POWER SYSTEMS –II LAB

Department of
Electrical and Electronics Engineering

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 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Determination of Equivalent circuit of a 3‐winding transformer.

2. Determination of sequence impedances of a cylindrical rotor synchronous

machine.

3. Fault Analysis of a 3 phase Alternator, (LG, LL, LLG,LLLG faults).

4. Determination of Sub-transient reactance`s of Salient Pole Synchronous Machine .

5. Determination of Positive, Negative and zero sequence reactance of 3 ph

Transformers.

6. IDMT Characteristics of Over Current Relay Make : EASUN Reyrolle ltd.,

7. Characteristics of Percentage biased of Static/Electro Magnetic differential Relay

8. Characteristics of Static Relay UV/OV 7052B/7053B, Make : L&T ltd.,

9. Characteristics of Static Negative Sequence Relay 7055B. Make : ALSTOM ,

10. Performance and Testing of Generator/Transformer Protection System.

11. Performance and Testing of Transmission line Model 220KV/ 400Km .

12. Differential Protection on Single Phase Transformer.

1. Determination of Equivalent circuit of a 3‐winding transformer.

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Aim: i) To find the positive, negative and zero sequence impedances of the given three phase
three winding (Star Star Delta) transformer and
ii) Obtain the equivalent circuit of the transformer.
Apparatus:
Voltmeters: 0-300V, 0-600V
Ammeter :
Wattmeter: 0-600V, A, UPF 2Nos
Wattmeter: 0-300V, A, LPF 1No.
Note:
Subscripts 1,2 and 3 refer to primary, secondary and tertiary.
Theory:
For a 3 phase, star-star-tertiary transformer (secondary earthed), the following impedances are
defined with reference to the primary.
Z12 : Leakage impedance of the transformer, as measured from with the secondary(2) short circuited
and the tertiary(3) left open.
Z13: Leakage impedance of the transformer seen from the primary with the tertiary short circuited and
the secondary left open.
Z23: Leakage impedance as measured from the secondary with tertiary short circuited and primary left
open.
Now Z12 = Z1 +Z2 ----(1)
Z13=Z1+Z3 -----(2)
Z23 =Z2+Z3 ----(3)
Where Z1 =leakage impedance per phase of the primary winding
Z2’ = (N1/N2)2 Z2 is the leakage impedance of secondary referred to the primary by the square of the
turns ratio, ie (N1/N2).
Z3’ = (N1/N2)2 Z3 leakage impedance of the tertiary winding referred to the primary by (N 1/N2)2
From equations (1),(2) and (3), we obtain

Z1 = (Z12+ Z13 - Z23)/2 -----(4)

Z2’= (Z12+ Z23 - Z13)/2 ----(5)

Z3’ = (Z13+ Z23 - Z12 )/2 ---(6)

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The leakage impedances, Z12, Z23 and Z13 can be obtained by short circuit test and the per phase
leakages impedances Z1 Z2’ and Z3’ are obtained from eqs. (4),(5) and (6).

The equivalent circuit of the three winding transformer is shown below.

Procedure: Positive and negative sequence impedance (Z P and ZN)

1. Connect the transformer to the variable 3 phase supply as per figure1.

2. Vary the 3 phase auto transformer tap position, so that the rated current of the transformers flows
through the winding1.
3. Note the readings on the wattmeters, voltmeter and ammeter.
4. Calculate Z12 as given in the tabular column, which is given below.

V I W1 W2 P=W1+W2 cosØ=P/√ 3VI Z12=(V/

√ 3 ¿/ I

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R12= Z12 cosØ

X12= Z12 sinØ

5. Refer the figure2 and figure3 repeat steps 1 to 4 and find Z 23

llly R23 = Z23 cosØ

X23= Z23 sinØ

[Z12 is replaced by Z23 in the last (right most) column of the above table .

Zero sequence impedance (Z0)

6. Connect as per figure 4 and vary the output from the single phase autotransformer, so that the
rated current flows through the primary winding of the transformer, note the readings of W, Vand I as
given under steps 10 to 40 is used for calculations with the understanding that Z 12 is replaced by
Z0=V/3I

R0 = Z0cosØ
X0= Z0 sinØ
For the star star delta transformer with secondary earthed, Z 0 = Z23 .

The positive and negative sequence impedances for a transformer are equal and

ZP =ZN =Z1+Z2 between primary and secondary and ZP =ZN =Z1+Z3 between primary and tertiary, as
seen from the equivalent circuit.

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Fig.1Circuit diagram to measure the impedances Z 12,Z23 and Z13 as defined for a three winding three
phase transformer( Star star Delta)

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Fig2. Circuit Diagram to measure the impedance Z 23 for star star delta transformer

Fig3. Circuit Diagram to measure the impedance Z 13 for star delta transformer

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Fig-4 circuit diagram to find the Zero Phase Sequence impedance (Star/star/delta transformer)

