Chapter 5

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White 7th ed solutionary
Ingeniería De Proyectos En Ingeniería Química (Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios

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Chapter5 • DimensionalAnalysis
andSimilarity
5.1 For axial flow through a circular tube, the Reynolds number for transition to turbulence is
approximately 2300 [see Eq. (6.2)], based upon the diameter and average velocity. If d = 5 cm and
3
the fluid is kerosene at 20°C, find the volume flow rate in m /h which causes transition.
Solution: For kerosene at 20°C, take ρ = 804 kg/m3 and µ = 0.00192 kg/m⋅s. The only
unknown in the transition Reynolds number is the fluid velocity:
ρ Vd (804)V(0.05)
Re tr ≈ 2300 = = , solve for Vtr = 0.11 m/s
µ 0.00192
π m3 m3
Then Q = VA = (0.11) (0.05) = 2.16E−4
2
× 3600 ≈ 0.78 Ans.
4 h
P5.2 A prototype automobile is designed for cold weather in Denver, CO (-10°C, 83 kPa). Its
drag force is to be tested in on a one-seventh-scale model in a wind tunnel at 150 mi/h and at
20°C and 1 atm. If model and prototype satisfy dynamic similarity, what prototype velocity, in
mi/h, is matched? Comment on your result.
Solution: First assemble the necessary air density and viscosity data:
p 83000 kg kg
Denver : T = 263 K ; ρp = = = 1.10 3 ; µ p = 1.75 E − 5
RT 287( 263) m m −s
p 101350 kg kg
Wind tunnel : T = 293 K ; ρm = = = 1.205 3 ; µm = 1.80 E − 5
RT 287(293) m m −s
Convert 150 mi/h = 67.1 m/s. For dynamic similarity, equate the Reynolds numbers:

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115 SolutionsManual • Fluid Mechanics, Seventh Edition
ρVL (1.10)V p (7 Lm ) ρVL (1.205)(67.1)( Lm )

Re p = |p = = Re m = |m =
µ 1.75 E −5 µ 1.80 E −5
Solve for V prototype = 10.2 m / s = 22.8 mi / h Ans.
This is too slow, hardly fast enough to turn into a driveway. Since the tunnel can go no faster,
the model drag must be corrected for Reynolds number effects. Note that we did not need to
know the actual length of the prototype auto, only that it is 7 times larger than the model length.
P5.3 The transfer of energy by viscous dissipation is dependent upon viscosity µ,

thermal conductivity k, stream velocity U, and stream temperature To. Group these
quantities, if possible, into the dimensionless Brinkman number, which is proportional to µ.
Solution: Here we have only a single dimensionless group. List the dimensions, from
Table 5.1:
µ k U To
{ML-1T -1} {MLT -3 Θ-1} {LT -1} {Θ}
Four dimensions, four variables (MLTΘ) – perfect for making a pi group. Put µ in the
numerator:
Brinkman number = k a U b Toc µ1 yields Br = µ U 2 /(kTo ) Ans.
5.4 When tested in water at 20°C flowing at 2 m/s, an 8-cm-diameter sphere has a measured drag
of 5 N. What will be the velocity and drag force on a 1.5-m-diameter weather balloon moored in
sea-level standard air under dynamically similar conditions?

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Chapter5 • Dimensional Analysis and Similarity 116
Solution: For water at 20°C take ρ ≈ 998 kg/m3 and µ ≈ 0.001 kg/m⋅s. For sea-level standard
air take ρ ≈ 1.2255 kg/m3 and µ ≈ 1.78E−5 kg/m⋅s. The balloon velocity follows from dynamic
similarity, which requires identical Reynolds numbers:
Re model =
ρVD
|model = 998(2.0)(0.08) = 1.6E5 = Re proto = 1.2255Vballoon (1.5)
µ 0.001 1.78E 5
or Vballoon ≈ 1.55 m/s. Ans. Then the two spheres will have identical drag coefficients:
F 5N Fballoon
CD,model = = = 0.196 = CD,proto =
ρV D
2 2 2
998(2.0) (0.08) 2
1.2255(1.55)2 (1.5)2
Solve for Fballoon ≈ 1.3 N Ans.
2
5.5 An automobile has a characteristic length and area of 8 ft and 60 ft , respectively. When
tested in sea-level standard air, it has the following measured drag force versus speed:
V, mi/h: 20 40 60
Drag, lbf: 31 115 249
The same car travels in Colorado at 65 mi/h at an altitude of 3500 m. Using dimensional analysis,
estimate (a) its drag force and (b) the horsepower required to overcome air drag.
Solution: For sea-level air in BG units, take ρ ≈ 0.00238 slug/ft3 and µ ≈ 3.72E−7 slug/ft·s.
Convert the raw drag and velocity data into dimensionless form:
V (mi/hr): 20 40 60
2 2
CD = F/(ρV L ): 0.237 0.220 0.211
ReL = ρVL/µ: 1.50E6 3.00E6 4.50E6
Drag coefficient plots versus Reynolds number in a very smooth fashion and is well fit (to ±1%)
0 106
by the Power-law formula CD ≈ 1.07ReL− . .
(a) The new velocity is V = 65 mi/hr = 95.3 ft/s, and for air at 3500-m Standard Altitude
3
(Table A-6) take ρ = 0.001675 slug/ft and µ = 3.50E−7 slug/ft⋅s. Then compute the new Reynolds
number and use our Power-law above to estimate drag coefficient:

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ρVL (0.001675)(95.3)(8.0)
ReColorado = = = 3.65E 6, hence
µ 3.50 E 7
1.07
CD ≈ 0.106
= 0.2157, ∴ F = 0.2157(0.001675)(95.3)2 (8.0)2 = 210 lbf Ans. (a)
(3.65E 6)
(b) The horsepower required to overcome drag is
Power = FV = (210)(95.3) = 20030 ft×lbf/s ÷ 550 = 36.4 hp Ans. (b)
P5.6 The full-scale parachute in the chapter-opener photo had a drag force of
approximatly 950 lbf when tested at a velocity of 12 mi/h in air at 20°C and 1 atm. Earlier,
a model parachute of diameter 1.7 m was tested in the same tunnel. (a) For dynamic
similarity, what should be the air velocity for the model? (b) What is the expected drag
force of the model? (c) Is there anything surprising about your result to part (b)?
Solution: Convert the data to metric: 950 lbf = 4226 N, 12 mi/h = 5.36 m/s, and Dp = 55 ft
= 16.8 m. (a) From Table A.2 for air at 20C, ρ = 1.20 kg/m3 and µ = 1.8E-5 kg/m-s. (a)
For similarity, equate the Reynolds numbers:
ρ pV p D p (1.20)(5.36)(16.8) ρ V D (1.20)(Vm )(1.7)

Re p = = = 6.0E6 = Re m = m m m =
µp 1.8 E − 5 µm 1.8 E − 5
m mi
Solve for Vm = 52.9 = 118 Ans.(a )
s h
(b) For similarity, the force coefficients will be equal:
Fp 4226 N Fm Fm
CFp = = = 0.436 = =
ρ pV p2 D p2 (1.20)(5.36) 2 (16.8)2 ρ mVm2 Dm2 (1.20)(52.9) 2 (1.7) 2
Solve for Fm = 4226 N = 950 lbf Ans.(b)
(c) It might be surprising that the drag forces are exactly the same for model and
prototype! This is because, if ρ and µ are the same, the product VD is the same for both
and the force is proportional to (VD)2.

