CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A. An Adjective
1. Definition of Adjective
Some definitions are given by linguist about writing.
According to Marcella Frank in their book on the title “Modern
English a practical reference guide”, “The adjective is a
modifier that has the grammatical property of comparison. Is
often identified by special derivational endings or by special
adverbial modifiers that precede it. It‟s most usual is before the
noun it modifies, but it fills other position as well.”1 This means
that, the adjective is modifier noun or pronoun to make it more
specific. because the position adjective before noun.
Mary Ansell said in her book “Free English Grammar”
that ”Adjective is the words which are used to modify nouns or
pronoun are usually referred to as adjective.”2 The writer
concludes that an adjective is when a word preceding a noun
does not merely describe the object being referred to, but helps
to define or identify the type of meant, the word preceding the
noun can be called a defining adjective.

1
Marcella Frank, Modern English a practical reference guide, (New York
University: Prentice-Hall, 1972), p. 109
2
Mary Ansell, Free English Grammar, (England: second edition:
Seyfihoca, 2000), p. 294

6
7

For Examples:
a) Large trees could be seen.
b) They are happy.
c) A fine young man
d) An enjoyable birthday party
On the sentence s above (a) constructions, the adjective
is modifier noun or pronoun a). „Large trees could be seen‟ is
large modifies the noun trees. And the sentence (b). „They are
happy‟ is happy modifies the pronoun they. The sentence above
(c). „A fine young man‟ and (d). „An enjoyable birthday party‟
are young and birthday are fixed expressions which are
commonly used to refer to certain type of thing.
While Haryana stated in his book on the tittle “writing 1”
that:
An adjective is modified a noun by describing, identifying,
or quantifying words in the position of attributive and
predicative. Attributive means the adjective usually comes
before the noun that it describes while predicative means
the adjective comes after linking verb of copula.3

2. Type of Adjective
Remember that adjectives can modify as well as
describe other words, and we will find it much easier to
identify different type of adjective when we see them.

3
Haryana, Writing 1, ( Serang. IAIN” SMH Banten: Hcpublishing, 2013), p.
6
 8

1. Articles
There are only three articles, and all of them are
adjectives: a, an, and the. Because they are used to discuss
non-specific things and people, a and an are called indefinite
article.
For example:
a) Please give me a banana.
b) I eat an apple.
c) I want the red apple
On the sentences above (a) and (b) constructions, they
are specific names. And the sentence (c) construction, the word
the is called the definite article.
2. Demonstrative Adjective
Like the article the, Demonstrative adjectives are used to
indicate or demonstrate specific people, animals, or things,
these, those, this, and that are demonstrative adjectives.
For example:
a) This movie is my favorite.
b) Please put those cookies on the blue plate.
3. Possessive Adjective
As the name indicates, possessive adjective are used to
indicate possession. They are: My,Your, His, Her, Its, Our,
their. Possessive adjective also function as possessive
pronouns.
9

4. Numbers Adjectives
When they are used in sentences, numbers are almost
always adjective. We can tell that a nymber is an adjective
when it answers the question.
a. Cardinal, such as: four, twenty, one hundred, etc
b. Ordinal, such as: fourth, twenty, one hundredth, etc.
5. Interrogative Adjectives
There are three intrrogative adjectives: which, what and
whose. Like all other types of adjective, interrogative adjectives
modify nouns. As we probably know, all three of these words
are used to ask questions.
For example:
a. Which option sounds best to you?
b. What time should we go?
c. Whose socks are those?
6. Indefinite Adjectives
Like the articles a and an, indefinite adjectives
are used to discuss non-specific things. The most
common indefinite adjective are any, many, no, several,
and few.4

A. Clauses
1. Definition of clauses
According to Jack C. Richards in his book on the title
“Functional English Grammar” that “Clause is can be
independent or dependent. Independent clauses can potentially

4
Frank, loc. Cit.
 10

stand alone and are not structurally dependent on other clauses.