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Introduction

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Multi-winding power transformers and autotransformers are important components in transmission and
distribution power systems. They make possible the transfer of energy between networks operating at various
voltage levels, the interconnection of multiple shaft combined cycle generating units to a power grid and the
connection of reactive compensation resources to EHV transmission networks, just to name a few applications.
The modeling of these power system components in the steady state analysis of electrical networks is critical
since incorrect data for their positive sequence winding leakage impedance, magnetizing admittance, off-
nominal turn ratios, number of tap positions, tap range or voltage control band may lead to erroneous results in
the verification of voltage and reactive power control schemes, and in the assessment of transmission losses
and system reliability.
The main objective of this article is to assist PSS®E users with a guide for entering electrical transformerdata
for the positive sequence model of the electrical network with a minimum of effort and minimizing the potential
for errors.Notes and suggestions for entering each of the required model variables are given below, along with
an example demonstrating the entry of the data for a three-winding voltage regulating transformer.
Model Data Requirements The positive sequence network model used by PSS®E for three-phase three-winding
transformers or autotransformers or three-phase banks of three identical single-phase three-winding
transformers is shown in Figure 1 below. The model includes the three equivalent leakage impedances of the
windings, Z1= r1 +j x1, Z2 = r2 +j x2 and Z3 = r3 +j x3, and allows off-nominal taps to be represented on each
of the windings. This model also allows the modeling of the transformer magnetizing admittance, Ym = Gh+e –j
Bm, that is often neglected on the I-side (winding 1) of the transformer. One of the many features found in
PSS® E is that the user does not have to calculate the between-windings leakage impedances, magnetizing
admittance, effective off-nominal transformer taps, tap steps or tap limits; these calculations are performed
within PSS®E.

2. Determination of sequence impedances of a cylindrical rotor

Synchronous Machine .

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1. Aim: To determine the Positive, Negative and Zero sequence of impedances or sequence
impedances of the given three phase alternator.

2. Apparatus:- Three phase alternator DC motor set

Ammeter (0 –2.5 A) -----MC

(0—10 A) -----MI

Wattmeter ( 10 A 75/150/600V)

Auto-Transformer ( 0—230V)

3. Theory: The positive, Negative and Zero sequence impedances of rotating machines are generally
different. The +ve sequence impedance of Synchronous generator is equal to the Synchronous
impedance of the machine. Experimental set up to conduct OCC and SCC is made available. With the
help of observations Synchronous impedance can be calculated. The –ve sequence impedance is
much less than +ve Sequence impedance. The zero sequence impedance is a variable item and if its
value is not given, it may be assumed to be equal to the +ve sequence impedance. For Zero
sequence impedance a separate model is used to conduct of experiment.

4. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

(A) POSITIVE SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE

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(B) NEGATIVE SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE:

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DETERMINATION OF ZERO-SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE:

5. Procedure:-

I. POSITIVE SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE

1. Obtain the O.C.C of the Alternator by connecting the Alternator

As in fig .1.

2. Obtain the S.C.C of the Alternator by connecting the Alternator

as in fig .2.

3. Determine the stator resistance / phase by connecting as shown

in fig.3.

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 Zs = O.C voltage / S.C current (at a same value of field current)

II NEGATIVE SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE

1. Connect the Circuit as shown in the fig.4.

2. Run the machine at rated speed with low excitation to the field of the Alternator.
3. The lines B and C shorted and the meters are connected as Shown

Cos Ø = W/ (VI)

Z 2 = V/ ( √(3 I)

III ZERO SEQUENCY IMPEDANCE

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig. 5.

2. Three phase winding are connected in series.
3. Apply low voltage to the Armature, so that rated full load current flow in the series field winding.

Z 0 = V ao / Iao = 3E/I

6. Readings and Tabular forms:

Si.No. E I P Zo Xo

7. Result:

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8. Discussion Questions:

1. Define +ve, -ve, Zero sequence impedances.

2. Why are they different for Alternators?
3. Can we analyze an unbalanced system otherwise?
4. What is the effect on the value of zero sequence reactance if the synchronous machine is
rotated at synchronous speed during the above experiment?
5. Out of all the reactance of synchronous machine which one is lowest?
6. What is the typical value of zero sequence reactance in per unit per large rating salient pole
alternator?

1. Fault Analysis of a 3 phase Alternator, (LG, LL, LLG,LLLG faults).

Aim: To determine the fault currents on an unloaded synchronous generator for

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(a) Line to ground fault (L-G Fault)
(b) Line to Line fault (L-L fault)
(c) Double Line to ground fault (LL-G Fault)

Apparatus Required:

Ammeter (0-10A) MI -- 1 No

Ammeter (0-2A) MC -- 1 No

Voltmeter (0-500V) -- 1 No

Procedure:

(a) L-G Fault:

1) Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram for a line to ground fault on phase A .
2) Calculate the determinate value of the fault current from impedances
(+,-, Zero sequences).

3) Run the generator rated speed.

4) Increase the field current of excitation so that terminal voltage is constant value.
5) Close the switch to create the L-G fault on Phase A.
6) Note the current and voltage in the ammeter and voltmeter.
7) Open the switch and remove the L-G fault on phase A.
8) Reduce the excitation and open the field circuit switch and switch of the prime mover.

(b) L-L fault:

(1) Repeat the steps 1 to 6 for L-L and L-G faults.

(2) Connect the respective circuit in step 1.
(3) Generator is excited its a certain voltage as mention in step 2 of the procedure.

Note: This voltage must be such that it does not cause the rated current of the machine to be
exceeded.

Circuit diagram for L-G fault:

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18
 S.No. I in Amps Ef in Volts

Ia =3Ef/Z1+Z2+Z0 ------------------------------ (1)

Where Ia is fault current

Ef is the voltage to which the machine is excited

Z1+Z2+Z0 are the positive, negative and zero sequence impedances of the machine.

Verify the theoretical value calculated by using equation 1 with the actual value noted by the ammeter.

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(b) Circuit diagram for Line to line fault (L-L fault):

S.N I in E
o. Am in
ps Vol
ts

Ia1 = Ef/Z1+Z2

Ib = a2Ia1+aIa2; Ia2 = -Ia1 Where a2 = (-0.5-j0.866)

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 a= (-0.5+j0.866)

Fault current calculated which must be verified with the actual value.

