Research Notes 4

Building Blocks of Research Examples of Constructs

Objectives:  Theory
 Define & distinguish new terms with quantitative = an explanation of some aspect of reality
and qualitative research = composed of concepts knitted together to describe or
 Describe the flow & sequence of activities in explain some aspect of the world
quantitative and qualitative research = built using research; Research  supports logicality of
theory OR refute/dispute a particular claim of a theory
Key Terms in Quantitative & Qualitative Research = used to back up the logical relationship among the variables
Context Quantitative Qualitative Term you want to look into & study on
Term
Person Subject; Study Study Participant, Nursing theories
contributing Participant Informant, Key = important because without these theories they will not
Information Informant be able to say anything about nursing in general especially
Person Researcher/ Researcher/ on the 4 metaparadigms of nursing (person, health,
undertaking the Investigator Investigator environment, nursing)
study
That which is Concepts, Phenomena,
Research
being Constructs, Concepts
investigated Variables = is to be conducted in order to:
Information Data (numerical Data (narrative  test/generate a theory
gathered values) description)  add more knowledge
Connections Relationships Patterns of  improve a theory
between (cause and effect, associations  expand/edit the theory
concepts associative) Themes  refute theory
Logical reasoning Deductive Inductive (specific  check applicability of theory
processes (general to to general)
specific) Concepts in Qualitative Research
Phenomenon of Interest / Phenomenon / The study
Subject
focus / The concept of interest / The central issue
= pertains to participants in an experimental study
= the foundational topic on which the qualitative research
Variables
is focused
= should be concretely measured in a quantitative research
Emergent concept
(through a survey questionnaire & other types of
= what the researcher discovers during the process of
measurement)
studying the phenomenon of interest
Concepts
Themes / Essences / Truths
= ideas, mostly intangible and abstract
= for phenomenology & other qualitative inquiry
= more cognitive in nature
Factors, factors of interest, categories, codes, core
= emanates from the thinking of people & how they view
variable
things
= for grounded theory
Constructs
Qualitative research
= ideas often deliberately invented or constructed by the
= researchers are required to immerse themselves into the
researchers
data & establish connection with the participant/key
= made if the research is aimed to look into the
informants in order for them to know what are
development of a particular theory
theme/essences/truth about a particular phenomenon
Phenomena
= Example: What are the lived experiences of mothers who
= the entirety of a particular situation
have lost a child due to abortion?
= a new happening/event that has not been studied well on
 Their unique experience would help us to
yet hence you need to collect more data about it
understand what they go through.
= ideas / concepts used in qualitative research
Qualitative & Quantitative Research
Concepts in Quantitative Research
= both involve concepts Variables
 There will be no research if there is no concept. = the central building blocks of Quantitative studies
Research Notes 4

= any quality of a person, group, or situation that VARIES or = The researcher enacts an intervention upon the
takes on different values experimental group and not the control group
= concepts that can be measured, yielding at least 2 = With this, we want to establish if the introduced
different “values”, either numeric or non-numeric interventions/treatment could really cause the outcome
 Example: If you want to measure the level of among your participants
happiness, use a tool that would indicate the level = Naa kay iintroduce na intervention & you check if there is
of happiness. a change among a particular parameter that you are
= ALWAYS related to quantitative studies (Qualitative = looking into among the groups that you are comparing (the
Phenomenon, Concepts) one that has received the intervention & the control group
who has most likely not received any intervention or can
Demographic variables only receive the standard of care)
= commonly collected among study participants in a = has 2 variables:
quantitative research  Independent variable
= subject characteristics measured during a study and used = intervention or treatment that is applied to the
to describe a sample, such as age, gender, ethnicity, year experimental group
levels  Dependent variable
= define the population represented by the sample = the outcome after intervention is applied
= Make sure that these variables are included in the aim of
your study or in your objectives. Make sure that what you Quantitative
are doing in every step of your research is deliberately = not just experimental! Experimental/Non-experimental is
thought of. only one type of it
 Example: If you want to study on which gender,
male or female, is happier, then ask a particular Predictive Correlational Design
part in your questionnaire na “Please state your = non-experimental quantitative research
gender/sex birth”. If it is not in your objectives, do = has 2 variables:
not ask for it. Do not ask for it if it is not used.  Outcome variable / Dependent variable
Otherwise, that would be an unethical question. = the variable that the researcher is attempting to
predict
Independent vs. Dependent Variables = Example: You would like to predict that among
Independent Variable Dependent Variable Velez College nursing students, if they have these
 Presumed cause  Presumed effect particular characteristics, they are more likely to
 The outcome that get passing grades.
researchers want to  Outcome variable: The probability of
understand, explain, passing Nursing in Velez College having
or predict these particular characteristics
 Independent variable
I.C.D.E  Independent = Cause; Dependent = Effect = the predictor that predict the value of the
dependent variable and to what extent they do so
Example: = Example: If students have this level of grit,
Among heart failure patients, is reduced grey matter resilience, and happiness, they would most likely
volume (as measured through MRI) associated with poorer pass Nursing.
performance in instrumental activities of daily living?  Independent variable: The grit, resilience,
 Independent variable = Reduced grey matter and happiness (cause)
volume  Dependent variable: Whether they will
 Dependent variable = Level of performance in pass or not (effect/outcome)
instrumental activities of daily living
Extraneous variables
Interventional research designs = any variable that you are not investigating which can
= another type of quantitative research potentially affect the dependent variable of your research
= aka experimental and quasi-experimental designs study
Research Notes 4