If a sentence has only one clause, that clause is, of course,
normally an independent clause. The following sentences
consist of two independent clauses.” 5
For example:
a) you get off at the shop just before the beach
b) while it was cooling
On the clauses above (a, b) constructions, they are
clauses. (a) you get off at the shop just before the beach that
clause is independent clause, the function is you as subject, get
off as verb, at the shop just before the beach as complement. (b)
while it was cooling that clause is dependent clause, the
function is while as conjunction, it as subject, and was cooling
as verb.
According to Frank, Clause is defined in the same way
as a sentence. It is a full predication that contains a subject and
a predicate with a finite verb.6 That means that, Clause is a full
predication that consist one subject and one predicate.
According to Patricia Byrd and Bevely Bens in their book on
the title ”Applied English Grammar” that “ clause is a group of
words with a subject-verb combination.”7 This means that,
clause is the category words by subject-verb combination.

5
Jack C. Richards, Functional English Grammar. ( City University of Hong
Kong,), p. 247
6
Frank, Op. Cit. 222
7
Patria Byrd and Bevely Bens. Applied English Grammar( United
States:Heinle, 2011), p. 248
11

According to Wren And H. Martin in their book on the

title ”Edition High School English Grammar And Composition”
that “Clause is such group of words which form part of a
sentence, and contains a subject and predicate is called a
clause.”8 This means that, clause is part of sentence which
consist one subject and verb. According to Haryana in his book
on the title “Writing” that “A clause is a group of words
containing a subject and averb. It can be independent and
dependent clauses.”9 Based on the statement of expert above the
writer concludes that: the clause is a group words which contain
subject and verb, and followed by dependent clause and
independent clause.
2. Kinds of Clause
According to Haryana in his book on title “Writing 1”
that:
Independent clause is can stand alone as a sentence
because it has a complete meaning. A dependent clause
is cannot stand alone as sentence; it begins with
subordinators such as: after, although, as, as if, as soon
as, because, before, even though, how, if, since, that,
though, thus, unless, until, what, when, whenever,
where, wherever, whether, which, while, who, whose,
etc. A dependent clause must be connected to the
independent clauses to make it complete.”10

8
Wren And H. Martin. Edition High School; English Grammar And
Composition, New Delhi: S. Chand & Company Ltd. 2000. Page.196
9
Haryana, Op. Cit. 22
10
Haryana, op, it. 22
 12

For example:
a) the operator repairs a computer in his room
b) they are very expensive
c) since she went to America
d) before my father became a president
On the clauses above (a, b, c, d) construction, (a, b) they
are independent clauses or we call that complete sentence. The
function from (a, b) are subject is underlined once, and the verb
is underlined twice. The clause (c, d) they are dependent clause
and it begins with subordinator. The function from (c, d) are
subject is underlined once, and the verb is underlined twice.
Based on the statement of expert above the writer
concludes that: Independent clause can stand alone as a
sentence without subordinate or others, because independent
clause has complete meaning. Difference from dependent
clause, it begins with subordinator because dependent clause
must be connected to the independent clause to make complete
meaning.
Based on statement of Fuad Mas‟ud that “Main Clause
is Independent Clause can stand alone as a sentences and the
subordinate clause is the sentence that also called dependent
clause is series of the word that containt subject and predicate
but do not have the understanding that perfect”. 11

11
Fuad Mas‟ud, Essentials of English Grammar, (Yogyakarta:BPFE,
2005),third edition, p.151
13

For example:
a) I will go if you go
b) she won‟t come unless you invite her
c) I enjoy my job although i work long hours
On the clauses above (a, b, c, d) construction, two of
clauses they are Independent clause and dependent clause. (a) “I
will go” as Independent clause whereas “if you go” is italic
types as dependent clause. (b) she won‟t come as independent
clause and unless you invite her” in italic types as dependent
clause. (c) “as dependent clause” as Independent clause while
although i work long hours” is italic types as dependent clause.
Acording to Patricia Byrd and Beverly in their book on
title “Applied English Grammar” that “Independent or main
clause is complete by itself, that is divided into two types there
are: simple sentence and compound sentence. And Dependent
or Subordinate is a subordinate or dependent clause must be
attached to an independent clause. Each subordinate clause has
one subject-verb combination. There are three types of
subordinate clause.
1. Adverbial clauses is adverbial clause give manner,
place, reason, time, and other adverbial meanings.
2. Relative (adjective) clauses is relative clauses
influence the meanings of noun.
3. Noun clauses is noun clauses take the place of noun.
Subordinate (dependent) clause cannot stand alone as
sentences. They must be connected to independent (main)
clauses. If a subordinate clause is written alone, it is called a
 14