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2
5.7 A body is dropped on the moon (g = 1.62 m/s ) with an initial velocity of 12 m/s.
By using option-2 variables, Eq. (5.11), the ground impact occurs at t ** = 0.34 and
S ** = 0.84. Estimate (a) the initial displacement, (b) the final displacement, and
(c) the time of impact.
Solution: (a) The initial displacement follows from the “option 2” formula, Eq. (5.12):
1 (1.62)So 1
S** = gSo /Vo2 + t** + t**2 = 0.84 = 2
+ 0.34 + (0.34)2
2 (12) 2
Solve for So ≈ 39 m Ans. (a)
(b, c) The final time and displacement follow from the given dimensionless results:
S** = gS/Vo2 = 0.84 = (1.62)S/(12)2 , solve for Sfinal ≈ 75 m Ans. (b)
t** = gt/Vo = 0.34 = (1.62)t/(12), solve for t impact ≈ 2.52 s Ans. (c)
5.8 The Morton number Mo, used to correlate bubble-dynamics studies, is a dimensionless

combination of acceleration of gravity g, viscosity µ, density ρ, and surface tension coefficient
Y. If Mo is proportional to g, find its form.
Solution: The relevant dimensions are {g} = {LT−2}, {µ} = {ML−1T−1}, {ρ} = {ML−3}, and
{Y} = {MT−2}. To have g in the numerator, we need the combination:
a b c
 L  M  M   M 
{Mo} = {g}{µ}a{ρ}b{Y}c =  2     3   2  = M 0 L0T 0
 T   LT   L   T 
gµ 4
Solve for a = 4, b = −1, c = −3, or: Mo = Ans.
Y3
P5.9 The Richardson number, Ri, which correlates the production of turbulence by buoyancy,

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is a dimensionless combination of the acceleration of gravity g, the fluid temperature To, the
local temperature gradient ∂T/∂z, and the local velocity gradient ∂u/∂z. Determine the form of
the Richardson number if it is proportional to g.
Solution: In the {MLTΘ} system, these variables have the dimensions {g} = {L/T2}, {To} =
{Θ}, {∂T/∂z} = {Θ/L}, and {∂u/∂z} = {T-1}. The ratio g/(∂u/∂z)2 will cancel time, leaving {L}
in the numerator, and the ratio {∂T/∂z}/To will cancel {Θ}, leaving {L} in the denominator.
Multiply them together and we have the standard form of the dimensionless Richardson number:
∂T
g()
Ri = ∂z Ans.
∂u
To ( ) 2
∂z
5.10 Determine the dimension {MLTΘ} of the following quantities:
∂u ∂ 2T ∂u
2
(a) ρ u (b) ∫ ( p − p0 ) dA (c) ρ c p (d) ∫∫∫ ρ dx dy dz
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂t
All quantities have their standard meanings; for example, ρ is density, etc.
Solution: Note that {∂ u/∂ x} = {U/L}, {∫ p dA} = {pA}, etc. The results are:
 M   ML   M   ML 
(a)  2 2  ; (b)  2  ; (c)  3 2  ; (d)  2  Ans.
L T  T  L T  T 
P5.11 During World War II, Sir Geoffrey Taylor, a British fluid dynamicist, used dimensional
analysis to estimate the wave speed of an atomic bomb explosion. He assumed that the blast
wave radius R was a function of energy released E, air density ρ, and time t. Use dimensional
analysis to show how wave radius must vary with time.

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Solution: The proposed function is R = f(E, ρ, t). There are four variables (n = 4) and three
primary dimensions (MLT, or j = 3), thus we expect n-j = 4-3 = 1 pi group. List the
dimensions:
{R} = {L} ; {E} = {ML2 / T 2 } ; {ρ} = {M/L3 } ; {t} = {T}
Assume arbitrary exponents and make the group dimensionless:
R1 E a ρb t c = ( L)1 ( ML2 / T 2 ) a ( M/L3 ) b (T) c = M 0 L0 T 0 ,

1 1 2
whence a +b = 0 ; 1 +2a −3b = 0 ; −2a +c =0 ; Solve a = − ; b =+ ; c = −
5 5 5
The single pi group is
R ρ 1/ 5
Π1 = 1/ 5 2 / 5
= constant, thus Rwave µ t 2 / 5 Ans.
E t
5.12 The Stokes number, St, used in particle-dynamics studies, is a dimensionless combination of

five variables: acceleration of gravity g, viscosity µ, density ρ, particle velocity U, and particle
diameter D. (a) If St is proportional to µ and inversely proportional to g, find its form. (b) Show
that St is actually the quotient of two more traditional dimensionless groups.
Solution: (a) The relevant dimensions are {g} = {LT −2}, {µ} = {ML−1T −1}, {ρ} = {ML−3}, {U}
= {LT −1}, and {D} = {L}. To have µ in the numerator and g in the denominator, we need the
combination:
 M  T   M   L 
2
{St} = {µ}{g}−1{ρ}a {U}b {D}c =      3 a  b {L}c = M 0 L0T 0
 LT   L   L   T 

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µU
Solve for a = −1, b = 1, c = −2, or: St = Ans. (a)
ρ gD 2
U 2 /( gD) Froude number
This has the ratio form: St = = Ans. (b)
ρUD/µ R nolds be
5.13 The speed of propagation C of a capillary (very small) wave in deep water is known to be a
function only of density ρ, wavelength λ, and surface tension Y. Find the proper functional
relationship, completing it with a dimensionless constant. For a given density and wavelength, how
does the propagation speed change if the surface tension is doubled?
Solution: The “function” of ρ, λ, and Y must have velocity units. Thus

a c
L M M
{C} = {f( ρ , λ ,Y)}, or C = const ρ a λ bY c , or:   =  3  {L}b  2 
T L  T 
Y
Solve for a = b = −1/2 and c = +1/2, or: C = const Ans.
ρλ
Thus, for constant ρ and λ, if Y is doubled, C increases as 2, or +41%. Ans.
P5.14 In forced convection, the heat transfer coefficient h is a function of thermal

conductivity k, density ρ, viscosity µ, specific heat cp, body length L, and velocity V.
Heat transfer coefficient has units of W/(m2-K) and dimensions {MT-3Θ-1}. Rewrite this
relation in dimensionless form, using (k, ρ, cp, L) as repeating variables.
Solution: From Table 5.1, plus the given definition of h, list the dimensions:
h k ρ µ cp L V
{MT −3 Θ−1} {MLT −3 Θ −1} {ML−3 } {ML−1T −1} {L2T −2 Θ−1} {L} {LT −1}
Four dimensions, 3 pi groups expected.

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Add one variable successively to our repeating variables (k, ρ, cp, L):
hL
Π1 = k a ρ b c cp Ld h1 yields Π1 =
k
µ cp
Π 2 = k a ρ b c cp Ld µ1 yields Π2 =
k
ρ L cp V
Π 3 = k a ρ b c cp Ld V 1 yields Π3 =
k
The final desired dimensionless function is
hL µ cp ρ L cp V
= fcn( , ) Ans.
k k k
In words, the Nusselt number is a function of Prandtl number and Peclet number.
5.15 The wall shear stress τw in a boundary layer is assumed to be a function of stream velocity
U, boundary layer thickness δ, local turbulence velocity u′, density ρ, and local pressure gradient
dp/dx. Using (ρ, U, δ ) as repeating variables, rewrite this relationship as a dimensionless function.
Solution: The relevant dimensions are {τw} = {ML−1T−2}, {U} = {LT−1}, {δ} = {L}, {u′} =
{LT−1}, {ρ} = {ML−3}, and {dp/dx} = {ML−2T−2}. With n = 6 and j = 3, we expect n − j = k = 3
pi groups:
M  L  M 
Π1 = ρ aU bδ cτ w =  3 a  b {L}c  2  = M 0 L0T 0 , solve a = −1, b = −2, c = 0
 L  T   LT 
M  L  L 
Π 2 = ρ aU bδ cu ′ =  3 a  b {L}c   = M 0 L0T 0 , solve a = 0, b = −1, c = 0
 L  T  T 
dp  M a  L b  M 
Π 3 = ρ aU bδ c =  3    {L}c  2 2  = M 0 L0T 0 , solve a = −1, b = −2, c = 1
dx  L   T  L T 
The final dimensionless function then is given by:
τw  u′ dp δ 
Π1 = fcn(Π 2 , Π 3 ), or: = fcn  U , dx ρU 2 ÷ Ans.
ρU 2 

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5.16 Convection heat-transfer data are often reported as a heat-transfer coefficient h, defined by