(C) Circuit Diagram for Double line to ground fault (LL-G fault):

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 S.No. I in Amps Ef in Volts

Calculations:

Va1 = Va2=Va0=Ef-Ia1Z1

Ia1 = Ef/Z1+(Z2xZ0/Z2+Z0)

Ia2 = -Va2/Z2 ; Ia0= -Va0/Z0

Ib = a2Ia1+a Ia2+Ia0

Where a2 =(-0.5+j0.866) ; a=(-0.5+l0.866)

In = 3 Ia0 = Ib+IC

Ic = - Ib=aIa1-a2Ia1

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2. Determination of Sub-transient reactance`s of Salient Pole Synchronous
Machine .

1. AIM: To conduct the slip test on three phase alternator and to predetermine the

Regulation.

2. APPARATUS:

Ammeter (0-10A, MI) - 1 No

Voltmeter (0-60V, MI) - 1 No

Rheostat (40 Ώ, 5A) - 1 No

3 – Ø Variac (0-440 V, 15A)- 1No

Tachometer (0-9999rpm) - 1 No

3. THEORY:

The direct axis and quadrature axis reactance of a salient pole generator are found by doing the slip
test. The phasor diagram of the alternator is then obtained after finding the d-axis reactance drop and
q-axis reactance drop for a known current and power factor. The generated emf is determined from
the phasor diagram and is used to find the regulation.

Formulae:

1. Armature resistance R a = 1.25R dc. Where R dc is the resistance with DC supply.

2. Quadrature axis impedance per phase Zq = Vmin / Imax in ohms.
3. Direct axis Impedance per phase Zd = V max / I min ohms.
4. Direct axis reactance per phase Xd = √(Z d2 – R a2) in ohms.
5. Quadrature axis reactance per phase Xq =√( Zq 2 - R a2) in ohms.
6. Percentage regulation = ((E-V ) / V) × 100.

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4. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

5. PROCEDURE:

1. Give the connections as per the 4.CIRCUIT DIAGRAM.

2. Give the supply by closing the DPST switch.
3. Start the motor to run at the synchronous speed by varying the motor.
Field rheostat at the same time cheek whether alternator field has been opened or not.

4. Apply 5% of the rated phase voltage to the armature of the alternator by adjusting

the autotransformer.

5. To obtain the slip and maximum oscillations of pointers, the speed is reduced

slightly below synchronous speed.

6. Maximum current, minimum current, maximum voltage and minimum voltage are

noted.

7. Find out direct and quadrature axis impedances.

8. Find out the armature resistance per phase for the alternator by connecting as per the 4.CIRCUIT
DIAGRAM.
9. Draw the vector diagram and calculate the regulation.

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PRECAUTIONS:

1. The motor rheostat should be kept in the minimum resistance position.

2. The alternator field rheostat should be kept open through the experiment.
3. The direction of rotation of the prime mover and the alternator run as a motor should be the same.
4. Initially all the switches are kept open.

6. READINGS AND TABULAR FORM

TO FIND DIRECT AXIS IMPEDANCE

Speed of the alternator:

Applied voltage to the stator (5% of rated voltage):

Minimum current per Maximum Direct axis Direct axis

S.No. phase voltage per Impedance reactance

(Imin) phase (Vmax) Zd Xd

Amperes Volts ohms ohms

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 TO FIND QUADRATURE AXIS IMPEDANCE

Quadrature Quadrature
Maximum current per Minimum axis axis
S.No. phase voltage per Impedance reactance
(Imax) phase (Vmin)
Zq Xq

Amperes Volts ohms ohms

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 TO FINDOUT THE ARMATURE RESISTANCE

ARMATURE RESISTANCE DETERMINATION:

S.No V I Rdc= V/I

Ra = 1.25 x Rdc

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7. RESULTS:

8. DISCUSSION:

1. Why is a salient pole machine said to be ‘stiffer’ than a cylindrical machine?

2. Give in detail the construction of a salient pole machine.
3. For which type of prime mover is a salient pole machine suitable?
4. Sketch the power angle characteristics of a salient pole machine.
5. What is reluctance power?

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 5. Determination of Positive, Negative and zero sequence reactance of
3 ph Transformers.

1. Aim: -

To determine the Positive, Negative and Zero sequence (sequence impedance) of the given three
phase transformer

2. Apparatus: -

Ammeter -------- 0 – 5 A MI ----- 01

Voltmeter --------- 0 – 60 MI ----- 01

3. Theory:

Since Transformers have the same impedance with reversed phase rotation, their +ve and –ve
sequence impedances are equal. This value being equal to the impedance of the Transformer.
However, Zero sequence impedance depends upon the Earth connection. If there is a through Circuit
for the earth current, zero sequence impedance will be equal to the +ve sequence impedance
otherwise it will be infinite. Lab experiment is planned to find out sequence impedances by creation of
faults at secondary suitably and measure impedances. Proper care is taken to ensure readings would
not damage the equipment.

1. Circuit Diagram:

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5. Procedure: -

 Connect the given three phase transformer as shown in the circuit Diagram
1
 After short-circuiting the low voltage side adjusts the voltage on high voltage
side with the help of the autotransformer such that the rated current flows in the
windings.
 Note down the voltage and current.
 From these readings determine the transformer positive sequence
Impedance which is also equal to negative sequence impedance.
 Determine the zero sequence impedance of the transformer by making
connections as shown in the 4. Circuit Diagram 2.
 Note down the voltage and current.

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 V
Z 1=
√3 I
Z 2 =Z1

V
Z 0=
3I

6. Readings and Tabular form:

7. Result:

Discussion Questions:

1. Define Sequence Impedances.

2. Explain symmetrical components method.
3. Why +ve, -ve sequence impedances same for a transformer?

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 6. IDMT Characteristics of Over Current Relay Make : EASUN Reyrolle.

