W 46.9
H 85.9 H 71.9 H 56.3 H 43.8 H 28.1
B 2.3 B 4.6 B 9.4 B 18.8 B 37.5

W 6.2 W 12.5 W 18.8 W 21.9 W 23.4
H 91.4 H 82.8 H 71.9 H 59.4 H 39.1
B 2.7 B 5.5 B 10.9 B 21.9 B 43.8

W 3.1 W 6.3 W 9.4 W 10.9 W 11.7
H 94.1 H 88.3 H 79.7 H 67.2 H 44.5
B 2.9 B 5.9 B 11.7 B 23.4 B 46.9

W 1.6 W 3.1 W 4.7 W 5.5 W 5.9
H 95.5 H 91 H 83.6 H 71.1 H 47.3
B 3 B 6.1 B 12.1 B 24.2 B 48.4

W 0.8 W 1.6 W 2.3 W 2.7 W 2.9
H 96.2 H 92.4 H 85.5 H 73 H 48.6
B 1 B 1 B 1 B 1 B 1
W 0 W 0 W 0 W 0 W 0
H 31 H 15 H 7 H 3 H 1

Light tone scale staggered four columns left
B 0 B 0 B 0 B 0 B 0
W 1 W 3 W 7 W 15 W 31
H 1 H 1 H 1 H 1 H 1
B 0.1 B 0.2 B 0.4 B 0.8 B 1.6

W 48.4 W 72.7 W 84.8 W 90.8 W 93.8
H 51.5 H 27.1 H 14.8 H 8.4 H 4.6
B 0.2 B 0.4 B 0.8 B 1.6 B 3.1

W 46.9 W 70.3 W 82 W 87.9 W 90.8
H 53 H 29.3 H 17.2 H 10.5 H 6.1
B 0.4 B 0.8 B 1.6 B 3.1 B 6.3

W 43.8 W 65.6 W 76.6 W 82 W 84.8
H 55.9 H 33.6 H 21.9 H 14.8 H 9
B 0.8 B 1.6 B 3.1 B 6.3 B 12.5

W 37.5 W 56.3 W 65.6 W 70.3 W 72.7
H 61.7 H 42.2 H 31.3 H 23.4 H 14.8
B 1.6 B 3.1 B 6.3 B 12.5 B 25

W 25 W 37.5 W 43.8 W 46.9 W 48.4
H 73.4 H 59.4 H 50 H 40.6 H 26.6
B 2.3 B 4.7 B 9.4 B 18.8 B 37.5

W 12.5 W 18.8 W 21.8 W 23.4 W 24.2
H 85.2 H 76.6 H 68.8 H 57.8 H 38.3
B 2.7 B 5.5 B 10.9 B 21.9 B 43.8

W 6.3 W 9.4 W 10.9 W 11.7 W 12.1
H 91 H 85.2 H 78.1 H 66.4 H 44.1
B 2.9 B 5.9 B 11.7 B 23.4 B 46.9

W 3.1 W 4.7 W 5.5 W 5.9 W 6.1
H 93.9 H 89.5 H 82.8 H 70.7 H 47.1
B 3 B 6.1 B 12.1 B 24.2 B 48.4

W 1.6 W 2.3 W 2.7 W 2.9 W 3
H 95.4 H 91.6 H 85.2 H 72.9 H 48.5
B 1 B 1 B 1 B 1 B 1
W 0 W 0 W 0 W 0 W 0
H 31 H 15 H 7 H 3 H 1

Light tone scale staggered one column right
B 0 B 0 B 0 B 0 B 0
W 1 W 1 W 1 W 1 W 1
H 31 H 15 H 7 H 3 H 1
B 0.2 B 0.4 B 0.8 B 1.6 B 2.3

W 3 W 6.1 W 12.1 W 24.2 W 48.4
H 96.8 H 93.6 H 87.1 H 74.2 H 49.2
B 0.4 B 0.8 B 1.6 B 3.1 B 4.7

W 2.9 W 5.9 W 11.7 W 23.4 W 46.9
H 96.7 H 93.4 H 86.7 H 73.4 H 48.4
B 0.8 B 1.6 B 3.1 B 6.3 B 9.4

W 2.7 W 5.5 W 10.9 W 21.9 W 43.8
H 96.5 H 93 H 85.9 H 71.9 H 46.9
B 1.6 B 3.1 B 6.3 B 12.5 B 18.8

W 2.3 W 4.7 W 9.4 W 18.8 W 37.5
H 96.1 H 92.2 H 84.4 H 68.8 H 43.8
B 3.1 B 6.3 B 12.5 B 25 B 37.5

W 1.6 W 3.1 W 6.3 W 12.5 W 25
H 95.3 H 90.6 H 81.3 H 62.5 H 37.5
B 4.7 B 9.4 B 18.8 B 37.5 B 56.3

W 0.8 W 1.6 W 3.1 W 6.3 W 12.5
H 94.5 H 89.1 H 78.1 H 56.3 H 31.3
B 5.5 B 10.9 B 21.9 B 43.8 B 65.6

W 0.4 W 0.8 W 1.6 W 3.1 W 6.3
H 94.1 H 88.3 H 76.6 H 53.1 H 28.1
B 5.9 B 11.7 B 23.4 B 46.9 B 70.3

W 0.2 W 0.4 W 0.8 W 1.6 W 3.1
H 93.9 H 87.9 H 75.8 H 51.6 H 26.6
B 6.1 B 12.1 B 24.2 B 48.4 B 72.7

W 0.1 W 0.2 W 0.4 W 0.7 W 1.6
H 93.8 H 87.7 H 75.4 H 50.8 H 25.8
B 1 B 1 B 1 B 1 B 3
W 0 W 0 W 0 W 0 W 0
H 15 H 7 H 3 H 1 H 1

