Chapter: 3

Power supply models

And Control Methods
 INTRODUCTION
• A basic disadvantage of the dc-dc converters is the electrical connection between the input
and the output.
• If the input supply is grounded, that same ground will be present on the output.
• A way to isolate the output from the input electrically is with a transformer.
• The switching frequency is much greater than the ac power-source frequency, enabling the
transformer to be small.
TRANSFORMER MODELS

Lm- magnetizing inductance,

rm- represents core loss.
 THE FLYBACK CONVERTER (Continuous-Current Mode)

a) Flyback converter b) Equivalent circuit using

a transformer model that includes the magnetizing inductance

Assumptions for the analysis are

1.The output capacitor is very large, resulting in a constant output voltage Vo.
2. The circuit is operating in the steady state
3. The duty ratio of the switch is D, being closed for time DT and open for (1 - D)T.
4. The switch and diode are ideal.
 Analysis for the Switch Closed

On the source side of the transformer

So while the switch is closed, current is increasing linearly in the magnetizing inductance
Lm, and there is no current in the windings of the ideal transformer in the model.
 Analysis for the Switch Open
 When the switch is open, the current cannot change
instantaneously in the inductance Lm, so the conduction
path must be through the primary turns of the ideal
transformer.
 The current iLm enters the undotted terminal of the
primary and must exit the undotted terminal of the
secondary.
 This is allowable since the diode current is positive.

 The transformer secondary voltage v2 becomes -Vo.

 The secondary voltage transforms back to the primary, establishing the voltage across Lm at
Since the net change in inductor current must be zero over one period for steady-state
operation.
 Note that vsw, the voltage across the open switch, is
greater than the source voltage.

 The power absorbed by the load resistor must be the same as that supplied by the source for the
ideal case.

 The average source current Is is related to the average of the magnetizing inductance current ILm by
 Substituting for Is in the above eqn and solving for ILm

(or) Using for Vs ,from the previous eqns the average

inductor current is also expressed as

The maximum and minimum values of inductor current

For Continuous-
current operation
requires that ILm,min > 0
 The boundary between continuous and discontinuous current is

 The minimum value of Lm that will allow continuous current,

 In a flyback converter design, Lm is selected to be larger than Lm,min to ensure

continuous current operation.

 A expression relating inductance and current variation is found from basic equations
 The output ripple voltage

 The equivalent series resistance of the capacitor can contribute significantly to the output voltage
ripple.
 The peak-to peak variation in capacitor current is the same as the maximum current in the diode
and the transformer secondary.

 The voltage ripple due to the ESR is

 Problem 1
• A flyback converter of has the following circuit parameters:
Determine (a) the required duty ratio D; (b) the
average, maximum, and minimum values for the
current in Lm; and (c) the output voltage ripple.

Solution :(a)

(b) Average current in Lm

The change in iLm

 Discontinuous-Current Mode in the Flyback Converter
• The current in the transformer magnetizing inductance decreases to zero before
the start of the next switching cycle.

 Since the current starts at zero, the maximum value is

also determined from the basic eqn.

For ideal

 Average source current is the area under the triangular waveform of Fig. 7-4b divided by the
period,
Equating source power and load power

Solving for Vo for discontinuous-current operation in the flyback converter

Problem 2: For the flyback converter in previous example , the load resistance is increased
from 5 to 20 with all other parameters remaining unchanged. Show that the magnetizing
inductance current is discontinuous, and determine the output voltage.
Solution:
THE FORWARD CONVERTER
• The transformer has three windings: windings 1 and 2 transfer energy from the source
to the load when the switch is closed; winding 3 is used to provide a path for the
magnetizing current when the switch is open and to reduce the magnetizing current to
zero before the start of each switching period.
 Analysis for the Switch Closed
Closing the switch establishes the voltage across
transformer winding 1, resulting in

showing that D3 is off. A positive v2 forward-biases D1 and reverse-biases D2.

 The relationship between input and output voltages can be determined by examining the current
in inductor Lx
 Analysis for the Switch Open

• The currents in Lx and Lm do not change instantaneously when the switch is opened.
• Continuity of iLm establishes i1=-iLm.
• Looking at the transformation from winding 1 to 2, current out of the dotted terminal on 1 would
establish current into the dotted terminal on 2, but diode D1 prevents current in that direction.
• For the transformation from winding 1 to 3, current out of the dotted terminal of winding 1 forces
current into the dotted terminal of winding 3. Diode D3 is then forward-biased to provide a path
for winding 3 current, which must go back to the source.