Q&= h A ∆T
where Q& = heat flow, J/s

2
A = surface area, m
∆T = temperature difference, K
The dimensionless form of h, called the Stanton number, is a combination of h, fluid density ρ,
specific heat cp, and flow velocity V. Derive the Stanton number if it is proportional to h. What
are the units of h?
&  ML2   M 
Solution: If {Q} = {hA∆T}, then  3  = {h}{L }{Θ}, or: {h} =  3 
2
 T   ΘT 
c
 M M  L  L
b 2 d
Then {Stanton No.} = {h ρ cp V } =  3   3   2    = M0 L0 T 0 Θ0
1 b c d
 ΘT   L   T Θ   T 
Solve for b = −1, c = −1, and d = −1.
−1 h
Thus, finally, Stanton Number = hρ −1cp V−1 = Ans.
ρ Vc
P5.17 If you disturb a tank of length L and water depth h, the surface will
oscillate back and forth at frequency Ω, assumed here to depend also upon water density
ρ and the acceleration of gravity g. (a) Rewrite this as a dimensionless function. (b) If a
tank of water sloshes at 2.0 Hz on earth, how fast would it oscillate on Mars (g ≈ 3.7
m/s2)?
Solution: Write out the dimensions of the five variables. We hardly even need Table 5.1:
Ω h L ρ g
{T −1} {L} {L} {ML−3 } {LT −2 }
(a) There are five variables and three dimensions {MLT}, hence we expect two pi groups.
The writer thinks Ω should be correlated versus h, so he chooses (L, ρ, g) as repeating

variables:

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L
Π1 = La ρ b g c Ω1 yields Π1 = Ω
g
h
Π2 = La ρ b g c h1 yields Π2 =
L
L h
Thus Ω = fcn( ) Ans.( a)
g L
Note that density drops out, being the only variable containing mass {M}. If the tank
sloshes on earth at 2.0 Hz, that sets the value of Π1, which we use on Mars to get ΩMars at
the same h/L.
L L L L
Ωearth = (2.0 s −1 ) 2
= 0.639 m −1/ 2 L = Ω Mars = Ω Mars
g earth 9.81 m / s g Mars 3.7 m / s 2
Solve for Ω Mars ≈ 1.23 Hz Ans.(b)
5.18 Under laminar conditions, the volume flow Q through a small triangular-section pore of side
length b and length L is a function of viscosity µ, pressure drop per unit length ∆p/L, and b. Using
the pi theorem, rewrite this relation in dimensionless form. How does the volume flow change if the
pore size b is doubled?
Solution: Establish the variables and their dimensions:
Q = fcn(∆p/L , µ , b )
3 2 2
{L /T} {M/L T } {M/LT} {L}
Then n = 4 and j = 3, hence we expect n − j = 4 − 3 = 1 Pi group, found as follows:
Π1 = (∆p/L)a (µ )b (b)c Q1 = {M/L2 T2}a {M/LT}b{L}c{L3/T}1 = M0 L0 T 0

M: a + b = 0; L: −2a – b + c + 3 = 0; T: −2a – b – 1 = 0,
solve a = −1, b = +1, c = −4

Qµ
Π1 = = constant Ans.
( ∆p/L)b 4
Clearly, if b is doubled, the flow rate Q increases by a factor of 24 = 16. Ans.

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5.19 The period of oscillation T of a water surface wave is assumed to be a function of density ρ,

wavelength λ, depth h, gravity g, and surface tension Y. Rewrite this relationship in dimensionless
form. What results if Y is negligible?
T = fcn( ρ , λ , h , g , Y )

3 2 2
{T} {M/L } {L} {L} {L/T } {M/T }
Then n = 6 and j = 3, hence we expect n − j = 6 − 3 = 3 Pi groups, capable of various arrangements

and selected by the writer as follows:
h Y 
Typical final result: T(g/λ )1/2 = fcn  , 2 ÷
Ans.
 λ ρ λ 
h
If Y is negligible, ρ drops out also, leaving: T(g/λ )1/2 = fcn  ÷ Ans.
λ
P5.20 A fixed cylinder of diameter D and length L, immersed in a stream flowing

normal to its axis at velocity U, will experience zero average lift. However, if the
cylinder is rotating at angular velocity Ω, a lift force F will arise. The fluid density ρ is
important, but viscosity is secondary and can be neglected. Formulate this lift behavior as
a dimensionless function.
Solution: No suggestion was given for the repeating variables, but for this type of
problem (force coefficient, lift coefficient), we normally choose (ρ, U, D) for the task.
List the dimensions:
D L U Ω F ρ
{L} {L} {LT -1} {T -1} {MLT -2 } {ML-3 }

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There are three dimensions (MLT), which we knew when we chose (ρ, U, D). Combining
these three, separately, with F, Ω, and L, we find this dimensionless function:
F ΩD L
= fcn( , ) Ans.
ρU D2 2 U D
This is a correct solution for Chapter 5, but in Chapter 8 we will use the “official”
function, with extra factors of (1/2):
F ΩD L
= fcn( , )
(1/ 2) ρU LD 2 2U D
5.21 In Example 5.1 we used the pi theorem to develop Eq. (5.2) from Eq. (5.1). Instead of
merely listing the primary dimensions of each variable, some workers list the powers of each
primary dimension for each variable in an array:
F L U ρ µ
M 1 0 0 1 1
L  1 1 1 −3 −1
T  −2 0 −1 0 −1
This array of exponents is called the dimensional matrix for the given function. Show that the rank
of this matrix (the size of the largest nonzero determinant) is equal to j = n – k, the desired
reduction between original variables and the pi groups. This is a general property of dimensional
matrices, as noted by Buckingham [1].
Solution: The rank of a matrix is the size of the largest submatrix within which has a non-
zero determinant. This means that the constants in that submatrix, when considered as
coefficients of algebraic equations, are linearly independent. Thus we establish the number of
independent parameters—adding one more forms a dimensionless group. For the example
shown, the rank is three (note the very first 3 × 3 determinant on the left has a non-zero
determinant). Thus “j” = 3 for the drag force system of variables.

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5.22 The angular velocity Ω of a windmill is a function of windmill diameter D, wind velocity V,

air density ρ, windmill height H as compared to atmospheric boundary layer height L, and the
number of blades N: that is, Ω = fcn(D, V, ρ, H/L, N). Viscosity effects are negligible. Rewrite this
function in terms of dimensionless Pi groups.
Ω = fcn( D, V , ρ , H / L , N )
Solution: We have n = 6 variables, j = 3 dimensions (M, L, T), thus expect n − j = 3 Pi groups.

Since only ρ has mass dimensions, it drops out. After some thought, we realize that H/L and N
are already dimensionless! The desired dimensionless function becomes:
ΩD H 
= fcn  , N ÷ Ans.
V L 
5.23 The period T of vibration of a beam is a function of its length L, area moment of inertia I,
modulus of elasticity E, density ρ, and Poisson’s ratio σ. Rewrite this relation in dimensionless
form. What further reduction can we make if E and I can occur only in the product form EI?
T = fcn( L , I , E , ρ , σ )
4 2 3
{T} {L} {L } {M/LT } {M/L } {none}

and selected by myself as follows: [Note that σ must be a Pi group.]
T E  L4 
Typical final result: = fcn  , σ ÷ Ans.
L ρ  I 
T EI
If E and I can only appear together as EI, then = fcn(σ ) Ans.
L3 ρ
5.24 The lift force F on a missile is a function of its length L, velocity V, diameter D, angle of
attack α, density ρ, viscosity µ, and speed of sound a of the air. Write out the dimensional matrix of
this function and determine its rank. (See Prob. 5.21 for an explanation of this concept.) Rewrite the
function in terms of pi groups.