Light tone scale staggered two columns right
B 0 B 0 B 0 B 0 B 0
W 1 W 1 W 1 W 1 W 1
H 31 H 15 H 7 H 3 H 1
B 0.4 B 0.8 B 1.6 B 2.3 B 2.7

W 3 W 6.1 W 12.1 W 24.2 W 48.4
H 96.6 H 93.2 H 86.3 H 73.4 H 48.8
B 0.8 B 1.6 B 3.1 B 4.7 B 5.5

W 2.9 W 5.9 W 11.7 W 23.4 W 46.9
H 96.3 H 92.6 H 85.2 H 71.9 H 47.7
B 1.6 B 3.1 B 6.3 B 9.4 B 10.9

W 2.7 W 5.5 W 10.9 W 21.9 W 43.8
H 95.7 H 91.4 H 82.8 H 68.8 H 45.3
B 3.1 B 6.3 B 12.5 B 18.8 B 21.9

W 2.3 W 4.7 W 9.4 W 18.8 W 37.5
H 94.5 H 89.1 H 78.1 H 62.5 H 40.6
B 6.3 B 12.5 B 25 B 37.5 B 43.8

W 1.6 W 3.1 W 6.3 W 12.5 W 25
H 92.2 H 84.4 H 68.8 H 50 H 31.3
B 9.4 B 18.8 B 37.5 B 56.3 B 65.6

W 0.8 W 1.6 W 3.1 W 6.3 W 12.5
H 89.8 H 79.7 H 59.4 H 37.5 H 21.9
B 10.9 B 21.9 B 43.8 B 65.6 B 76.6

W 0.4 W 0.8 W 1.6 W 3.1 W 6.3
H 88.7 H 77.3 H 54.7 H 31.3 H 17.2
B 11.7 B 23.4 B 46.9 B 70.3 B 82

W 0.2 W 0.4 W 0.8 W 1.6 W 3.1
H 88.1 H 76.1 H 52.3 H 28.1 H 14.8
B 12.1 B 24.2 B 48.4 B 72.7 B 84.8

W 0.1 W 0.2 W 0.4 W 0.8 W 1.6
H 87.8 H 75.6 H 51.2 H 26.6 H 13.7
B 1 B 1 B 1 B 3 B 7
W 0 W 0 W 0 W 0 W 0
H 7 H 3 H 1 H 1 H 1

Light tone scale staggered three columns right
B 0 B 0 B 0 B 0 B 0
W 1 W 1 W 1 W 1 W 1
H 31 H 15 H 7 H 3 H 1
B 0.8 B 1.6 B 2.3 B 2.7 B 2.9

W 3 W 6.1 W 12.1 W 24.2 W 48.4
H 96.2 H 92.4 H 85.5 H 73 H 48.6
B 1.6 B 3.1 B 4.7 B 5.5 B 5.9

W 2.9 W 5.9 W 11.7 W 23.4 W 46.9
H 95.5 H 91 H 83.6 H 71.1 H 47.3
B 3.1 B 6.3 B 9.4 B 10.9 B 11.7

W 2.7 W 5.5 W 10.8 W 21.9 W 43.8
H 94.1 H 88.3 H 79.7 H 67.2 H 44.5
B 6.3 B 12.5 B 18.8 B 21.9 B 23.4

W 2.3 W 4.7 W 9.4 W 18.8 W 37.5
H 91.4 H 82.8 H 71.9 H 59.4 H 39
B 12.5 B 25 B 37.5 B 43.8 B 46.9

W 1.6 W 3.1 W 6.3 W 12.5 W 25
H 85.9 H 71.9 H 56.3 H 43.8 H 28.1
B 18.8 B 37.5 B 56.3 B 65.6 B 70.3

W 0.8 W 1.6 W 3.1 W 6.3 W 12.5
H 80.5 H 60.9 H 40.6 H 28.1 H 17.2
B 21.9 B 43.8 B 65.6 B 76.6 B 82

W 0.4 W 0.8 W 1.6 W 3.1 W 6.3
H 77.7 H 55.5 H 32.8 H 20.3 H 11.7
B 23.4 B 46.9 B 70.3 B 82 B 87.9

W 0.2 W 0.4 W 0.8 W 1.6 W 3.1
H 76.4 H 52.7 H 28.9 H 16.4 H 9
B 24.2 B 48.4 B 72.7 B 84.8 B 90.8

W 0.1 W 0.2 W 0.4 W 0.8 W 1.6
H 75.7 H 51.4 H 27 H 14.5 H 7.6
B 1 B 1 B 3 B 7 B 15
W 0 W 0 W 0 W 0 W 0
H 3 H 1 H 1 H 1 H 1