1. Aim: To study the Operation of an Non- Directional electromechanical type over current (I D M T relay) and
plot the inverse time current characteristics.

2. Apparatus:

Non-Directional Over current relay --1 no

Time Totalizer --1 no

Fault creation Panel --1 no

Digital Ammeter --1 no

3. Theory:

IDMT relay is inverse definite minimum time relay. It is one in which Time of operation is inversely
proportional to magnitude of fault current near pickup value and becomes substantially constant slightly
above the pickup value of the Relay. This is achieved by using a core of the Electro Magnet which gets
saturated for currents slightly greater than the pickup current. Fault current and measure relay operation time
is used to conduct the experiment. Values recorded for various TSMs and PSMs. Characteristics studied with
the help of a graph and correlated with theory.

This relay consists of Induction disc unit with an operation indicator and in some cases an
instantaneous high set unit all assembled are in standard frame. Type disc shaft carried silver rod moving
contacts which complete the auxiliary unit circuit through the fixed contract. Permanent magnet is used to
control the disc speed. The setting is adjusted by the movement of the back stop which is controlled by the
rotating a KNUR LED molded disc at the base of graduated time multiplier.

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4. Circuit Diagram:

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5. Procedure:-

1. Switch ON the MCB.

2. Initially rotor switch should be in OFF position.

3. Now set the described fault current by using the current source. For that switch ON the rotor switch and
move the current till the described fault current is indicated in the ammeter.

4. Now move the rotor switch is OFF position and press the green button. Note down the time in seconds
after relay operated.

5. Repeat the same procedure for various T.S.M and P.S.M

6. Plot the graph between time take for relay to operate Vs P.S.M for various T.S.M.

Precautions:-

 Disc must be stationary before applying fault current.

 TSM setting must be changed with due care.

6. Readings and Tabular forms:-

PSM = TSM =

SNO. Fault Current Time of

operation

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 Expected graphs:

7. Result:

8. Discussion questions:

1. Why CT is required in this experiment?

2. Can we design the experiment without Current Injection Unit?
3. What is TSM & PSM and why different TSM & PSM?
4. Identify different terminals of the relay and explain their use. Write them in your record.

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7. Characteristics of Percentage biased of Static/Electro Magnetic differential
Relay.

1. Aim: - To study the differential protection scheme for a Three phase transformer with

Unequal turn’s ratio

2. Apparatus:-

Three phase transformer, Current transformer, Three phase variac,

Suitable ammeters and over current relay

3. Theory:

A Differential relay responds to vector difference between two or more similar electrical quantities.
From this definition the Differential relay has at least two actuating quantities say I1 and I2. The two or
more actuating quantities should be same.

Ex: Current / Current.

The Relay responds to vector difference between I1 & I2 which includes magnitude and/Or Phase
angle difference. Differential protection is generally unit protection. The protection zone is exactly
determined by Location of CTs. The vector difference is actuated by suitable connection of CTs or PTs
secondaries. Most differential relays are Current Differential relays in which vector Difference between
current entering the winding & current leaving the winding is used for relay operation. Differential
protection is used for protection of Generators, Transformers etc. Internal fault is created using switch
and relay operation observed for various TSMs. Relay operations for external faults can also be
studied.

4. Circuit Diagram:

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5. Procedure:-

 Make the connections as shown in fig. 1.

 Apply the rated voltage by using three single phase autotransformer and apply balance load by
using rotatory switch.
 Select the transformation ratio 2:1 and the C.T. ratios of 5:1 and 10:1 Set PSM of the relay equal
to 0.5.
 Without applying fault, note down different meter readings.
 By applying load observe whether the relay is operating of not.
 Now close the switch S so as to create an internal fault.
 Note the various ammeter readings when relay operates.
 Create internal fault at different loads and note the various meter readings.
 Now create an external fault and observe whether the relay operates Or not, note the various
meter readings.

6. Readings and Tabular form

OBSERVATION: - Internal Fault

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 S.No. fault Current Primary (A) Secondary Fault Time of
Current (A) Current operation
(A)

R Y B R

7. Result:

8. Discussion Question

1. Why identical CTs are required in this scheme.

2. How would you take into account CT imbalances?

3. What do you understand by internal fault?

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 8. Characteristics of Static Relay UV/OV 7052B/7053B, Make : L&T ltd.,

Aim:

To study the operation of Microprocessor Based type under voltage relay and hence to obtain
inverse time/voltage characteristics.

Apparatus Required:

Microprocessor Based Under voltage relay ----- 1No

Auto Transformer ----- 1No

Voltmeter (0-600V)MI ----- 1No

Timer ----- 1No

Connecting Wire

Theory:

Over Voltage/Under Voltage Relay is an electronic microcontroller based single-phase voltage

relay. It is suitable for over voltage/under voltage protection schemes in LV, MV and HV power
distribution systems. It is also suitable for over voltage protection of AC circuits, capacitors, machines
such as generators, synchronous motor and under voltage protection of AC circuits, Induction motors,
automatic change over schemes etc.

The microcontroller-based design offers a wide range of Trip-Time characteristics, under voltage or
over voltage mode and PT rating (110V, 240V, 415V), which can all be selected in the field at the time
of commissioning. It accepts very wide auxiliary supply range.

Relay is designed for flush mounting. It is very compact in size, which results in saving of panel
space. Its draw-out construction makes installation and maintenance very easy.