= variables that are not central to a study’s research to change the research design because it will really alter
purpose the findings of your study puhon. That is why you have to
= not identified as either independent or dependent plan fully when you conduct especially experimental
variables researches.
= ang mga samok-samokan na variables Other Quantitative Design Variables
= could be anticipated or worse, they may not be directly Research variable
identified by the researcher = Neither an independent or dependent variable
= 1 dangerous thing about these variables: they have the = the focus of a quantitative research that is neither
potential to cause an effect on the results (Pwede maka causative nor predictive
hugaw2 sa result) thus, you will not be able to get a true = refer to descriptive researches where you aim to describe
reliable data which will compromise your research something
= Very important for us researchers na sa proposal palang  Example: You would like to know the learning
daan, we will be able to identify & properly mitigate and styles of the students in Velez College. Learning
control these extraneous variables especially if we are styles is the research variable. It is neither
doing an experimental research independent or dependent because wala kay gi
tan-aw na cause & effect.
Modifying variable
= a variable that changes the strength, and possibly the
direction or a relationship between other variables
= very much related to the confounding variable but it can
modify; it can strengthen/weaken the effect of one
particular variable
Mediating variable
= a variable that is an intermediate link in the relationship
between other variables
= could also lead to potential changes to future study
results
= Example: For instance, imagine that you find a positive
association between note-taking and performance on an
Confounding variable exam. This association may be explained by number of
= a special subtype of extraneous variable hours studying, which would be the mediating variable. 
= embedded in the study design because it is intertwined Environmental variable
with the independent variable = a characteristic from the study setting
= cannot be controlled for once the study is underway = Example: The researchers aimed to check the effectivity
= Example: You are conducting an educational of letting students listen to beta-beats, to know if it can
experimental research on which you would like to know increase their memory. They noted that a particular
which is more effective. The traditional face-to-face environmental variable that may have had great impact on
teaching or the online teaching. In order to know the their findings is that during the time when they collected
effectivity, you are going to see if asa sa group ang naay their data, it was in the afternoon after a long exam.
mas dako ug score. So academic performance imong tan- Therefore, students who participated in the research kay
awn na outcome. One confounding variable here is if who wala na sa kondisyon to go & listen to the music.
will be the teacher who will conduct the intervention. For
example, you will employ 2 teachers. 1 will conduct the Variables Pertaining to Measurement
face-to-face and the other one will conduct the online. The Type of Other Description Examples
confounding variable can be identified during the conduct Variable Name
of the actual research (nagsugod na silag teaching). What if Dichotomou Binary or Has only 2 Dead-
ang isa ka teacher kay a fresh-graduate compared to the s Bernoulli possible alive, yes-
other one who has a long teaching experience. This will values no,
have a potential effect on how the intervention will be present-
absent, L-
implemented. So indeed, the mastery of the teachers also
R
on the topic could be a confounding variable that you have Nominal Categorical Values are Married-
to foresee because it may raise the need for the research
Research Notes 4