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F = fcn( L , V , D , α , ρ , µ , a )

2 3
{ML/T } {L} {L/T} {L} {1} {M/L } {M/LT} {L/T}
Then n = 8 and j = 3, hence we expect n − j = 8 − 3 = 5 Pi groups. The matrix is
F L V D α ρ µ a
M: 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
L: 1 1 1 1 0 -3 -1 1
T: -2 0 -1 0 0 0 -1 -1
The rank of this matrix is indeed three, hence there are exactly 5 Pi groups. The writer chooses:
F  ρ VL L V 
Typical final result: = fcn  α , , , ÷ Ans.
ρV L
2 2
 µ D a
P5.25 The thrust F of a propeller is generally thought to be a function of its diameter D and
angular velocity Ω, the forward speed V, and the density ρ and viscosity µ of the fluid. Rewrite
this relationship as a dimensionless function.
Solution: Write out the function with the various dimensions underneath:
F = fcn( D , Ω , V , ρ , µ )
2 3
{ML / T } {L} {1 / T } {L / T } {M / L } {M / LT }
There are 6 variables and 3 primary dimensions (MLT), and we quickly see that j = 3, because

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
(ρ, V, D) cannot form a pi group among themselves. Use the pi theorem to find
the three pi’s:
F
Π1 = ρ aV b D c F ; Solve for a = −1, b = −2, c = − 2. Thus Π1 =
ρV 2 D 2
ΩD
Π2 = ρ aV b D c Ω ; Solve for a = 0, b = −1, c = 1. Thus Π2 =
V
µ
Π3 = ρ aV b D c µ ; Solve for a = −1, b = −1, c = −1. Thus Π3 =
ρVD
Thus one of many forms of the final desired dimensionless function is
F ΩD µ
= fcn( , ) Ans.
ρV D
2 2 V ρVD
5.26 A pendulum has an oscillation period T which is assumed to depend upon its length L,
bob mass m, angle of swing θ, and the acceleration of gravity. A pendulum 1 m long, with a bob
mass of 200 g, is tested on earth and found to have a period of 2.04 s when swinging at 20°. (a)
What is its period when it swings at 45°? A similarly constructed pendulum, with L = 30 cm and
2
m = 100 g, is to swing on the moon (g = 1.62 m/s ) at θ = 20°. (b) What will be its period?
Solution: First establish the variables and their dimensions so that we can do the numbers:
T = fcn( L , m , g , θ )
2
{T} {L} {M} {L/T } {1}
Then n = 5 and j = 3, hence we expect n − j = 5 − 3 = 2 Pi groups. They are unique:
g
T = fcn(θ ) (mass drops out for dimensional reasons)
L
(a) If we change the angle to 45°, this changes Π2, hence we lose dynamic similarity and do not
know the new period. More testing is required. Ans. (a)
(b) If we swing the pendulum on the moon at the same 20°, we may use similarity:
1/2 1/2 1/2
g   9.81 m/s2   1.62 m/s2 
T1  1 ÷ = (2.04 s)  ÷ = 6.39 = T2 ÷ ,
 1
L  1.0 m   0.3 m 
or: T2 = 2.75 s Ans. (b)

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
5.27 In studying sand transport by ocean waves, A. Shields in 1936 postulated that the bottom
shear stress τ required to move particles depends upon gravity g, particle size d and density ρp, and
water density ρ and viscosity µ. Rewrite this in terms of dimensionless groups (which led to the
Shields Diagram in 1936).
Solution: There are six variables ( τ, g, d, ρp, ρ, µ) and three dimensions (M, L, T), hence
we expect n − j = 6 − 3 = 3 Pi groups. The author used ( ρ, g, d) as repeating variables:
τ  ρ g1/2 d 3/2 ρp 
= fcn  , ÷ Ans.
ρ gd  µ ρ
The shear parameter used by Shields himself was based on net weight: τ /[(ρ p − ρ )gd].
5.28 A simply supported beam of diameter D, length L, and modulus of elasticity E is subjected to
a fluid crossflow of velocity V, density ρ, and viscosity µ. Its center deflection δ is assumed to be a
function of all these variables. (a) Rewrite this proposed function in dimensionless form. (b) Suppose
2
it is known that δ is independent of µ, inversely proportional to E, and dependent only upon ρV , not
ρ and V separately. Simplify the dimensionless function accordingly.
δ = fcn( ρ , D , L , E , V , µ )

3 2
{L} {M/L } {L} {L} {M/LT } {L/T} {M/LT}

and selected by the writer, as follows (a):
δ  L ρ VD E 
Well-posed final result: = fcn  , , ÷ Ans. (a)
L D µ ρ V2 
(b) If µ is unimportant and δ proportional to E-1, then the Reynolds number (ρVD/µ) drops out, and
2
we have already cleverly combined E with ρV , which we can now slip out and turn upside down:
1 δ ρ V2 L
If µ drops out and δ µ , then = fcn  ÷,
E L E D
δE L

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
5.29 When fluid in a pipe is accelerated linearly from rest, it begins as laminar flow and then
undergoes transition to turbulence at a time ttr which depends upon the pipe diameter D, fluid
acceleration a, density ρ, and viscosity µ. Arrange this into a dimensionless relation between ttr and D.
ttr = fcn( ρ , D , a , µ )

3 2
{T} {M/L } {L} {L/T } {M/LT}

and selected by the writer, as required, to isolate ttr versus D:
1/3
 ρ a2    ρ 2 a 1/3 
t tr  ÷ = fcn  D  2 ÷  Ans.
 µ ÷   µ  
P5.30 When a large tank of high-pressure ideal gas discharges through a nozzle, the
maximum exit mass flow m& is a function of tank pressure po and temperature To, gas
constant R, specific heat cp, and nozzle diameter D. Rewrite this as a dimensionless
function. Check to see if you can use (po, To , R, D) as repeating variables.
Solution: Using Table 5.1, write out the dimensions of the six variables:
m& po To R D cp
{MT −1} {ML−1T −2 } {Θ} {L2T −2 Θ−1} {L} {L2T −2 Θ−1}
By inspection, we see that (po, To , R, D) are indeed good repeating variables. There are
two pi groups:
m& RTo
Π1 = poa Tob R c c dp m&1 yields Π1 =
po D 2
cp
Π2 = poa Tob R c c dp c1p yields Π1 =
R
m& RTo cp
Thus = fcn( ) Ans.
po D 2 R

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
The group (cp/R) = k/(k-1), where k = cp/cv . We usually write the right hand side as fcn(k).
5.31 The heat-transfer rate per unit area q to a body from a fluid in natural or gravitational
convection is a function of the temperature difference ∆T, gravity g, body length L, and three fluid
properties: kinematic viscosity ν, conductivity k, and thermal expansion coefficient β. Rewrite in
dimensionless form if it is known that g and β appear only as the product gβ.
q = fcn( ∆T , g , L , ν , β , k )

3 2 2 3
{M/T } {Θ} {L/T } {L} {L /T} {1/Θ} {ML/ΘT }

and selected by myself, as follows:
qL  gL3 
If β and ∆T kept separate, then = fcn  β∆T, 2 ÷
k∆T  ν 
If, in fact, β and g must appear together, then Π2 and Π3 above combine and we get
qL  β ΔTgL3 
= fcn  2 ÷ Ans.
kΔT  ν 
Nusselt No. Grashof Number
5.32 A weir is an obstruction in a channel flow which can be calibrated to measure the flow
rate, as in Fig. P5.32. The volume flow Q varies with gravity g, weir width b into the paper, and
upstream water height H above the weir crest. If it is known that Q is proportional to b, use the
pi theorem to find a unique functional relationship Q(g, b, H).

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
Fig. P5.32
Q = fcn( g , b , H )

3 2
{L /T} {L/T } {L} {L}

and selected by myself, as follows:
Q b Q
= fcn  ÷; but if Q µ b, then we reduce to = constant Ans.
H
1/2 5/2 1/2 3/2
H bg H
5.33 A spar buoy (see Prob. 2.113) has a period T of vertical (heave) oscillation which
depends upon the waterline cross-sectional area A, buoy mass m, and fluid specific weight γ.
How does the period change due to doubling of (a) the mass and (b) the area? Instrument
buoys should have long periods to avoid wave resonance. Sketch a possible long-period buoy
design.
Fig. P5.33
T = fcn( A , m , γ )
2 2 2
{T} {L } {M} {M/L T }
Then n = 4 and j = 3, hence we expect n − j = 4 − 3 = 1 single Pi group, as follows:
Aγ
T = dimensionless constant Ans.