 When D3 is on, the voltage across winding 3 is established at; 𝑣3 = −𝑉𝑠

• With v3 established, v1 and v2 become

• With D1 off and positive current in Lx, D2 must be on. With D2 on, the voltage across Lx is

 It indicates the inductor current decreases linearly when the switch is open.

 For steady-state operation, the net change in inductor current over one period must be zero.i.e

It is similar to that for

the buck dc-dc
converter.
• The voltage across Lm is v1( which is negative)

When the switch opens, the

eqn shows that iLm decreases
linearly.

 The current in Lm should return to zero before the start of the next period to reset the
transformer core (return the magnetic flux to zero).

 For iLm to return to zero after the switch is opened, the decrease in current must equal
the increase in current.

 Let Tx be the time for iLm to decrease from the peak back to zero,
 • The time at which the current iLm reaches zero t0, is

• The voltage across the open switch is (Vs- V1)

 The output voltage ripple based on an ideal

capacitance is(same as buck converter)

 The peak-to-peak voltage variation due to the ESR is

Problem 3: The forward converter of has the following parameters:
(a) Determine the output voltage, the maximum and minimum
currents in Lx, and the output voltage ripple.
(b) Determine the peak current in the transformer primary winding.
Verify that the magnetizing current is reset to zero during each
switching period.
Solution
(a) The output voltage is :

The change in iLx is

• Calculate the output voltage ripple by

(b) Current in the primary winding of the transformer is the sum of the reflected current
from the secondary and the magnetizing currents.

The peak secondary current is the same as ILx,max . It is calculate as

 The time for the magnetizing current to return to zero after the switch is opened is

 the time at which the magnetizing current reaches zero is

22.8 µs ,which is less than the switching period of 28.6 µs.
 THE PUSH-PULL CONVERTER
 Another dc-dc converter that has transformer isolation
is the push-pull converter shown in Fig. a.
 Switches Sw1 and Sw2 turn on and off with the switching
sequence shown in Fig.b.
Case(i) When the Switch Sw1 Closed Push-pull converter
The voltage across primary winding P1 at

Switching sequence

Voltage vx;

Current in Lx
• In the interval when Sw1 is closed, the change in current in Lx is
VLx

Case ii: Switch Sw2 Closed

Closing Sw2 establishes the voltage across primary winding P2 at

 The current in Lx increases linearly while Sw2 is closed, the eqn same as previous
Case iii. Both Switches Open
With both switches open, the current in each of the primary windings is zero.
The current in the filter inductor Lx must maintain continuity, resulting in both D1 and D2
becoming forward-biased.
• The voltage across each secondary winding is zero, and
 Ripple voltage on the output is derived in a manner similar to the buck converter.
The output ripple for the push-pull converter is

 The equivalent series resistance (ESR) of the capacitor is usually responsible for most of
the voltage output ripple.
Assignment
 FULL-BRIDGE DC-DC CONVERTERS
• The full-bridge converter is shown in Fig are similar in operation to the push-pull
converter.

(b) Switching sequence

(a) Full-bridge converter

 The output of the full-bridge converter is analyzed (c) Voltage on the transformer primary
as for the push-pull converter.

 The maximum voltage across an open switch for the full- (d) Voltage vx.
bridge converter is Vs,
The half-bridge converter

(b) Switching sequence

(a) Half-bridge converter

 It has capacitors C1 and C2 which are large and equal in (c) Voltage on the transformer primary
value.

 The input voltage is equally divided between the capacitors.

 the input and output voltages for the half-bridge converter is (d) Voltage vx.
POWER SUPPLY CONTROL
• In ideal switching dc-dc converters, the output voltage is a function of the input voltage
and duty ratio.
• The output is also a function of the load current because of resistances in the
components.
• A power supply output is regulated by modulating the duty ratio to compensate for
variations in the input or load.
• A feedback control system for power supply control compares output voltage to a
reference and converts the error to a duty ratio.
The converter and feedback loop consisting of
1. The switch, including the diode and drive circuit
2. The output filter
3. A compensated error amplifier
4. A pulse-width modulating circuit that converts the output of the
compensated error amplifier to a duty ratio to drive the switch
 (b) Control representation.
a) Buck converter with feedback
 Filter Transfer Function
• The input to the buck converter filter is the switch output, which is Vx= Vsd.
• The transfer function of the filter with the load resistor is
Pulse-Width Modulation Transfer Function

• The pulse-width modulation (PWM) circuit converts the output from the
compensated error amplifier to a duty ratio.
• The error amplifier output voltage vc is compared to a sawtooth waveform with
amplitude Vp,
• The output of the PWM circuit is high when vc is larger than the sawtooth and is zero
when vc is less than the sawtooth.
• If the output voltage falls below the reference, the error between the converter output
and the reference signal increases, causing vc to increase and the duty ratio to increase.
.Transfer function for the PWM
Type 2 Error Amplifier with Compensation
• The error amplifier compares the converter output voltage with a reference voltage to
produce an error signal that is used to adjust the duty ratio of the switch.
• Compensation associated with the amplifier determines control loop performance and
provides for a stable control system.
• the amplifier should have a high gain at low frequencies, a low gain at high frequencies,
and an appropriate phase shift at the crossover frequency.