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Circuit Diagram:

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Procedure:

(1) Switch on the MCB

(2) Initially Rotary switch should be in OFF position
(3) Now to set the desired fault voltage we will be using voltage source. For that
switch ON the Rotary switch marked as voltage set and move the voltage source till the desired fault
voltage is indicated on the voltmeter, it is quit possible that while adjusting the fault voltage the Relay
might trip for that you have to RESET the RELAY by pressing the red button provided on the relay
denoted by (RELAY RESET) for resetting the relay the Rotary switch must be brought in OFF position.
(4) Now the desire Fault voltage is SET and Relay RESET. Now move the Toggle
Switch on OFF position and press the green push button and timer counting will start and counting will
STOP once the relay is operated. Note down the time in seconds.
(5) Now for various T.M.S (Time Multiplier Setting) and Voltage setting the time
taken by the relay to operate at various fault voltage may be note down.

Tabular Column

S.No. T.M.S Voltage Setting Applied Operating Time

Voltage

Graph

Plot the graph operating time Vs applied voltage.

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Setting of Fault voltage Level:

Vs = 1-(0.05+∑a) Vn,

Where,

Vs = Pick up setting in volts

Vn = PT rating 110V

a = weight of the switch in ON position

Note: In Under voltage mode, continuing with above example, the pick up setting becomes Vs=(1-
0.30) =70% of Vn. For 110 volts Vn, the pick up voltage becomes 77 volts. If Vn=415, then pick up
voltage becomes 290.5 volts. Where voltages below this set value, relay picks up and trips according
to selected trip time characteristics.

The trip time will depend upon:

a) Trip time characteristic selected and magnitude of fault in case of Inverse Trip Time
Characteristics.
b) Define Time in case of Definite Time Characteristics.

Time Multiplier Settling:

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 This feature offers various operations of Trip Time for a selected Trip Time Characteristic. The
Time Multiplication Factor can be set from 0.1 to 1.6 in steps of 0.1 using the last block of four DIP
switches shown in Diagram. This means in case of Inverse Trip Time Characteristics. Relay offers 16
parallel curves corresponding to each Time Multiplier Setting as shown in Figure and in case of
Definite Trip Time mode, the trip time can be set 100msec to 160 secs.

The method of setting this switch is similar to one explained in previous pages.

Trip time T is given by formula

T = K (0.1+∑t) where

T = Trip time in seconds.

K = Constant depending on Trip Time Characteristic selected

Normal Inverse (3.5 secs) in OV mode when fault is 2Vs

Normal Inverse (5.7 secs) in UV mode when fault is 0.5Vs.
1.0 Definite Time (1.0 sec)
10.0 Definite Time (10 sec)

100.0 Definite Time (100 sec)

t=weight of the switches in ON position

Result:

Discussion Questions:

9. Characteristics of Static Negative Sequence Relay 7055B. Make : Alstom.

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Aim: To check the operation of the Negative Sequence Relay
Apparatus Required:
Armature AC traced Type Electro Mechanical Negative Phase Sequence Relay – 1
Variac Single phase -- 3
Resistive Load (Balanced and Unbalanced) (3 Phase) -- 1
Transformer 1.5KVA,3Ø Star/Delta -- 1

Theory:
The relay should be pick-up when the operating current is reached the negative phase sequence
current is given by I 2=0.6 In, Where In is operating current of relay, the relay operate for the calculate
value of I2 ( Negative Phase sequence current) at this value of I 2 the correspondent value of In is
obtained from as given above.
The current to be injected is given by I=√ 3 I2

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram

2. Adjust the auto transformer tap position 240V/Phase.
3. Apply the Balanced load secondary winding of the transformer.
4. Note down the all meters readings.
5. Now set the voltage R-phase at 140V,Y-phase 270V, B-phase at 110V.
6. Note down the all meters readings and % of negative phase sequence.
7. Set the Voltage Normal value of 240V/ phase, apply the unbalanced load Y and B-phase only.
8. Note down all meters readings and % of negative sequence trip.
9. Same procedure can do for R and Y-phase also.
10. Plot the graph between % Negative sequence Vs Unbalanced current or voltage.

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Circuit Diagram

NPS RELAY

Tabulation;

Sl.n (v) (v) Y (v) ( I2) R ( I2) ( I2) % of

o R phase phase B phase phase Y phase B phase Negative

secondary Secondar Secondar Secondar Secondar Secondar Sequenc

y y y y y e

Trip

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Sample Graph

% of Negative

Sequence Trip

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 10. Performance and Testing of Generator/Transformer Protection
System.

Over current and Earth fault operation of a 3 Phase Alternator/Generator/Transformer.

Aim:

To find the fault currents of the given alternator for overloads and earth faults, the alternator protected
by two over current and one earth fault relays.

Apparatus:

Alternator with prime mover, 2 over current relays earth fault relays, ammeters(3),current
transformer(3), connecting wires, Single pole switch(3), three phase load, three phase contactor.

Procedure:

a) Connect the circuit diagram as given in figure 1.

b) Run the alternator at its synchronous speed by using its prime mover.
c) Switch on the DC supply to the field conductor.
d) Adjust the excitation of the alternator till the rated voltage is generated under open circuit (no-load
connections).
e) Close TPST switch S1 to connect to the resistive 3 phase load.
f) Close the knife switches on the 3 phase local to gradually load the generator.
g) Inverse the load current by closing more no. of switches till the alternator is overloaded.
h) When alternator reaches rated load current observe the tripping of contactor c by one over current
relay and note the respective ammeter currents. The alarm lamp will glow.
i) Reduce the load to normal values and close the contactor C, after resetting the alarm by operating
switch R.
j) Close any one of the switch EF1 to create an earth fault. Observe the tripping of the alternator by
contactor C and note the ammeter currents (A1,A2 and A3).
k) Step j can be repeated by closing EF2 and EF3,(to create earth faults on other phases).
l) Switch off DC supply to the field and switch off the prime movers.