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
Since we can’t do anything about γ, the specific weight of water, we can increase period T by
increasing buoy mass m and decreasing waterline area A. See the illustrative long-period buoy in
Figure P5.33 above.
5.34 To good approximation, the thermal conductivity k of a gas (see Ref. 21 of Chap. 1) depends
only on the density ρ, mean free path l , gas constant R, and absolute temperature T. For air at 20°C
and 1 atm, k ≈ 0.026 W/m⋅K and l ≈ 6.5E−8 m. Use this information to determine k for hydrogen
at 20°C and 1 atm if l ≈ 1.2E−7 m.
Solution: First establish the variables and their dimensions and then form a pi group:
k = fcn( ρ , l , R , T )
3 3 2 2
{ML/ΘT } {M/L } {L} {L /T Θ} {Θ}
Thus n = 5 and j = 4, and we expect n − j = 5 − 4 = 1 single pi group, and the result is
k /( ρ R 3/2T 1/2 l ) = a dimensionless constant = Π1

3 2 2
The value of Π1 is found from the air data, where ρ = 1.205 kg/m and R = 287 m /s ⋅K:
0.026
Π1,air = = 3.99 = Π1,hydrogen
(1.205)(287) (293)1/ 2 (6.5 E 8)
3/2
3 2 2
For hydrogen at 20°C and 1 atm, calculate ρ = 0.0839 kg/m with R = 4124 m /s ⋅K. Then
khydrogen W
Π1 = 3.99 = , solve for khydrogen = 0.182 Ans.
3/2 1/2
(0.0839)(4124) (293) (1.2 E 7) m×K
This is slightly larger than the accepted value for hydrogen of k ≈ 0.178 W/m⋅K.

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
5.35 The torque M required to turn the cone-plate viscometer in Fig. P5.35 depends upon the
radius R, rotation rate Ω, fluid viscosity µ, and cone angle θ. Rewrite this relation in dimensionless
form. How does the relation simplify if it is known that M is proportional to θ ?
Fig. P5.35
M = fcn( R , Ω , µ , θ )
2 2
{ML /T } {L} {1/T} {M/LT} {1}
Then n = 5 and j = 3, hence we expect n − j = 5 − 3 = 2 Pi groups, capable of only one reasonable
arrangement, as follows:
M M
= fcn(θ ); if M µ θ , then = constant Ans.
µΩR 3
µΩθ R 3
See Prob. 1.56 of this Manual, for an analytical solution.
5.36 The rate of heat loss, Qloss through a window is a function of the temperature difference
2
∆T, the surface area A, and the R resistance value of the window (in units of ft ⋅hr⋅°F/Btu): Qloss
= fcn(∆T, A, R). (a) Rewrite in dimensionless form. (b) If the temperature difference doubles, how
does the heat loss change?
Solution: First figure out the dimensions of R: {R} = {T3Θ/M}. Then note that n = 4 variables
and j = 3 dimensions, hence we expect only 4 − 3 = one Pi group, and it is:
Qloss R A ∆T
Π1 = = Const , or: Qloss = Const Ans. (a)
A ∆T R
(b) Clearly (to me), Q ∝ ∆T: if ∆T doubles, Qloss also doubles. Ans. (b)
P5.37 The volume flow Q through an orifice plate is a function of pipe diameter D, pressure
drop ∆p across the orifice, fluid density ρ and viscosity µ, and orifice diameter d. Using D, ρ,
and ∆p as repeating variables, express this relationship in dimensionless form.

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
Solution: There are 6 variables and 3 primary dimensions (MLT), and we

already know that
j = 3, because the problem thoughtfully gave the repeating variables. Use the
pi theorem to find the three pi’s:
Q ρ1 / 2
Π1 = D a ρb ∆p c Q ; Solve for a = −2, b = 1 / 2, c =−1 / 2. Thus Π1 =
D 2 ∆p1 / 2
d
Π2 = D a ρb ∆p c d ; Solve for a = −1 b =0 c = 0. Thus Π1 =
D
µ
Π3 = D a ρb ∆p c µ ; Solve for a = −1, b =−1 / 2, c =−1 / 2. Thus Π1 =
Dρ 1/ 2
∆p1 / 2
The final requested orifice-flow function (see Sec. 6.12 later for a different
form) is:
Q ρ 1/ 2 d µ
= fcn( , ) Ans.
D ∆p
2 1/ 2 D Dρ 1 / 2 ∆p1 / 2
5.38 The size d of droplets produced by a liquid spray nozzle is thought to depend upon the
nozzle diameter D, jet velocity U, and the properties of the liquid ρ, µ, and Y. Rewrite this relation
in dimensionless form. Hint: Take D, ρ, and U as repeating variables.
d = fcn( D , U , ρ , µ , Y )

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
3 2
{L} {L} {L/T} {M/L } {M/LT} {M/T }

and selected by the writer, as follows:
d  ρ UD ρ U 2 D 
Typical final result: = fcn  , ÷ Ans.
D  µ Y 
__________________________________________________________________________
P5.39 Consider natural convection in a rotating, fluid-filled enclosure. The average

wall shear stress τ in the enclosure is assumed to be a function of rotation rate Ω, enclosure
height H, density ρ, temperature difference ∆T, viscosity µ, and thermal expansion
coefficient β. (a) Rewrite this relationship as a dimensionless function. (b) Do you see a
severe flaw in the analysis?
Solution: (a) Using Table 5.1, write out the dimensions of the seven variables:
τ ρ H Ω µ β ∆T
{ML-1T -2 } {ML-3 } {L} {T -1} {ML-1T -1} {Θ-1} {Θ}
There are four primary dimensions (MLTQ), and we can easily find four variables (ρ, H,
Ω, β) that do not form a pi group. Therefore we expect 7-4 = 3 dimensionless groups.
Adding each remaining variable in turn, we find three nice pi groups:
τ
Π1 = ρ a H b Ωc β d τ leads to Π1 =
ρ H 2 Ω2
µ
Π 2 = ρ a H b Ωc β d µ leads to Π2 =
ρ H 2Ω
Π 3 = ρ a H b Ωc β d ∆T leads to Π3 = β ∆T
Thus one very nice arrangement of the desired dimensionless function is
τ µ
= fcn( , β ∆T ) Ans.(a )
ρ H 2 Ω2 ρ H 2Ω

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
(b) This is a good dimensional analysis exercise, but in real life it would fail miserably,
because natural convection is highly dependent upon the acceleration of gravity, g, which
we left out by mistake.
P5.40 The time td to drain a liquid from a hole in the bottom of a tank is a function of the hole
diameter d, the initial fluid volume υo, the initial liquid depth ho, and the density ρ and viscosity
µ of the fluid. Rewrite this relation as a dimensionless function, using Ipsen’s method.
Solution: As asked, use Ipsen’s method. Write out the function with the
dimensions beneath:
td = fcn( d , υo , ho , ρ , µ )
{T } {L} {L3 } {L} {M / L3 } {M / LT }
Eliminate the dimensions by multiplication or division. Divide by µ to eliminate {M}:
ρ
td = fcn( d , υo , ho , , µ )
µ
{T } {L} {L3 } {L} {T / L2 }
Recall Ipsen’s rules: Only divide into variables containing mass, in this case only ρ. Now
eliminate {T}. Again only one division is necessary:

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
td µ ρ
= fcn( d , υo , ho , )
ρ µ
{L2 } {L} {L3 } {L}
Finally, eliminate {L} by dividing by appropriate powers of d. This completes our task when we
discard d: itself:
td µ υo ho
= fcn( , ) Ans.
ρd 2
d 3 d
{1} {1} {1}
Just divide out the dimensions, don’t worry about j or selecting repeating variables. Of course,
the Pi Theorem would give the same, or comparable, results.
5.41 A certain axial-flow turbine has an output torque M which is proportional to the volume
flow rate Q and also depends upon the density ρ, rotor diameter D, and rotation rate Ω. How
does the torque change due to a doubling of (a) D and (b) Ω?
Solution: List the variables and their dimensions, one of which can be M/Q, since M is stated
to be proportional to Q:
M/Q = fcn( D , ρ , Ω )

3
{M/LT} {L} {M/L } {1/T}
Then n = 4 and j = 3, hence we expect n − j = 4 − 3 = 1 single Pi group:

M/Q
= dimensionless constant
ρΩD2
(a) If turbine diameter D is doubled, the torque M increases by a factor of 4. Ans. (a)
(b) If turbine speed Ω is doubled, the torque M increases by a factor of 2. Ans. (b)
P5.42 When disturbed, a floating buoy will bob up and down at frequency f. Assume that this
frequency varies with buoy mass m and waterline diameter d and with the specific weight γ of

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
the liquid. (a) Express this as a dimensionless function. (b) If d and γ are constant and the buoy
mass is halved, how will the frequency change?
Solution: The proposed function is f = fcn( m, d, γ ). Write out their dimensions:
{ f } = {T −1} ; {m} = {M } ; {d } = {L} ; {γ } = {ML−2T −2 }
There are four variables and j = 3. Hence we expect only one Pi group. We find that
f m
Π1 = = constant Ans.(a )
d γ
Hence, for these simplifying assumptions, f is proportional to m-1/2. If m halves, f rises by a

factor (0.5)-1/2 = 1.414. In other words, halving m increases f by about 41%. Ans.(b)
5.43 Non-dimensionalize the thermal energy partial differential equation (4.75) and its
boundary conditions (4.62), (4.63), and (4.70) by defining dimensionless temperature T* = T/To ,
where To is the fluid inlet temperature, assumed constant. Use other dimensionless variables as
needed from Eqs. (5.23). Isolate all dimensionless parameters which you find, and relate them to
the list given in Table 5.2.
Solution: Recall the previously defined variables in addition to T* :

u x Ut v or w y or z
u* = ; x* = ; t* = ; similarly, v* or w* = ; y* or z* =
U L L U L
Then the dimensionless versions of Eqs. (4.75, 62, 63, 70) result as follows:
dT*  k   µU 
(4.75): =  ÷ ∇*2 T* +  ÷ Φ*
dt*  ρc p UL   ρc p To L 
1/Peclet Number Eckert Number divided by Reynolds Number

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
5.44 The differential energy equation for incompressible two-dimensional flow through a “Darcy-
type” porous medium is approximately
σ ∂ p ∂T σ ∂ p ∂T ∂ 2T
ρcp ρ
+ cp +k 2 =0
µ∂ ∂ µ∂ ∂ ∂
where σ is the permeability of the porous medium. All other symbols have their usual meanings.
(a) What are the appropriate dimensions for σ ? (b) Nondimensionalize this equation, using (L,
U, ρ, To) as scaling constants, and discuss any dimensionless parameters which arise.
Solution: (a) The only way to establish {σ} is by comparing two terms in the PDE:
 σ ∂ p ∂ T   ∂ 2T   M  ?  M 
 ρc p  =  k 2  , or:  3 3 {σ} =  3  ,
 µ ∂ x ∂ x   ∂ x  L T   LT 
(b) Define dimensionless variables using the stated list of (L, U, ρ, To) for scaling:
x y p T
x* = ; y* = ; p* = ; T* =
L L ρU 2
T
Substitution into the basic PDE above yields only a single dimensionless parameter:
 ∂ p* ∂ T* ∂ p* ∂ T*  ∂ 2 T* ρ 2 c p U 2σ
ζ + ÷+ = 0, where ζ = Ans. (b)
 ∂ x* ∂ x* ∂ y* ∂ y*  ∂ y*
2
k
I don’t know the name of this parameter. It is related to the “Darcy-Rayleigh” number.
5.45 A model differential equation, for chemical reaction dynamics in a plug reactor, is
as follows:
∂C ∂ 2C ∂C
u = D 2 − kC −
∂ ∂ ∂
where u is the velocity, is a diffusion coefficient, k is a reaction rate, x is distance along the
reactor, and C is the (dimensionless) concentration of a given chemical in the reactor. (a)
Determine the appropriate dimensions of and k. (b) Using a characteristic length scale L and

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
average velocity V as parameters, rewrite this equation in dimensionless form and comment on any
Pi groups appearing.
Solution: (a) Since all terms in the equation contain C, we establish the dimensions of k and
by comparing {k} and { ∂ 2/∂ x2} to {u∂ /∂ x}:
 ∂2  1  ∂  L  1 
{k} = {D}  2  = {D}  2  = {u}   =     ,
 ∂ x  L   ∂ x  T   L 
1  L2 
hence { k} =   and {D } =   Ans. (a)
T   T 
(b) To non-dimensionalize the equation, define u* = u/V , t* = Vt /L, and x* = x/L and substitute
into the basic partial differential equation. The dimensionless result is
∂ C  D  ∂ 2 C  kL  ∂C VL
u* = ÷ − ÷C− , where = mass-transfer Peclet number Ans. (b)
∂ *  VL  ∂ *  V 
2
∂ t* D
P5.46 If a vertical wall at temperature Tw is surrounded by a fluid at temperature

To, a natural convection boundary layer flow will form. For laminar flow, the momentum
equation is
∂u ∂u ∂ 2u
ρ(u + v ) = ρβ (T − To ) g + µ 2
∂x ∂y ∂y
to be solved, along with continuity and energy, for (u, v, T) with appropriate boundary
conditions. The quantity β is the thermal expansion coefficient of the fluid. Use ρ, g, L,
and (Tw – To) to nondimensionalize this equation. Note that there is no “stream” velocity
in this type of flow.
Solution: For the given constants used to define dimensionless variables, there is only
one pairing which will give a velocity unit: (gL)1/2. Here are the writer’s dimensionless
variables:
u v x y T − To
u* = ; v* = ; x* = ; y* = ; T* =
gL gL L L Tw − To

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
Substitute into the momentum equation above and clean up so all terms are
dimensionless:
∂u * gL ∂u * gL ∂ 2 u * gL
ρ (u * ) + ρ (v * ) = ρβ g (Tw − To ) T * + µ
∂x * L ∂y * L ∂y * 2 L2
∂u * ∂u * µ ∂ 2u *
or : u* + v* = [ β (Tw − To )]T * + [ ] Ans.
∂x * ∂y * ρ L gL ∂y * 2
There are two dimensionless parameters: β (Tw − To ) and µ /[ ρ L gL ]. Neither has a

name, to the writer’s knowledge, because a much cleverer analysis would result in only a
single dimensionless parameter, the Grashof number, g β (Tw − To ) L3/ν2. (See, for
example, White, Viscous Fluid Flow, 3rd edition, Section 4-14.3, page 323.)
5.47 The differential equation for small-amplitude vibrations y(x, t) of a simple beam is given by
∂ 2y ∂ 4y
ρA + EI =0
∂ 2 ∂ 4
where ρ = beam material density
A = cross-sectional area
I = area moment of inertia
E = Young’s modulus
Use only the quantities ρ, E, and A to nondimensionalize y, x, and t, and rewrite the differential
equation in dimensionless form. Do any parameters remain? Could they be removed by further
manipulation of the variables?
Solution: The appropriate dimensionless variables are

y E x
y* = ; t* = t ; x* =
A ρA A
Substitution into the PDE above yields a dimensionless equation with one parameter:
∂ 2 y*  I  ∂ 4 y* I
+ 2÷ = 0; One geometric parameter: 2 Ans.
∂ t* 2  
A ∂ * 4
A
We could remove (I/A ) completely by redefining x* = x/I . Ans.
2 1/4

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
5.48 A smooth steel (SG = 7.86) sphere is immersed in a stream of ethanol at 20°C moving at 1.5
m/s. Estimate its drag in N from Fig. 5.3a. What stream velocity would quadruple its drag? Take D
= 2.5 cm.
Solution: For ethanol at 20°C, take ρ ≈ 789 kg/m3 and µ ≈ 0.0012 kg/m⋅s. Then
ρ UD 789(1.5)(0.025)
ReD = = ≈ 24700; Read Fig. 5.3(a): CD,sphere ≈ 0.4
µ 0.0012
1 π 1 π 
Compute drag F = CD  ÷ρ U 2 D2 = (0.4)  ÷(789)(1.5)2  ÷(0.025)2
2 4 2 4
Since CD ≈ constant in this range of ReD, doubling U quadruples the drag. Ans.
5.49 The sphere in Prob. 5.48 is dropped in gasoline at 20°C. Ignoring its acceleration phase,
what will be its terminal (constant) fall velocity, from Fig. 5.3a?
Solution: For gasoline at 20°C, take ρ ≈ 680 kg/m3 and µ ≈ 2.92E−4 kg/m⋅s. For steel take ρ ≈
7800 kg/m3. Then, in “terminal” velocity, the net weight equals the drag force:
π 3 ρ π
Net weight = ( ρsteel − ρgasoline )g D = Drag force = C D V 2 D 2 ,
6 2 4
π 1 π
or: (7800 − 680)(9.81) (0.025)3 = 0.571 N = C D  ÷(680)U 2 (0.025)2
6 2 4
m
Guess CD ≈ 0.4 and compute U ≈ 2.9 Ans.
Now check ReD = ρUD/µ = 680(2.9)(0.025)/(2.92E−4) ≈ 170000. Yes, CD ≈ 0.4, OK.
P5.50 The parachute in the chapter-opener photo is, of course, meant to decelerate the
payload on Mars. The wind tunnel test gave a drag coefficient of about 1.1, based upon the
projected area of the parachute. Suppose it was falling on earth and, at an altitude of 1000 m,
showed a steady descent rate of about 18 mi/h. Estimate the weight of the payload.