fragment. A fragment is an incomplete sentence and should be

avoided in formal written English. The writer only explains
about the types of dependent clause or subordinate. There are:
a) Adverbial clause is a subordinate clause is introduced by
a subordinate word, a word that relates the meaning of
the subordinate clause to the meaning of the independent
clause. Writer can choose among several subordinating
words to find the best word to express the relationship
between adverbial clauses and independent clauses. In
addition, the word after, although, because, if, since,
and when are called subordinating words or
subordinating conjunctions. The clauses created with
these subordinating words are called adverbial clause.
Adverbial clauses are types of subordinate or dependent
clauses.
For example:
a. after the test was over, we went to cafeteria for
lunch
b. we went to cafeteria for lunch after the test was
over
The purpose of adverbial clause provide information like
that provided by single-verb adverbs. Adverbial clauses and
simple adverbs answer questions such as when? where? why?
how?
a. when class was over, we went to the computer
lab
b. we went to the lab immediately
15

When an adverbial clause precedes an

independent clause, a comma is used after the adverbial
clause. And no comma is needed when an adverbial
clause follows an independent clause.
Pattern # 1

Subordinating Subordinate clause Independent clause

word
after
although
because
before Subject + verb Subject + verb
if
since
when
Subordinate adverbial clause independent clause

when we finished the project, we had a party to celebrate

Pattern # 2

Independent clause Subordinating word Subordinating word

after
although
because
before
if
since
Subject + verb when Subject + verb

Independent clause Subordinate adverbial clause

we had a party to celebrate when we finished the project

 16

b) Adjective clauses modify nouns and usually begin with

a relative pronoun and sometimes with a subordinating
conjunction. Here are examples of dependent clauses
that are adjective clauses:
For examples:
a. that I sold him
b. who is intelligent
c) Noun clause is name a person, place, thing or idea. Since
it acts as a noun, it can be a subject, object, a subject
complement, an object complement or an appositive.
Here are examples of dependent clause that are noun
clauses:
a. why she said that
b. how they would get there
According to Graham Lock in his book “Functional
English An Introduction for Second Language Teacher” that “
Dependent clause is can called subardinate clause. It has a
subject and predicate but, unlike an independent clause, cannot
stand by itself. A corollary of that is, of course, that every
sentence must have at least one independent clauses.”12 This
means that, the dependent clause begins by subordinate because
the dependent clause can‟t stand alone.

12
Graham Lock, Functional English An Introduction for Second Language
Teacher. Cambridge : University Press. 1996. P.249
17

B. Definition of Complex Sentence

While Pratiwi Andika stated in his book on the tittle
“How to Write in English Correctly” that “Complex Sentence is
a sentences that contains one independent clause and one
dependent clause.”13 That means, the complex sentence is
combines by independent clause and dependent clause. In other
hand, the complex sentence is one containing a principal clause
and one or more subordinate clause. According to Marcella
Frank that “The complex sentence is a sentence contains one or
more dependent (subordinate) clause. A dependent clause
contains a full subject and predicate beginning with a word that
attaches the clause to an independent clause (called the main
clause).”14 In addition, the complex sentence is a sentence that
combines one independent clause with at least one dependent.
For Examples:
a) Although Denise had some doubts, she found the courses
very useful.
b) Computers have come a long way since they first came
on the market.
c) The woman who stands in front of my house is my
friend.
On the sentences above (a) constructions, the complex
sentence it has a dependent clause. (a) Although Denise had
some doubts, she found the courses very useful is „although as