48
Note: 1. Prime mover of alternator not shown.
2. DC Motor with associated starter may be used as prime mover for the alternator shown in
circuit diagram.
3. Field rheostat not included

49
3 phase Transformer Protection system

Aim:

To determine characteristics of 2 Over-current and one-earth fault relay (combination)

Apparatus Required:

Ammeter (0-10A) MI -- 03 Nos

Ammeter (0-2A) MI -- 01 No

Voltmeter (0-600V) MI -- 01 No

Digital time totalizer -- 01 No

Circuit Diagram:

50
Procedure:

(i) Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

(ii) Switch-on supply; apply the rated voltage (400V) to the transformer.
(iii) Switch-on the load 1, note down the various meter reading.
(iv) Now create the fault by increasing load (over current R,Y and B Phase) . Note down the
various meters reading.
(v) Absorb the relay trip or Not.
(vi) Create the earth fault between R-phase and ground, note down various meter reading and
note down the TSM, PSM and operating time of the over-current earth fault relay.
Tabular Column:

S.No Voltage Current (R) Current (Y) Current(B) Earth Fault Operating
time

11. Performance and Testing of Transmission line Model.

51
1. Aim:-
 To determine Efficiency and Regulation of 3 phase Transmission model
With Resistive load .
 To observe Ferranti effect.
 Open conductor operation and measurement of Voltages and Currents.

2. Apparatus:-

Voltmeter (o - 600v) MI -------2 Nos

Ammeter (0 – 10 A ) MI -------2 Nos

Watt meter (UPF, 5A, 600V) ------- 4 Nos

3. Theory:

The transmission line constants are uniformly distributed over the

entire length for a short line and these constants are called lumped constants.
If the length of the transmission line is more than 200 km serious errors are
introduced in the performance calculations. Hence a equivalent T or pie
network is determined to represent the line accurately by assuming suitable
values of lumped constants.

4. Circuit Diagram:

52
5. Procedure: - (For finding Efficiency and Regulation)

1. Make the connection as per the 4. Circuit Diagram.

2. Switch ON supply and adjust rated voltage, note down voltage,

Current and power at sending end and receiving end at no load.

3. Repeat step 2 at different loads of (A) Resistive load (B) inductive load

6. Readings and Tabular forms :

53
 FOR RESISTIVE LOAD

Vs IsW s Vr Ir Wr Regulation Efficiency

Sample calculations:

% Efficiency = W receiving * 100

W sending

% Regulation = V No –VL * 100

V NO

Where V N O = Voltage at receiving end at no load.

V L = Voltage at receiving end at particular load.

54
Precaution: -

Keep the voltage at sending end constant through out the experiment.

7. Results:

8. Discussion questions:

1.Can we simulate Nominal – II and Nominal T- Models and measure

Regulation and Efficiency?
2.What are the reasons for Ferranti Effect?
3.How faults are classified?

55
 DETERMINATION A, B, C, D CONSTANTS OF MEDIUM LINE AND CIRCLE
DIAGRAM

1. Aim: To determine ABCD constants of 3 phase transmission line with

a) Distributed Connection

b) Nominal – T connection

2. Apparatus:

a) For Open Circuit Test:

i) p.f. meter – 10A, 150/300/600V (0.5-1-0.5)

ii) Voltmeter - (0-300V) MI

iii) Ammeter - (0-1A) MI

b) For Short Circuit Test

i) Wattmeter - 10A, 75V, UPF

ii) Voltmeter - (0-30V) MI

iii) Ammeter - (0-10A) MI

3. Theory: If a transmission line is erected, the constants are measured by conducting the OC & SC tests
at the two ends of the line.

Using equations

Vs = AVr + BIr

Is = CVr + DIr

Impedance measurement on the SE side: SE impedance with RE open circuit is

Vs A

56
 Zso = — = — (Ir=0)

Is C

SE impedance with RE short circuited,

Vs B

Zss = — = — (Vr=0)

Is D

Measurement of impedance on RE side

Using equations

Vr = DVs — BIs

Ir = — CVs + AIs

While performing test, the current leaves the Network

Is -= — Is , Ir = — Ir

Vr = DVs — BIs

— Ir = — CVs — AIs

Ir = CVs + AIs

RE impedance with SE open circuited, Zro

Vr D

Zro = — = — (Is=0)

Ir C

RE impedance with SE short circuited, Z rs

Vr B

Zrs = — = — (Vs=0)

Ir A

D B 1

57
Zro — Zrs = — − — = —

C A AC

Zso

----------- = A2

Zro - Zrs

Zso

A = √ ----------------

(Zro — Zrs)

Zrs = ----- B = Zrs . A

Zso

B = Zrs √ ------------

(Zro – Zrs)

A A 1 Z so

Zso = ----- C = ----- = --- √ -----------

C Zso Zso (Zro – Zrs)

Zro = ----

58
 C

D = C.Zro

Zro Zso

= ----- √ ---------- (Zro = Zso)

Zso (Zro – Zrs)

D=A

4. Circuit Diagram:

10A, 150/300/600v (0-1A) MI

Is p.f A
A B

1Φ-variac

Supply Vr,(Ir=0)

V (0-300V) MI

Fig-1 (OC test on SE side)

10A, 75v. UPF (0-10A) MI

A
A B
M L

1Φ-variac C V

Supply Vr=0

V (0-30v) MI

59
 Fig-2 (SC test on SE)

(0-1A) MI V (0-300v) MI
A
A B (0-1A) MI p.f p f
V (0-300v) MI V (0-300v)
Is MI

C D
DDD

1Φvariac V (0-300v) MI Supply

Fig-3 (OC test on RE side)

(0-10A) MI 10A, 75v. UPF

A L M
A B

V C 1Φ-variac

Vs=0 V (0-30v) MI Supply

Fig-4 (SC test on RE side)

5. Procedure:

O.C. & S.C. tests on SE side:

2. Connect the circuit as per fig.(1) for O.C. test on SE.

3. Set 230V on Voltmeter using variac and note V s, Is and p.f. meter reading.
4. Connect the circuit as per fig (2) for S.C. test on SE.
5. Set 8A on Ammeter and note Vs, Is and wattmeter readings.