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
Solution: Let’s convert everything to metric. The diameter is 55 ft = 16.8 m. Standard

air density at 1000 m is 1.112 kg/m3. Descent velocity is 18 mi/h = 8.05 m/s. Then
F F
CD = 1.1 = =
(1/ 2) ρV (π / 4) D
2
(1/ 2)(1.112kg / m )(8.05m / s ) 2 (π / 4)(16.8m) 2
2 3
Solve for F = 8740 N ≈ 1970 lbf (on earth) Ans.
5.51 A ship is towing a sonar array which approximates a submerged cylinder 1 ft in diameter and
30 ft long with its axis normal to the direction of tow. If the tow speed is 12 kn (1 kn = 1.69 ft/s),
estimate the horsepower required to tow this cylinder. What will be the frequency of vortices shed
from the cylinder? Use Figs. 5.2 and 5.3.
Solution: For seawater at 20°C, take ρ ≈ 1.99 slug/ft3 and µ ≈ 2.23E−5 slug/ft·s. Convert V = 12
knots ≈ 20.3 ft/s. Then the Reynolds number and drag of the towed cylinder is
ρ UD 1.99(20.3)(1.0)
Re D = = ≈ 1.8E6. Fig. 5.3(a) cylinder: Read C D ≈ 0.3
µ 2.23E−5
1 1
Then F = CD  ÷ρ U 2 DL = (0.3)  ÷(1.99)(20.3) 2 (1)(30) ≈ 3700 lbf
2 2
Power P = FU = (3700)(20.3) ÷ 550 ≈ 140 hp Ans. (a)
Data for cylinder vortex shedding is found from Fig. 5.2b. At a Reynolds number
ReD ≈ 1.8E6, read fD/U ≈ 0.24. Then
StU (0.24)(20.3 ft /s)

fshedding = = ≈ 5 Hz Ans. (b)
D 1.0 ft
5.52 When fluid in a long pipe starts up from rest at a uniform acceleration a, the initial
flow is laminar. The flow undergoes transition to turbulence at a time t* which depends,
to first approximation, only upon a, ρ, and µ. Experiments by P. J. Lefebvre, on water at
20°C starting from rest with 1-g acceleration in a 3-cm-diameter pipe, showed transition
at t* = 1.02 s. Use this data to estimate (a) the transition time, and (b) the transition
Reynolds number ReD for water flow accelerating at 35 m/s2 in a 5-cm-diameter pipe.

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
Solution: For water at 20°C, take ρ = 998 kg/m3 and m = 0.001 kg/m-s. There are four
variables. Write out their dimensions:
t* a ρ µ
{T } {LT −2 } {ML−3 } {ML−1T −1}
There are three primary dimensions, (MLT), hence we expect 4 – 3 = one pi group:
ρ a 2 1/ 3 µ
Π1 = ρ a µ b a c t *1 yields Π1 = t *( ) , or t * = (const ) ( 2 )1/ 3
µ ρa
Use LeFebvre’s data point to establish the constant value of Π1:
0.001 kg / m − s
t * = 1.02 = (const ) [ 3 2 2
]1/ 3 = (const )(0.00218)
(998kg / m )(9.81m / s )
Thus the constant, or Π1, equals 1.02/0.00218 = 467 (dimensionless). Use this value to
establish the new transition time for a = 35 m/s2 in a 5-cm-diameter pipe:
µ 0.001
t * = (467) ( )1/ 3 = (467)[ ]1/ 3 = 0.44 s Ans.( a)
ρa 2
998(35) 2
ρVD ρ (aT *) D 998[35(0.44)](0.05)

Re D = = = = 768, 000 Ans.(b)
µ µ (0.001)
This transition Reynolds number is more than 300 times the value for which steady
laminar pipe flow undergoes transition. The reason is that this is a thin-boundary-layer
flow, and the laminar velocity profile never even approaches the Poiseuille parabola.

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
5.53 Vortex shedding can be used to design a vortex flowmeter (Fig. 6.34). A blunt rod stretched
across the pipe sheds vortices whose frequency is read by the sensor downstream. Suppose the pipe
diameter is 5 cm and the rod is a cylinder of diameter 8 mm. If the sensor reads 5400 counts per
3
minute, estimate the volume flow rate of water in m /h. How might the meter react to other liquids?
Solution: 5400 counts/min = 90 Hz = f.
Fig. 6.34
fD 90(0.008) m
Guess ≈ 0.2 = , or U ≈ 3.6
U U
998(3.6)(0.008)
Check Re D,water = ≈ 29000; Fig. 5.2: Read St ≈ 0.2, OK.
0.001
If the centerline velocity is 3.6 m/s and the flow is turbulent, then V avg ≈ 0.82Vcenter (see
Ex. 3.4 of the text). Then the pipe volume flow is approximately:
π m3 m3
Q = Vavg A pipe = (0.82 × 3.6) (0.05 m) ≈ 0.0058
2
≈ 21 Ans.
4 h
5.54 A fishnet is made of 1-mm-diameter strings knotted into 2 × 2 cm squares. Estimate the
2
horsepower required to tow 300 ft of this netting at 3 kn in seawater at 20°C. The net plane is
normal to the flow direction.
Solution: For seawater at 20°C, take ρ ≈ 1025 kg/m3 and µ ≈ 0.00107 kg/m·s. Convert V = 3
knots = 1.54 m/s. Then, considering the strings as “cylinders in crossflow,” the Reynolds
number is Re
ρ VD (1025)(1.54)(0.001)
Re D = = ≈ 1500; Fig. 5.3(a): C D,cyl ≈ 1.0
µ 0.00107

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
Drag of one 2-cm strand:

ρ 2  1025 
F = CD V DL = (1.0)  ÷(1.54) (0.001)(0.02) ≈ 0.0243 N
2
2  2 
2 2 2
Now 1 m of net contains 5000 of these 2-cm strands, and 300 ft = 27.9 m of net contains
(5000)(27.9) = 139400 strands total, for a total net force F = 139400(0.0243) ≈ 3390 N ÷ 4.4482
= 762 lbf on the net. Then the horsepower required to tow the net is
Power = FV = (3390 N)(1.54 m/s) = 5220 W ÷ 746 W / hp ≈ 7.0 hp Ans.
5.55 The radio antenna on a car begins to vibrate wildly at 8 Hz when the car is driven at 45 mi/h
over a rutted road which approximates a sine wave of amplitude 2 cm and wavelength λ = 2.5 m.
The antenna diameter is 4 mm. Is the vibration due to the road or to vortex shedding?
Solution: Convert U = 45 mi/h = 20.1 m/s. Assume sea level air, ρ = 1.2 kg/m3,
µ = 1.8E−5 kg/m⋅s. Check the Reynolds number based on antenna diameter:
Red = (1.2)(20.1)(0.004)/(1.8E−5) = 5400. From Fig. 5.2b, read St ≈ 0.21 = (ω /2π)d/U = (fshed)
(0.004 m)/(20.1 m/s), or fshed ≈ 1060 Hz ≠ 8 Hz, so rule out vortex shedding. Meanwhile, the
rutted road introduces a forcing frequency froad = U/λ = (20.1 m/s)/(2.5 m) ≈ 8.05 Hz. We conclude
that this resonance is due to road roughness.
5.56 Flow past a long cylinder of square cross-section results in more drag than the comparable
round cylinder. Here are data taken in a water tunnel for a square cylinder of side length b = 2 cm:
V, m/s: 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