Light tone scale staggered four columns right
B 0 B 0 B 0 B 0 B 0
W 1 W 1 W 1 W 1 W 1
H 31 H 15 H 7 H 3 H 1
B 1.6 B 2.3 B 2.7 B 2.9 B 3

W 3 W 6.1 W 12.1 W 24.2 W 48.4
H 95.4 H 91.6 H 85.2 H 72.8 H 48.5
B 3.1 B 4.7 B 5.5 B 5.9 B 6.1

W 2.9 W 5.9 W 11.7 W 23.4 W 46.9
H 93.9 H 89.5 H 82.8 H 70.7 H 47.1
B 6.3 B 9.4 B 10.9 B 11.7 B 12.1

W 2.7 W 5.5 W 10.9 W 21.9 W 43.8
H 91 H 85.2 H 78.1 H 66.4 H 44.1
B 12.5 B 18.8 B 21.9 B 23.4 B 24.2

W 2.3 W 4.7 W 9.4 W 18.8 W 37.5
H 85.2 H 76.6 H 68.8 H 57.8 H 38.3
B 25 B 37.5 B 43.8 B 46.9 B 48.4

W 1.6 W 3.1 W 6.3 W 12.5 W 25
H 73.4 H 59.4 H 50 H 40.6 H 26.6
B 37.5 B 56.3 B 65.6 B 70.3 B 72.7

W 0.8 W 1.6 W 3.1 W 6.3 W 12.5
H 61.7 H 42.2 H 31.3 H 23.4 H 14.8
B 43.8 B 65.6 B 76.6 B 82 B 84.8

W 0.4 W 0.8 W 1.6 W 3.1 W 6.3
H 55.9 H 33.6 H 21.9 H 14.8 H 9
B 46.9 B 70.3 B 82 B 87.9 B 90.8

W 0.2 W 0.4 W 0.8 W 1.6 W 3.1
H 52.9 H 29.3 H 17.2 H 10.5 H 6.1
B 48.4 B 72.7 B 84.8 B 90.8 B 93.8

W 0.1 W 0.2 W 0.4 W 0.8 W 1.6
H 51.5 H 27.1 H 14.8 H 8.4 H 4.6
B 1 B 3 B 7 B 15 B 31
W 0 W 0 W 0 W 0 W 0
H 1 H 1 H 1 H 1 H 1

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Color as Iconic Form All Rights Reserved © 2020 Carl W. Rush 1 of 73

Copyright ©2020 by Carl W Rush

Color as Iconic Form All Rights Reserved © 2020 Carl W. Rush 2 of 73

Color as Iconic Form All Rights Reserved © 2020 Carl W. Rush 3 of 73

Diagram 2 Geometric Pigment Mixing Procedure 11

Diagram 3 Value Matching Mixing Procedure 15

Diagram 4 Procedure to produce a Geometric

Diagram 5 Percent of Hue, White and Black for each

Diagram 6 Selected Tones for a Relief Scale and the

Diagram 7 Percent of Hue, White and Black for each

Diagram 8 Mixing the Uniform Intensity Array and

Diagram 9 Percent of Hue, White and Black for the

Diagram 10 Percent of Hue, White and Black for the

Color as Iconic Form All Rights Reserved © 2020 Carl W. Rush 4 of 73

Figure 2-1 to 2-6 Value Matching 16-21

Figure 3 6 Examples of Uniform Hue Content

Figure 4-1 to 4-6 6 Arrays of Uniform Hue Content Scales 28-33

Figure 5 6 Relief Scales 35

Figure 6 6 Apparently Uniform Intensity Scales 38

Figure 7-1 to 7-3 Comparison of Uniform Hue Content

Figure 8 An Array of Apparently Uniform Intensity

Figure 9 The Perspective Array 44

Figure 10-1 to 10-2 Scales made with Substitutions for Black

Figure 11 Comparison of Uniform Hue Content 53

Figure 12-1 to 12-2 Staggered Arrays 54-55

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Some skills essential to the painter are often characterized as an

In the Western tradition of painting, the predominance of a type

This treatise presents a systematic and reliable method for

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The material presented here contains two remarkable

Painters are most often left to resolve the challenges of color

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The consistent, convenient production of a value scale, from

Difficulties understanding the required proportions are often the

Perceptual psychologists have described or demonstrated the

Diagram 1 shows the difference between Arithmetic Proportion

A simple pigment mixing procedure (described and

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Diagram 2 shows the pigment mixing procedure, doubling the

Figure 1 compares an Arithmetic Value Scale and a Geometric

Astute painters will appreciate the utility and myriad

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Arithmetic Volume Progression

Geometric Volume Progression

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Geometrically Proportional Pigment

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The ability to accurately determine the value of any hue or tone is

For example, select a tone. Mix a Geometric Value Scale as

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Figure 2 shows the results of the value matching procedure for 6

Appendix 1 lists some of the values I have already matched to the

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Value Matching Procedure