 The gain function G(s)

Design of a Type 2 Compensated Error Amplifier
• The mid frequency gain and the location of the pole and zero of the transfer function of
the compensated error amplifier must be selected to provide the desired total open-loop
crossover frequency and phase margin required for stability.
• The transfer function of the compensated error amplifier

 The phase angle ϴ comp of the compensated error amplifier transfer function of

 The 180 is from the negative sign, and the 90 is from the pole at the origin
 Design procedure for the type 2 compensated error amplifier
1. Choose the desired crossover frequency of the total open-loop transfer function. This is
usually around an order of magnitude less than the converter switching frequency. Some
designers go as high as 25 percent of the switching frequency.
2. Determine the transfer function and frequency response of all elements in the control circuit
except for the compensated error amplifier.
3. Determine the mid frequency gain of the compensated error amplifier required to achieve the
overall desired crossover frequency. This establishes the R2/R1 ratio.
4. Choose the desired phase margin needed to ensure stability, typically greater than 45
degrees.
The phase angle ϴcomp of the compensated error amplifier at the crossover frequency ωco is

A procedure for selecting the pole and zero frequencies is the K factor method
K factor method
• Let the zero and pole of the transfer function be at

Then

The angle ϴcomp is the desired phase angle

of the compensated error amplifier at the
crossover frequency.
 If the desired crossover frequency ωco is known, then ω z ,ω p, C1 and C2 are to
be determined by the following equation.
 Design of a Type 2 Compensated Error Amplifier
For a buck converter shown in Fig. 7-26a,Design a type 2 compensated error amplifier that
results in a stable control system

Solution:
1. The crossover frequency of the total open-loop transfer function (the frequency where the
gain is 1, or 0 dB) should be well below the switching frequency. Let fco =10 kHz.
3. The compensated error amplifier should therefore have
a gain of +11.78 dB at 10 kHz to make the loop gain 0 dB.

Converting the gain in decibels to a ratio of vc/vo,

The ac circuit for determining the

The magnitude of the mid-frequency gain is frequency response of the
converter
Letting R1 =1 kΩ, is then R2 = 3.88 k Ω.
4. The phase angle of the compensated error amplifier at crossover must be adequate to give a
phase margin of at least 45. The required phase angle of the amplifier is
Type 2 Amplifier
 Worksheet
1. The flyback converter has parameters Vs 36 V, D 0.4, N1/N2 2, R 20 , Lm 100 H, and
C 50 F, and the switching frequency is100 kHz.
Determine (a) the output voltage; (b) the average, maximum, and minimum inductor currents;
and (c) the output voltage ripple.
2. The forward converter has parameters Vs 100 V, N1/N2 N1/N3 1, Lm 1 mH, Lx 70 H, R
20 , C 33 F, and D 0.35, and the switching frequency is 150 kHz. Determine (a) the output
voltage and output voltage ripple; (b) the average, maximum, and minimum values of the
current in Lx; (c) the peak current in Lm in the transformer model; and (d) the peak current in
the switch and the physical transformer primary.
3. The forward converter has parameters Vs 170 V, N1/N2 10, N1/N3 1, Lm 340 H, Lx 20
H, R 10 , C 10 F, D 0.3, and the switching frequency is 500 kHz. Determine(a) the output
voltage and output voltage ripple. (b) Sketch the currents in Lx, Lm, each transformer winding,
and Vs. (c) Determine the power returned to the source by the tertiary (third) transformer
winding from the recovered stored energy in Lm.
4. The push-pull converter of Fig. 7-8a has the following parameters: Vs 50 V, Np/Ns 2, Lx
60 H, C 39 F, R 8 , f 150 kHz, and D 0.35.
Determine (a) the output voltage, (b) the maximum and minimum inductor currents, and (c)
the output voltage ripple.
5. A buck converter has a filter transfer function that has a magnitude of 15 dB and phase
angle of 105 at 5 kHz. The gain of the PWM circuit is 9.5 dB. Design a type 2 compensated
error amplifier that will give a phase margin of at least 45 for a crossover frequency of 5
kHz.