Vibration Measurement Procedures

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1.

Vibration measurement procedures

a. How is vibration measurement conducted on a system?

Measurement of a system is conducted by using a sensor that convert vibration to electricity. The
voltage versus time known as time waveform is the electrical signal from the sensor due to the
voltage changes when the instantaneous vibration changes from time to time. Different types of
sensors are being used according to the environmental conditions, the machine speed and the type
of machine being monitored.

There are three general types of sensors usually used to measure vibration in rotating machinery
which are the displacement or proximity probes, velocity probes or velocimeters and
accelerometers.

displacement probes velocity probes


accelerometers

i. When should we use displacement or proximity probe, velocimeter or accelerometer for vibration
data acquisition?

Displacement or proximity probe

A Displacement Sensor is an apparatus that measures the distance between the sensor and an
object and is exclusively used in rotating machinery. It has wide frequency response from 0Hz to 10
kHz and broad temperature range from -50ºC up to 200ºC. The distance measured is the actual
relative displacement of the shaft with the bearing at the range of 1mm to 10mm. These sensors are
used in continuous monitoring or protection system that are devised to trigger alarms or shut the
machine down if the shaft become too close to be hitting the bearing housing. Other than that, the
sensors are a key phasor for dynamic balancing and analysis. For the one installed for an online
system, the sensor can be connected to a portable data collector to capture reading. This
displacement transducers or known as non-contact probes are permanently mounted into the sleeve
bearing or journal to measure the relative movement between the tip of sensor and the shaft. These
sensors are commonly used in bearing machine for instance turbines, larger compartments such as
large pumps and large fans

Velocimeter

Velocity transducer measures how fast the displacement is changing and typically are external to the
machine such as bearing housing, casing, foundation, and piping. These velocimeter generates
electricity so no external power is needed and are able to operate at higher temperatures from
-50ºC up to 200ºC. However, the vibration data analysed in the units of velocity are commonly
collected from the integration of the accelerometer’s data into velocity. The velocimeter not suitable
for very low or very high frequency and the calibration changes with temperature.

Accelerometer

An accelerometer is a common type of sensor used in machinery vibration analysis that measures
the dynamic acceleration of a physical device. It has wide frequency range from 0.1 Hz until 30 kHz
and a temperature range up to 125ºC. Most accelerometers rely on the use of the piezoelectric
effect, which occurs when a voltage is generated across certain types of crystals as they are
compressed. However, an amplifier is then required to convert that charge output to a voltage
output. The acceleration of the test structure is transmitted to a seismic mass inside the
accelerometer that generates a proportional force on the piezoelectric crystal. This external stress
on the crystal then generates a high-impedance, electrical charge proportional to the applied force
and, thus, proportional to the acceleration. This sensor are full-contact transducers typically
mounted externally on high-frequency elements, such as rolling-element bearings, gearboxes, or
spinning blades. These sensors can also be used in shock measurements such as explosions and
failure tests and slower, low-frequency vibration measurements. Accelerometers, piezoelectric
accelerometers especially are able to remain stable and maintain calibration for a long time and the
designs are available for wide range application.

piezoelectric accelerometers
ii. Where should we place an accelerometer on a machine? What are the best practices that we
should follow during the placement of accelerometer?

The sensor must directly contact the machine surface and make sure to have a stronger and stiffer
connection to get an acceptable frequency response. Next, surface connected to the sensor must be
smooth, flat, free of paint chips, rust or grit and should not be attached directly to a painted surface
otherwise the frequency response will be compromised. Choose Triaxial accelerometer which are
the three accelerometers mounted orthogonal to each other and the package is capable of
measuring the vertical, horizontal and axial vibration from the single location. The accelerometer

The best locations are at the bearing locations of each component. However, the measurement
point should be a location that is safe to access and there should be a good mechanical path to the
bearing so that the vibration should only travel along solid metal with no gaps or joints. Choose the
shortest path between the source and the sensor. On the other hand, readings should not be taken
on or across the cooling fins as they are not stiff enough and on fan covers as they are not rigid and
both places do not provide a good transmission path to the bearings.

When the test location is inaccessible, the sensors have to be installed permanently and wired back
to a junction box.

2. Vibration data acquisition and signal processing

a. How does a vibrating equipment generate vibration signals (amplitude vs. time plot)?

All data collected from the accelerometer goes directly into a data collector in computer software,
which records the signal as either amplitude vs. time or known as time waveform, amplitude vs.
frequency or known as fast Fourier transform, or both. All of this data is analysed by computer
program algorithms, which in turn is analysed by engineers or trained vibration analysts to
determine the health of the machine and identify possible impending problems like looseness,
unbalance, misalignment, lubrication issues and more.

A design of displacement sensor manufactured uses electromagnetic eddy current technology to


sense the distance between the probe tip and the rotating machine shaft. The sensor itself is an
encapsulated coil of wire, energized with high frequency alternating current (AC). The magnetic field
produced by the coil induces eddy currents in the metal shaft of the machine, as though the metal
piece were a short-circuited secondary coil of a transformer The closer the shaft moves toward the
sensor tip, the tighter the magnetic coupling between the shaft and the sensor coil, and the stronger
the eddy currents. The high-frequency oscillator circuit providing the sensor coil’s excitation signal
becomes loaded by the induced eddy currents. Therefore, the oscillator’s load becomes a direct
indication of how close the probe tip is to the metal shaft.
b. What is the relationship of vibration overall values, time waveform and frequency

spectrum? How do we derive the information from one another? Elaborate when

should we use overall values, waveform or spectrum, or a combination of these data?

Are there any other methods that could supplement the vibration data analysis? If so,

how could we use them.

Vibration analysis is generally broken down into four principles, and each principle gives you specific
information on the working conditions and features of the vibrating parts.