13
PratiwiAndika, How to Write in English Correctly ( Bekasi:
LaskarAngkasa 2007) 122
14
Marcella Frank, Modern English Part II Sentence and Complex Structure,(
New york University: Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, new jersey, 1972). 1
 18

subordinate, Denise as subject and had as verb and followed by

an independent clause such as she as subject, found as verb, so
that form a complete thought .
The sentence (b) constructions, the complex sentence its
begins with a independent clause. (b) Computers have come a
long way since they first came on the market is computer as
subject, have come as verb. that forms a complete thought,
followed by a dependent clause such as they as subject and
came as verb.
The sentence (c) constructions, that is the adjective
clause. (a) the woman is my friend is the woman as subject and
is as verb. While in clause „who stands in front of my house‟ is
who as subject and stands as verb.
According to Alice in her book “Introduction to
Academic Writing”, “The complex sentence is a combination of
one independent clause and one (or more) dependent
c1ause(s).”15 Meanwhile, A Complex sentence has one
independent clause and one (more) dependent clauses(s). each
dependent clause begin with subordinator: after, although, as,
as if, as soon as, because, before, even though, how, if, since, so
that, that, though, unless, until, what, whenever, where,
wherever, whatever, whether, while, who, whom, and whose.
The dependent clause cannot stand alone as a complete sentence
although it has a subject and a verb. Put the comma after the
dependent clause”.16

15
Alice Oshima, Introduction to Academic Writing,(New York:2007), 27
16
Haryana, op. cit., 56.
19

Example:
d) Since she was child, she liked to learn writing.
e) She liked to learn writing since she was child.
f) You may know where she lives.
g) Where she live is not my business.
On the sentences above (d, e, f, g) construction, it can be
seem that complex sentence is a series of clauses that consist of
two or more clause on the production of a more complete
understanding.
According to Patricia Byrd and Beverly Bens in their
book on the tittle “Applied English Grammar”that:
A complex sentence is adds a subordinate clause to
simple sentence. The subordinate clause is called a
dependent clause while the simple sentence is called the
independent clause. A subordinate or dependent clause
cannot be used alone. It cannot be used as a separate
sentence. An independent clause is the same thing as a
sentence. When you are writing or editing your written
English, you might use appendix B, “Similar joining
words, “to remind yourself of your choices for making
complex sentences.17

In addition, The a complex sentence is made up of a

simple sentence plus one (or more) subordinate clause(s).
subordinate means that a sentence become a part of another
sentence. Those means that, the complex sentence is change a
simple sentence to become complex sentence by add one or
more subordinate clause.
For example:

17
Byrd and Bens, op,cit. 45.46
 20

h) Although I speak two other languages, I am studying

English because I want to study engineering in the U.S.
On the sentence above (h) construction, it is complex
sentence because in the complex sentence there are subordinate
to connected to the independent clause.

C. Definition of Adjective Clause

According to Haryana that “Adjective clause that is also
called relative clause, means a member of a compound or
complex sentence containing as adjective that modifies a noun
or pronoun. The clause begins with relative pronoun; who,
which, whom, that, and relative adverbs: when, where, why and
possessive: whose. An Adjective clause means clause that
functions as adjective modifying a noun or pronoun.
According to Thomson and Martinet, There are three of
relative clause: Defining, non-defining and connective”18 That
means, defining relative clause is to give essential information
about someone or something. Information that we need in order
to understand what or who is being referred to. And different
between non- defining relative clause we can use non-defining
relative to give extra information about the person or thing. It is
not necessary information. We don‟t need it to understand who
or what is being referred to.
Adjective clause and adverbial clauses: it is considered
important to clarify the features of adjective clauses, in order

18
A. J, Thomson and A. V, Martinet, A Practical EnglishGrammar, (Hong
Kong: Oxford University Press Printed, 1995), p. 81.
21

that the readers can differentiated adjective clause from other

clauses.
As a clause, an adjective clause has its own subject and
verb. Robert states that “Relative clauses always have the
Subject – Verb (or Subject Auxiliary) and order”19
For instance:
a) The man who lives in the house is a surgeon.
b) The river which flows through town is polluted.
On the sentence above (a) constructions, The adjective
clause called relative adjective that modifies noun or pronoun.
(a). „The man is a surgeon‟ is independent clause and the
function from that is „The man as subject, is as verb and
surgeon as complement. And „who lives in the house‟ is
dependent clause and the function from that is who as subject,
lives as verb and in the house as complement. This dependent
clause is adjective clause that modifies the man.
The sentence above (b) constructions, the adjective
clause called relative adjective that modifies noun or pronoun.
(b). „the river is polluted‟ is independent clause and the function
from that is „the river as subject, is as verb and polluted as
complement. And „which flows through town‟ is dependent
clause and the function from that is ‟which as subject, flows as
verb and through town as complement. This dependent clause is
adjective clause that modifies the river.