60
 O.C. & SC tests of RE side

1. Connect the circuit as per fig (3) for O.C test on RE.
2. Set 230V in Voltmeter & note Vr, Ir & p.f meter reading.
3. Connect the circuit as per fig (4) for SC test on RE.
4. Set 8A in Ammeter & note Vr, Ir & Wattmeter reading.

6. Readings and Tabular forms

O.C. & S.C. tests on SE side:

Test Vs Is p.f / Wattmeter reading

O.C (Ir=0) 230

S.C (Vr=0) 8A

O.C. & SC tests of RE side

Test Vr Ir p.f / Wattmeter

reading

O.C (Is=0) 230

S.C (Vs=0) 8A

Calculations:

Vs

Zso = -------- (Ir = 0)

Is

61
 Vs

Zss = --- (Vr = 0)

Is

Vr

Zro = --- (Is= 0)

Ir

Vr

Zrs = --- (Vs= 0)

Ir

Zso

A = √ ----------

(Zro – Zrs)

Zso

B = Zrs √ ----------

(Zro – Zrs)

1 Zso

C = --- √ ----------

Zso (Zro – Zrs)

D=A

Note: Same 5. Procedure is repeated for Nominal – T Connection.

Result:

8. Discussion questions:

1. What are A,B,C,D constants?

2. Prove AD-BC = 1

62
Power transmission line :

Electric-power transmission is the bulk transfer of electrical energy, from generating power

plants to electrical substations located near demand centers. This is distinct from the local wiring between
high-voltage substations and customers, which is typically referred to as electric power distribution.

Most transmission lines use high-voltage three-phase alternating current (AC), although single phase AC is

sometimes used in railway electrification systems.High-voltage direct-current (HVDC) technology is used
for greater efficiency in very long distances (typically hundreds of miles (kilometres), or in submarine power
cables (typically longer than 30 miles (50 km). HVDC links are also used to stabilize against control
problems in large power distribution networks where sudden new loads or blackouts in one part of a
network can otherwise result in synchronization problems and cascading failures.

Diagram of an electric power system; transmission system is in blue

Electricity is transmitted at high voltages (110 kV or above) to reduce the energy lost in long-distance
transmission. Power is usually transmitted through overhead power lines. Underground power transmission
has a significantly higher cost and greater operational limitations but is sometimes used in urban areas or
sensitive locations.

A key limitation in the distribution of electric power is that, with minor exceptions, electrical energy cannot
be stored, and therefore must be generated as needed. A sophisticated control system is required to
ensure electric generation very closely matches the demand. If the demand for power exceeds the supply,
generation plants and transmission equipment can shut down which, in the worst cases, can lead to a
major regional blackout, such as occurred in the India Northeast blackouts of 1965, 1977, 2003, and other
regional blackouts in 1996 and 2011. To reduce the risk of such failures, electric transmission networks are
interconnected into regional, national or continental wide networks thereby providing
multiple redundant alternative routes for power to flow should (weather or equipment) failures occur. Much
analysis is done by transmission companies to determine the maximum reliable capacity of each line

63
(ordinarily less than its physical or thermal limit) to ensure spare capacity is available should there be any
such failure in another part of the network.

High-voltage overhead conductors are not covered by insulation. The conductor material is nearly always
an aluminium alloy, made into several strands and possibly reinforced with steel strands. Copper was
sometimes used for overhead transmission but aluminium is lighter, yields only marginally reduced
performance, and costs much less. Overhead conductors are a commodity supplied by several companies
worldwide. Improved conductor material and shapes are regularly used to allow increased capacity and
modernize transmission circuits. Conductor sizes range from 12 mm2 (#6  to 750 mm2 (1,590,000 circular
mils area), with varying resistance and current-carrying capacity. Thicker wires would lead to a relatively
small increase in capacity due to the skin effect, that causes most of the current to flow close to the surface
of the wire. Because of this current limitation, multiple parallel cables (called bundle conductors) are used
when higher capacity is needed. Bundle conductors are also used at high voltages to reduce energy loss
caused by corona discharge.

Today, transmission-level voltages are usually considered to be 110 kV and above. Lower voltages such as
66 kV and 33 kV are usually considered subtransmission voltages but are occasionally used on long lines
with light loads. Voltages less than 33 kV are usually used for distribution. Voltages above 230 kV are
considered extra high voltage and require different designs compared to equipment used at lower voltages.