names or partnered- person to withstand anything that comes and is

categories, divorced- measured using the Grit Scale by Cohen 2021.”
not real widowed-
numbers single Example of Conceptual & Operational Definitions
Continuous Ratio Values use Age,
Stoddard and colleagues (2015) studied the relationship
the real income,
number weight
between young adolescents’ hopeful future expectations
scale on the one hand and bullying on the other. The researchers
including defined bullying conceptually as “intentional aggressive
the values behaviors that are repetitive and impose a power
between imbalance between students who bully and students who
numerals are victimized” (p. 422). They operationalized bullying
Discrete Does not Number of behavior by asking a set of 12 questions. One question
have times
asked how often in the past month did the study
potential hospitalized
participant “say things about another student to make
values in
the “gaps” others laugh?” Participants were asked to respond to a
bet. scale from 0 (never) to 5 (five or more times).
numbers  The researchers made an operational definition of
Continuous & Discrete bullying, wherein they stipulated that bullying in
= variables that can be measured/computed using statistics their study is the result of the participants’
Continuous responses to the questionnaire with 12 questions
= has decimals that measure the extent of bullying.
Discrete
= whole numbers; cannot have decimals Different Types of Quantitative Research
 Descriptive Research
Conceptual & Operational Definitions  Correlational Research
Conceptual definition  Experimental Research
= definition of terms  Quasi-experimental Research
= the theoretical meaning of a concept
Descriptive Research
= can be derived from a theorist’s definition of a variable Descriptive research
or developed through concept analysis = explore and describe ideas in real-life situations
= may be drawn from previous publications on the same = performed when collective knowledge about a
topic, a medical dictionary, a standard dictionary, and then phenomenon is incomplete: either no research has been
synthesized by the researcher so as to encompass the conducted, or there is limited knowledge
study’s intended focus = “To what extent does this exist?”
= built from literature review = “What are the principal types of this?”
= Types:
 Simple descriptive design
Operational definition
 Comparative descriptive design
= indicates what the researchers must do to measure the
 Longitudinal descriptive design
concept and collect needed information  Cross-sectional descriptive design
= operationally defining a concept converts it to a variable = Example: You would like to know the learning styles of the
and establishes how it will be measured in that particular first-year students in Velez College. Having known that this
study population pag senior high nila last year kay online, karun 1st
= Most researchers that calls for operational definition falls year of college, online gihapon. So you want to describe what
on quantitative research will be their learning styles now.
 For example: You are studying on grit level. There
is a lexical/theoretical definition of grit, which is Correlational Research
Correlational Research
considered as the conceptual definition, defined
= The researcher measures the numerical strength of
by the previous theorist. However, if you wish to relationships between and among variables in order to
have operational definition of grit, you will state discover whether a change in the value of one is likely to
“In this study, grit is the level of strength in a occur when another increases or decreases.
Research Notes 4

= ALLOW PREDICTION; you try to predict the extent of the  RANDOMIZATION = random assignment of a
occurrence of one variable with another homogenous participant to the control &
= aims to allow prediction BUT it cannot establish cause & experimental group
effect  CONTROL = all extraneous variables are controlled
= Use of correlational formulas produce numbers varying by the researcher to be derived to the purest true
from -1 through +1 data & to establish that the introduction of the
= 3 possible results: intervention is really the cause of the outcome
 Negative/Inverse Correlation  INTERVENTION/MANIPULATION = intervention that
 Positive Correlation is introduced to the experimental group; see if there
 No correlation are changes/effectivity
= Common types of Experimental Design:
Negative/Inverse Correlation  Pretest/Posttest Control Group Design
= A correlation between two variables of – 1 is a perfect  Experimental post-test only control group
negative correlation  Factorial Design
= Perfect negative correlation  As one variable increases,  Solomon four-group design
the other decreases, and the amount of that increase is
completely predictable RANDOMIZATION, CONTROL, INTERVENTION (RCI / RCM)
 The predictability of which depends on various = the 3 elements of a true experimental research
parameters because you will have to make sure that
you have a lot of samples at the same the statistical Quasi-experimental Research
tool/formula that you use is correct. Lastly, your = Purpose: To test hypothesis of a cause-and-effect
questions or the quality of your data should be really relationship when an experimental design cannot or should
strong. not be used
= Example: When a certain study would say that there is a = May lack in one or more of:
negative correlation between suicidal ideation and resilience. 1) Researcher-controlled intervention/manipulation of
If there is higher level of suicidal ideation, then the resilience independent variable
level among these people who have higher suicidal ideation 2) Traditional type of control group
scores are lower, and vice versa. If mas taas kag resilience, 3) Randomization of subjects
lesser chance ka na mag suicidal ideation.
Control or randomization
Positive Correlation = most likely kuwang
= A correlation of + 1
= As one variable increases in value, the value of the other Kanus-a mana mahitabo na dili ma use ang Experimental
variable also increases by a predictable amount Design?
= Example: There is a positive correlation between suicidal  If your target subjects are very rare/few. Thus,
ideation & level of stress. The more stressed a person is, the instead of experimental, quasi-experimental nalang.
more likely he will have suicidal ideation.
Basic Research Vs. Applied Research
No Correlation Basic Research
= a value of 0 means no relationship at all = Research designed to add up or extend the base of
knowledge in a discipline for the sake of knowledge
Types of Correlational Design: production or theory construction rather than for solving an
 Simple Correlational Design immediate problem
 Predictive Correlational Design = Findings are broadly generalizable because they are not
 Model Testing Design limited to distinct specific settings
= important when you try to develop your new theory; when
Predictive Correlational & Model Testing Design you have to learn more and establish the concepts that you
= need more sample size or a stronger valid tool to use in would like to use in your theory
collecting results from the participants = In PhD, the dissertation really takes a lot of time & effort
because pang higher level najud siya
Experimental Research
Experimental research Applied Research
= type of interventional research = Research designed to find a solution to an immediate
= Purpose: To test the NULL hypotheses by means of an practical problem.
applying an intervention to the experimental group and not = Purpose: To answer specific questions, not general
to the control group theoretical ones
= should have the 3 elements of:
Research Notes 4