19
Robert Krohn, English Sentence Structure, (USA: University of Michigen
Press, 1986), p.180.
 22

The second feature of adjective clause is to modify a

noun or pronoun. Relating to this, Betty Schrampfer Azar said,
“An adjective clause is a dependent clause that modifies a noun
or pronoun. “20
Example:
c) I thanked the woman who helped me.
On the sentences above © constructions, the adjective
clause modifies noun or pronoun. © „I thanked the woman‟ is
independent clause and it have the function such as “I “ as
subject, thanked as verb and the woman as object. And „who
helped me‟ is dependent clause that have the function is “who as
subject, helped as verb and me as object. This dependent clause
is adjective clause that modifies the woman.
An adjective clause is a dependent clause or subordinate
clause. A dependent clause is a clause that can‟t stand by itself
because it does not express complete thoughts. As Betty said
that “A dependent clause must be connected to an independent
clause is a dependent clause”.21
For examples:
d) who is kind to animal?
e) whom I met
f) when the Olympic games are held

20
Betty Schrampfer Azar, Understanding and Using English Grammar,
(New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents, 1989), Second Edition, p. 238.
21
Betty SchrampherAzar, Fundamental of English Grammar, (New Jersey:
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1985), Second Edition, p. 309.
23

On the clauses above (d, e, f) constructions, that is

dependent clause or subordinate. Those can‟t stand alone
because does not have complete meaning.
Since an adjective clause that belongs to a dependent
clause cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. It must be
connected to an independent clause. In connecting with the
adjective clause as dependent clause to independent clause,
some certain introductory words are used. Actually, those
introductory words are provided into categories namely relative
pronoun and relative adverbs.
Relative pronoun consist of that, which, who, whom, and
whose. Relative adverbs consist of when, where, why, after,
since and before. The further explanation of these introductory
words usage will be presented in point C in this chapter.
Moreover, relating to the above explanation. George E.
Wishon and Julia M. Burks stated in their book “Lets Write
English” that:
An adjective clause is dependent clause used as an
adjective: it modifies a noun or pronoun. Theses clause
are introduced by two different kinds of words which
always occur just after the noun that the modifies.
Adjective clause are usually introduced by the relative
pronouns who, whom, whose, which, and that. These
pronoun functions in noun position in the clause they
introduce.22 That means, adjective clause is same as
dependent clause and the function to modifies noun and
pronoun.

22
George E. Wishon and Julis M. Burks, Lets Write English, (New York:
Litton Educational Publishing, Inc, 1980), p. 165
 24

For example:

a) He paid money to the man who had done the work.

b) He paid the man whom he had hired.

c) Here is a book which (or that) describes animals.

d) This is the years when the PON games are held.

e) Give me one good reason why you did that.
The sentences above (a, b, c, d, e, f, g) constructions,
that (a) is relative pronoun who precedes the adjective clause,
that “He paid money to the man” as independent clause, “who”
as relative pronoun and “had done the work.” as adjective
clause. (b) is relative pronoun whom precedes the adjective
clause. That “He paid the man” as independent clause, “whom”
as relative pronoun and” he had hired” as adjective clause. (c)
is relative pronoun which or that precedes the adjective clause,
that “Here is a book” as independent clause, “which (or that)”
as relative pronoun and “describes animals” as adjective clause.
(d), relative pronoun when precedes the adjective clause, that
“This is the years” as independent clause, when as relative
pronoun and the PON games are held as adjective clause. (e) is
relative adverb why precedes the adjective clause, that “Give me
one good reason” as independent, “why” as relative pronoun
and “you did that” as adjective clause.
Based on the statement of expert above the writer
concludes that: Adjective clause is relative clause it modify
noun and pronoun and it begins relative pronoun such as: who,
25

which, whom, that, and relative adverbs: when, where, why and
possessive: whose. And adjective clause is one independent and
more dependent clause.