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Note 25 Level 1

36 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
April 2013 Technical Guidance Note

Introduction to fatigue
Introduction ICON W Definition
of fatigue
Fatigue is a phenomenon that is rarely encountered by structural LEGEND
engineers, especially those who work exclusively in the realm of building
structures. It only occurs when an element of a structure is subjected to W Applied practice
cyclical loading over a sustained period. Hence this being a factor in the
design of bridge elements, especially those that are exposed to vehicular
W Further reading
traffic, as that is a form of cyclical loading.
This Technical Guidance Note defines what fatigue is and how its effects
can be countered. Detailed analysis of fatigue is not covered as it is a W Web resources
complex procedure beyond the scope of a Level 1 Guidance Note.

Definition of fatigue

The New Dictionary of Civil Engineering

defines fatigue as ‘the reduction in the S1
Stress

integrity of a structural element due to

repeatedly applying a stress within the S2
elastic limit of the material the element is
S3
made from.’ Continued exposure to fatigue
can result in a brittle failure of an element
from a load that would normally be resisted if
n1 n2 n3
it were static in nature. This occurs because
the integrity of the material is broken Number of cycles to failure
down, which results in a crack that rapidly
propagates as further loads are applied. This
then leads to the element ultimately failing. N Figure 2
S-N Curve While these tests do demonstrate the
capacity of a material, they do not accurately
The concept of fatigue is well known within Fatigue test reflect the conditions that are common in
the field of structural engineering, but in the More scientific methods of testing for actual structures. To correlate between
interests of reinforcing the theories behind fatigue are based on replicating cyclic the ideal sinusoidal approach and the
the analysis of members that are subject loading onto an element within a controlled actual conditions, it is prudent to review
to fatigue, a simple test demonstrates the environment. Loads are applied to the the time-history analysis of the structure
point. By taking a paper clip and bending a element under test within a sinusoidal when it is placed under load, and to discover
section of it repeatedly until it breaks, the pattern. The test continues until failure any sections of the results that match a
resistance to the force applied reduces at occurs or a predetermined number of cycles sinusoidal pattern. This approach is known
every turn, until it eventually breaks due are reached. The results are then plotted as Miner’s Rule and can be summarised thus:
to the brittle failure described previously. on a stress endurance curve (Figure 2).
Some deformation, heat generation and Generically known as an S-N curve, the / Nn n
1
n
2
n
= N1 + N2 + N3 + ... = 1
3
discolouration will be evident at the point vertical axis is the measured stress within
about which the paper clip is being bent. the element while the horizontal axis Where:
Figure 1 shows a paperclip that has been plots the corresponding number of cycles N is the number of cycles to the point of
subjected to fatigue. to failure. failure at an applied stress level within the
structure
n is the number of cycles applied at an
applied stress level within the structure

However, this can be regarded as an over-

simplification as there is no reference made
to the order of the application of loads that
causes the stress to occur. This should
be born in mind when using Miner’s
W Figure 1
Paperclip
subjected to fatigue
Rule to determine the fatigue lifespan of
the structure.

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37

Structural steel and fatigue

Steel members contain inherent microscopic
flaws. These flaws can open up when a
steel element is exposed to fatigue and
therefore their presence has an impact on Butt weld
a member’s resistance. Steel’s inherent
resistance to fatigue can be assumed to be
approximately half of its ultimate strength.
This applies provided the element is small,
has a polished surface and no significant
stress concentrations. When an element
deviates from these conditions its resistance
to fatigue is reduced. For example, if the E Figure 3
Welded connections
showing flow of stress
surface is not polished then the flaws in the through them Fillet weld
steel would remain. There would also be no
areas of high stress concentration relative
to the size of the element, as would be the mechanism created by the bolts prevents Fatigue impact on design life
case with larger steel members. the element from moving and so the The effect fatigue has on the design life of
friction between the elements resists the structures can be pronounced. Elements
Corrosion and fatigue effects of fatigue. This only applies to designed to withstand the effects of fatigue,
Corrosion must be considered when simple connections as bending moment cannot be expected to do so indefinitely. The
analysing a steel structure for fatigue. It connections have a tension component element will succumb to brittle failure at some
has been proven that due primarily to the within them. Such connections make use of point but it is the responsibility of the designer
increased brittle state of steel caused its resistance to prying, which becomes an to make sure that the point at which this
by corrosion, its resistance to fatigue element that resists fatigue. occurs, is beyond the structure’s design life.
is significantly reduced. Conversely the
deposits generated due to corrosion can Reinforced concrete and fatigue
fill the flaws described previously, which Reinforced concrete elements are less prone Eurocode 0.
partially counter the brittle effect of the to fatigue failure due to the relatively low Applied practice
corrosion. It does this by reducing the stresses present, compared to their steel
propagation of crack growth within the counterparts. Concrete structures that are
material. This is of great importance when subject to high stresses are more liable to BS EN 1993-1-9 Eurocode 3: Design of Steel
designing elements that are exposed to suffer the effects of fatigue, as are those that Structures – Part 1-9: Fatigue
marine environments, which are naturally are exposed to cyclic impact loading. A good
corrosive. example of such structures is road bridges. NA to BS EN 1993-1-9 Eurocode 3: UK
Annex to Design of Steel Structures – Part
Connection type and fatigue Typically the mode of failure consists of 1-9: Fatigue
The type of connection within a steel premature cracking from loads that are
structure has an impact on its resistance to approximately half what the element was
the effects of fatigue. Welded connections designed to resist in the static condition.
Glossary and
react differently to bolted ones. Some Reinforced concrete elements resist
further reading
understanding of how these types of the effects of fatigue through the steel
connection resist fatigue is needed when reinforcement bars within them. According Cyclical loading – repeated actions upon a
designing structures that are subject to this to tests and research carried out on the structure that occur over a long period of time.
form of loading. subject, straight bars have a much greater
resistance than those that are bent. S-N curve – A plot of applied stresses vs.
Welded connections the number of times the stress is applied
Structures that contain a significant amount Prestressed concrete elements are almost prior to failure or when a predetermined
of welded connections are weak against immune to the effects of fatigue if the level number of cycles are reached.
fatigue. This is due to the difficulty in of precompression is such that no cracks
creating the connections, which leads to are generated within the concrete. This Sinusoidal – A mathematical phrase for a
stress concentrations due to poorly applied is due to the fact that the entire concrete curve that describes repetitive oscillation.
welds. The flow of stress passes directly element is resisting stress changes within it
through butt welds and as a result, they are and not just the steel reinforcement, making Further Reading
the most effective weld type in terms of it more efficient. Young W.C., Budynas R.G. and Sadegh A.M.
resisting fatigue. By contrast, fillet welds do (2012) Roark’s Formulas for Stress and Strain
not offer the same level of resistance due to Where prestressed concrete elements do (8th ed.) New York: McGraw Hill
the change in direction of stresses within the have cracks, then the resistance to the
connection (Figure 3). effects of fatigue becomes significant. Eurocode 0.
This is especially the case in exposed Web resources
Bolted connections environments that may result in water
Bolted connections resist fatigue via ingress. This would cause corrosion in the
the friction they provide between the prestressing strands within the concrete and The Institution of Structural Engineers library:
elements fixed through them. The clamping thus reduce their effectiveness. www.istructe.org/resources-centre/library

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