1. Communicating the Findings

2. Utilizing the findings in practice
Major Steps in a Quantitative Study
1. Conceptual Phase = coming up w/ research topics Activities in a Qualitative Study
that you want to engage in for your research 1. Planning the study
2. Design & Planning = actual doing of research 2. Developing data collection strategies
proposal, consultations, chapters 1, 2, 3, a good 3. Gathering & analyzing data  Developing data
blueprint before you conduct your actual study collection strategies
3. Empirical Phase = actual collection of data accdg. to 4. Disseminating findings
what you have written on your research proposal
4. Analytic Phase = apply statistical tools, formulas, to
measure and help you in making good
conclusions/implications of your findings, properly
answer the research objectives that you have set
during the design & planning
5. Dissemination Phase
= making other people know about the research
especially the beneficiaries

*All these phases call for an iterative process.

Iterative process Qualitative study

= scrutinizing every step, planning it meticulously = we cannot compute for a particular sample size; instead, we
determine it using data saturation
Quantitative is more kapoy than qualitative because you = research design or plan is evolving
really have to plan every step cos you know already what = While you plan a study & develop the data collection
variables you need to answer. At the same time, you have to strategies, you try to go back & forth
make sure that you have adequate sample size to make a = If ever there’s a better way for you to collect the data, or
generalizable result. Otherwise, if nag kulang ka sa sampling, you have sufficiently selected thick descriptions of the
1 weak point naa sa imong study. phenomenon, or your target participants are really the ones
who can answer your question
Phase 1: Conceptual Phase = you have the freedom to tweak as opposed to quantitative
1. Formulating & delimiting the problem proposal, wherein kailangan siya mas established daan
2. Reviewing the related literature otherwise maguba ang entire study
3. Undertaking clinical fieldwork = Proposal does not take much time compared to
4. Defining the framework/ developing conceptual quantitative. However, during the actual data collection,
definitions especially during data analysis, it demands time and effort of
5. Formulating hypotheses the researchers

Phase 2: Design & Planning Phase 1: Planning the Study

1. Selecting a Research Design 1. Identifying the research problem
2. Developing intervention protocols 2. Doing a literature review
3. Identifying the population 3. Developing an overall approach
4. Designing the sampling plan 4. Selecting and gaining entrée into research sites
5. Specifying methods to measure research variable 5. Developing methods to safeguard participants
6. Developing methods to safeguard subjects
7. Finalizing Research Plan Phase 2: Developing Data Collection Strategies
1. Deciding what type of data to gather and how to
Phase 3: Empirical Phase gather them
1. Collecting the data 2. Deciding from whom to collect the data
2. Preparing the data for analysis 3. Deciding how to enhance trustworthiness

Phase 4: Analytic Phase Trustworthiness

1. Analyzing the data  (qualitative) pertains to your study rigor; how credible,
2. Interpreting the results dependable, or authentic your data is
 (quantitative) the counterpart of reliability and validity of
Phase 5: Dissemination Phase your quantitative data
Research Notes 4

Phase 3: Gathering & Analyzing Data

1. Collecting data
2. Organizing and analyzing data
3. Evaluating data: making modifications to data
collection strategies, if necessary
4. Evaluating data: determining if saturation has been
achieved

Data saturation
 nag balik2 na ang sturya so ma predict na nimo ang sturya
sa imong mga gi interview
 researcher reaches peak of findings
 signal that you can now stop collecting data & start the
analysis of data

Phase 4: Disseminating Findings

1. Communicating Findings
2. Utilizing (or making recommendations for utilizing)
findings in practice and future research