1. Time domain: When a vibration signal is picked up from a transducer (device that converts a
physical quantity into an electrical signal) and displayed on the screen of an oscilloscope, it's
called a waveform. This signal is in the time domain. The time domain is amplitude plotted
against time. While most machine vibration issues are detected using spectrum analysis,
some types are more easily seen in waveform.

2. Frequency domain: When the waveform discussed earlier is subjected to spectrum analysis,


the end result is a picture of frequency vs. amplitude, known as a spectrum. The spectrum is
in the frequency domain like the vibration is in the time domain. Most in-depth analysis of
machinery vibration is done in the frequency domain or using spectrum analysis.

3. Joint domain: Because vibration signals vary with time, calculating more than one spectrum
at once can be useful. To do this, a joint time technique called Gabor-Wigner-Wavelet can be
utilized. This technique is used to calculate variations of the fast Fourier transform
(discussed below), including short-time Fourier transform (STFT).

4. Modal analysis: Modal analysis takes measured frequency response functions of a piece of


machinery and puts them into a computer model. The computer model can be displayed
with animations of all the different vibration modes. The model can be adjusted by either
adding to or taking away things like mass or stiffness to see the effects.

Time waveform: A time waveform is acceleration vs. time displayed as tables and plots. Time
waveforms show a short time sample of raw vibration, revealing clues to the condition of
machinery not always clear in the frequency spectrum. A method of employing time
waveform vibration signals as a vibration analysis tool is by using FFT.
c. What are the main vibration signal parameters that we need to set for acquiring

vibration response in the form of (i) overall values, (ii) frequency spectrum and (iii)

time waveform? Describe these parameters and explain its relevancy with regards to

vibration signal acquisition and processing.

Simple Vibration Analysis in the Time Domain

When analysing vibration data in the time domain such as acceleration or vibration amplitude
plotted against time, a few parameters in quantifying the strength of a vibration profile that is the
amplitude, peak-to-peak value, and RMS. A simple sine wave is shown below with these parameters
identified.

The peak or amplitude is valuable for shock events, but it doesn’t consider the time duration and
thus the energy in the event.

The same is true for peak-to-peak with the added benefit of providing the maximum excursion of the
wave, useful when looking at displacement information, specifically clearances.

The RMS (root mean square) value is generally the most useful because it is directly related to the
energy content of the vibration profile and thus the destructive capability of the vibration. RMS also
takes into account the time history of the wave form.

The number of discrete frequencies that are tested as part of a Fourier transform is directly
proportional to the number of samples in the original waveform. With N being the length of the
signal, the number of frequency lines or bins is equal to N/2. These frequency bins occur at intervals
(∆f) equal to the sample rate of the raw waveform (Fs) divided by the number of samples (N), which
is another way of saying that the frequency resolution is equal to the inverse of the total acquisition
time (T). To improve the frequency resolution, you must extend the recording time.The lowest
frequency tested is 0 Hz, the DC component; and the highest frequency is the Nyquist frequency
(Fs/2). Windowing can be used to scale the frequency range of interest and manipulate the
frequency bin width.
3. Vibration fault conditions

a. How do we identify the type of vibration fault condition?

There are several techniques associated with the fault diagnosis in rotating machinery. Vibration and
stator currents analysis are commonly used, and it provide fault condition information by means of
the fault-related spectral component identification. This work presents a methodology based on
vibration and current analysis for the diagnosis of wear in a gearbox and the detection of bearing
defect in an induction motor both linked to the same kinematic chain. The most common analysis
techniques are based on statistical time domain, frequency domain, and the joint time-frequency
domain. The time domain analysis involves the extraction of specific features such as Root Mean
Square (RMS), and crest factor. The best-known methods regarding frequency domain and time-
frequency domain analysis are the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), Short-Time Fourier Transform
(STFT), Continuous Wavelet Transform (CWT), and Hilbert Huang Transform (HHT). The examples of
faults that can be discovered are below:
b. Explain what would happen to the time waveform and frequency spectrum of a

machine should the machine have a complicated or multiple vibration fault

conditions? What should we do to distinguish various fault conditions?


The fault conditions along with the time waveform and frequency spectrum can be analysed
according to the rules of vibration.

Rule one: Sine wave

sine wave creates a single peak in the vibration spectrum, with a frequency and an amplitude.

Rule 1: A sine wave creates a single peak in the spectrum

Rule two: Harmonics

Among the common patterns in spectral data. Harmonics are a series of evenly spaced peaks that
are multiples of the first peak in the series and are multiple of any frequency. The first peak is called
the fundamental frequency.

When the vibration is not pure as such it is distorted, has random impacting, has clipping or
transients, there will be harmonics. The faults causing a harmonic wave are the looseness,
misalignment, bearing, wear gear and faults.

Next is the noise floor that is generated by either a single event in the waveform or a waveform that
does not repeat itself (Random vibration). The noise floor represents the noise generated by this
machine and the machines in close proximity or the lower limit of the measurement system and
seems to elevate in either the entire spectrum or in certain areas. These conditions may be because
of serious bearing wear and the noise floor will be higher is it gets worse or because of resonance
that causes the peaks in the spectrum have a broad base and appear as humps.
Sidebands are a very important phenomenon in machinery analysis which is the result of amplitude
modulation between two signals and are common in the study of rolling element bearing, gearbox,
electrical, and other particular fault conditions. In the spectrum, sidebands look like evenly spaced
peaks, cantered on another peak called the centre frequency.

Unbalance

The classic sine wave illustrated above is rarely seen in acceleration time waveform. This is because
acceleration emphasizes the higher frequency components that are almost always present in the
vibration signal. This de-emphasizes the underlying lower frequency signal.

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