Since overhead transmission wires depend on air for insulation, design of these lines requires minimum
clearances to be observed to maintain safety. Adverse weather conditions of high wind and low
temperatures can lead to power outages. Wind speeds as low as 23 knots (43 km/h) can permit conductors
to encroach operating clearances, resulting in a flashover and loss of supply.[2] Oscillatory motion of the
physical line can be termed gallop orflutter depending on the frequency and amplitude of oscillation.
Grid input
At the power stations the energy is produced at a relatively low voltage between about 2.3 kV and 30 kV,
depending on the size of the unit. The generator terminal voltage is then stepped up by the power
station transformer to a higher voltage (115 kV to 765 kV AC, varying by the transmission system and by
country) for transmission over long distances.
Losses
Transmitting electricity at high voltage reduces the fraction of energy lost to resistance, which averages
around 7%.[8] For a given amount of power, a higher voltage reduces the current and thus the resistive
losses in the conductor. For example, raising the voltage by a factor of 10 reduces the current by a
corresponding factor of 10 and therefore the I2R losses by a factor of 100, provided the same sized
conductors are used in both cases. Even if the conductor size (cross-sectional area) is reduced 10-fold to
match the lower current the I2R losses are still reduced 10-fold. Long distance transmission is typically done

64
with overhead lines at voltages of 115 to 1,200 kV. At extremely high voltages, more than 2,000 kV
between conductor and ground, corona discharge losses are so large that they can offset the lower
resistive losses in the line conductors. Measures to reduce corona losses include conductors having large
diameter; often hollow to save weight, [9] or bundles of two or more conductors.

Transmission and distribution losses in the USA were estimated at 6.6% in 1997 [10] and 6.5% in 2007.[10] In
general, losses are estimated from the discrepancy between energy produced (as reported by power
plants) and energy sold to end customers; the difference between what is produced and what is consumed
constitute transmission and distribution losses, assuming no theft of utility occurs.

As of 1980, the longest cost-effective distance for DC electricity was determined to be 7,000 km (4,300 mi).
For AC it was 4,000 km (2,500 mi), though all transmission lines in use today are substantially shorter. [7]

In an alternating current circuit, the inductance and capacitance of the phase conductors can be significant.

The currents that flow in these components of the circuit impedance constitute reactive power, which
transmits no energy to the load. Reactive current causes extra losses in the transmission circuit. The ratio
of real power (transmitted to the load) to apparent power is the power factor. As reactive current increases,
the reactive power increases and the power factor decreases. For systems with low power factors, losses
are higher than for systems with high power factors. Utilities add capacitor banks and other components
(such as phase-shifting transformers; static VAR compensators; physical transposition of the phase
conductors; and flexible AC transmission systems, FACTS) throughout the system to control reactive power
flow for reduction of losses and stabilization of system voltage.
Subtransmission
Subtransmission is part of an electric power transmission system that runs at relatively lower voltages. It is
uneconomical to connect all distribution substations to the high main transmission voltage, because the
equipment is larger and more expensive. Typically, only larger substations connect with this high voltage. It
is stepped down and sent to smaller substations in towns and neighborhoods. Subtransmission circuits are
usually arranged in loops so that a single line failure does not cut off service to a large number of
customers for more than a short time. While subtransmission circuits are usually carried on overhead lines,
in urban areas buried cable may be used.

There is no fixed cutoff between subtransmission and transmission, or subtransmission and distribution.

The voltage ranges overlap somewhat. Voltages of 69 kV, 115 kV and 138 kV are often used for
subtransmission in North America. As power systems evolved, voltages formerly used for transmission
were used for subtransmission, and subtransmission voltages became distribution voltages. Like
transmission, subtransmission moves relatively large amounts of power, and like distribution,
subtransmission covers an area instead of just point to point. [11]
Transmission grid exit

65
At the substations, transformers reduce the voltage to a lower level for distribution to commercial and
residential users. This distribution is accomplished with a combination of sub-transmission (33 kV to 132
kV) and distribution (3.3 to 25 kV). Finally, at the point of use, the energy is transformed to low voltage
(varying by country and customer requirements—.

**************************************************************************************************************************

12. Differential Protection on Single Phase Transformer.

Aim:

To study the differential protection scheme for a single phase transformer with unequal turn’s ratio

Apparatus:

Single phase transformer, Current transformer, Single phase variac, Suitable ammeters and over
current relay.

66
Theory :

A Differential relay responds to vector difference between two or more similar electrical quantities.
From this definition the Differential relay has at least two actuating quantities say

1-1 and 2-1. The two or more actuating quantities should be same.

Ex: Current/Current.

The Relay responds to vector difference between 1-1 &2-1which includes magnitude and /or phase
angle difference. Differential protection is generally unit protection. The protection zone is exactly
determined by location of CTs. The vector difference is actuated by suitable connection of CTs or PTs
secondaries. Most differential relays are current differential relays in which vector difference between
current entering the winding & current leaving the winding is used for relay operation. Differential
protection is used for protection of Generators, Transformers etc. Internal fault is created using switch
and relay operation observed for various TSMs. Relay operations for external faults can also be
studied.

Circuit Diagram:

67
Procedure:

1. Make the connections as shown in fig.1

2. Select the transformation ratio 2:1 and the C.T. ratios of 2:1 and 4:1 Set PSM of the relay equal to
0.5.
3. Apply rated voltage 230V to primary by varying the variac.
4. Without applying fault, note down different meter readings.
5. By applying load observe whether the relay is operating of not .
6. Now close the switch so as to create an internal fault.
7. Note the various ammeter readings when relay operates.
8. Create internal fault at different loads and note the various meter readings.
9. Now create an external fault and observe whether the relay operates or not, note the various meter
readings.

68
Readings and Tabular form:
Observation:- For Internal Fault

S.No I Primary I I relay I fault Relay

Secondary operates/doesn’t
operate

For External Fault

S.No I Primary I I relay I fault Relay

Secondary operates/doesn’t
operate

Result:

Discussion Questions:
1. Why identical CTs are required in this scheme.
2. How would you take into account CT imbalances.
3. What do you understand by internal fault.

69