Drag, N/(m of depth): 21 85 191 335
(a) Use this data to predict the drag force per unit depth of wind blowing at 6 m/s, in air at 20°C,
over a tall square chimney of side length b = 55 cm. (b) Is there any uncertainty in your estimate?
Solution: Convert the data to the dimensionless form F/(ρV2bL) = fcn(ρVb/µ), like

Eq. (5.2). For air, take ρ = 1.2 kg/m3 and µ = 1.8E−5 kg/m⋅s. For water, take ρ = 998 kg/m3 and µ
= 0.001 kg/m⋅s. Make a new table using the water data, with L = 1 m:
2
F/(ρV bL): 1.05 1.06 1.06 1.05
ρVb/µ: 19960 39920 59880 79840

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
In this Reynolds number range, the force coefficient is approximately constant at about 1.055. Use
this value to estimate the air drag on the large chimney:
2
 kg   m 
Fair = CF ρ airVair
2
(bL )chimney = (1.055)  1.2 3 ÷ 6 ÷ (0.55 m)(1 m) ≈ 25 N/m Ans. (a)
 m  s 
(b) Yes, there is uncertainty, because Rechimney = 220,000 > Remodel = 80,000 or less.
5.57 The simply supported 1040 carbon-steel rod of Fig. P5.57 is subjected to a crossflow stream of air
at 20°C and 1 atm. For what stream velocity U will the rod center deflection be approximately 1 cm?
Solution: For air at 20°C, take ρ ≈ 1.2 kg/m3 and µ ≈ 1.8E−5 kg/m·s. For carbon steel take
Young’s modulus E ≈ 29E6 psi ≈ 2.0E11 Pa.
Fig. P5.57
This is not an elasticity course, so just use the formula for center deflection of a simply-
supported beam:
FL3 F(0.6)3
δ center = = 0.01 m = , solve for F ≈ 218 N
48EI 48(2.0E11)[(π /4)(0.005)4 ]
ρ 2  1.2  2
Guess C D ≈ 1.2, then F = 218 N = C D V DL = (1.2)  ÷V (0.01)(0.6)
2  2 
Solve for V ≈ 225 m/s, check ReD = ρ VD/µ ≈ 150,000: OK, CD ≈ 1.2 from Fig. 5.3a.
Then V ≈ 225 m/s, which is quite high subsonic speed, Mach number ≈ 0.66. Ans.
5.58 For the steel rod of Prob. 5.57, at what airstream velocity U will the rod begin to vibrate
laterally in resonance in its first mode (a half sine wave)? (Hint: Consult a vibration text [Ref. 34 or
35] under “lateral beam vibration.”)

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
Solution: From a vibrations book, the first mode frequency for a simply-supported slender
beam is given by
EI
ωn = π 2 where m = ρsteelπ R 2 = beam mass per unit length
L4
1/2
ω π  2.0E11(π /4)(0.005)4 
Thus fn = n =   ≈ 55.1 Hz
2 2  (7840) (0.005)2 (0.6)4 
The beam will resonate if its vortex shedding frequency is the same. Guess fD/U ≈ 0.2:
fD 55.1(0.01) m
St = ≈ 0.2 = , or U ≈ 2.8
U U
m
Check Re D = ρ VD/µ ≈ 1800. Fig. 5.2, OK, St ≈ 0.2. Then V ≈ 2.8 Ans.
_______________________________________________________________________________
P5.59 A long, slender, 3-cm-diameter smooth flagpole bends alarmingly in 20 mi/h sea-level
winds, causing patriotic citizens to gasp. An engineer claims that the pole will bend less
if its surface is deliberately roughened. Is she correct, at least qualitatively?
Solution: For sea-level air, take ρ = 1.2255 kg/m3 and µ = 1.78E-5 kg/m-s. Convert 20 mi/h =
8.94 m/s. Calculate the Reynolds number of the pole as a “cylinder in crossflow”:
ρVD (1.2255kg / m 3 )(8.94m / s )(0.03m)

Re D = = = 18,500
µ 1.78 E −5 kg / m − s
From Fig. 5.3b, we see that this Reynolds number is below the region where roughness is
effective in reducing cylinder drag. Therefore we think the engineer is incorrect. Ans.
[It is more likely that the drag of the flag is causing the problem.]

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
*P5.60 The thrust F of a free propeller, either aircraft or marine, depends upon density ρ, the
rotation rate n in r/s, the diameter D, and the forward velocity V. Viscous effects are slight and
neglected here. Tests of a 25-cm-diameter model aircraft propeller, in a sea-level wind tunnel,
yield the following thrust data at a velocity of 20 m/s:
Rotation rate, r/min 4800 6000 8000
Measured thrust, N 6.1 19 47
(a) Use this data to make a crude but effective dimensionless plot. (b) Use the
dimensionless data to predict the thrust, in newtons, of a similar 1.6-m-
diameter prototype propeller when rotating at 3800 r/min and flying at 225
mi/h at 4000 m standard altitude.
Solution: The given function is F = fcn(ρ, n, D, V), and we note that j = 3.

Hence we expect 2 pi groups. The writer chose ( ρ, n, D) as repeating variables
F V
C F = fcn( J ) , where CF = and J =
ρn D
2 4 nD
and found this:
The quantity CF is called the thrust coefficient, while J is called the advance
ratio. Now use the data (at ρ = 1.2255 kg/m3) to fill out a new table showing the
two pi groups:
n, r/s 133.3 100.0 80.0
CF 0.55 0.40 0.20
J 0.60 0.80 1.00

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
A crude but effective plot of this data is as follows. Ans.(a)
0.6
0.5
0.4
CF
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1
J
(b) At 4000 m altitude, from Table A.6, ρ = 0.8191 kg/m3. Convert 225 mi/h =
101.6 m/s. Convert 3800 r/min = 63.3 r/s. Then find the prototype advance
ratio:
J = (101.6 m/s)/[(63.3 r/s)(1.6 m)] = 1.00
Well, lucky us, that’s our third data point! Therefore CF,prototype  0.20. And the thrust is
kg r
F prototype = C F ρ n 2 D 4 = (0.20)(0.8191 )(63.3 ) 2 (1.6m) 4
3
≈ 4300 N Ans.(b)
m s
5.61 If viscosity is neglected, typical pump-flow results are shown in Fig. P5.61 for a model pump
tested in water. The pressure rise decreases and the power required increases with the dimensionless
flow coef-ficient. Curve-fit expressions are given for the data. Suppose a similar pump of 12-cm
3
diameter is built to move gasoline at 20°C and a flow rate of 25 m /h. If the pump rotation speed is 30
r/s, find (a) the pressure rise and (b) the power required.

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
Fig. P5.61
Solution: For gasoline at 20°C, take ρ ≈ 680 kg/m3 and µ ≈ 2.92E−4 kg/m⋅s. Convert Q = 25
m3/hr = 0.00694 m3/s. Then we can evaluate the “flow coefficient”:
Q 0.00694 ∆p
= ≈ 0.134, whence ≈ 6 − 120(0.134)2 ≈ 3.85
ΩD 3
(30)(0.12) 3
ρΩ D
2 2
P
and ≈ 0.5 + 3(0.134) ≈ 0.902
ρΩ3 D5
With the dimensionless pressure rise and dimensionless power known, we thus find
∆p = (3.85)(680)(30)2 (0.12)2 ≈ 34000 Pa Ans. (a)

P = (0.902)(680)(30)3 (0.12)5 ≈ 410 W Ans. (b)
P5.62 Extend Prob. P5.30 as follows. Let the maximum mass flow m& again be
a function of tank pressure po and temperature To, gas constant R, and nozzle diameter D,
but replace cp by the specific heat ratio, k. For an air tank at 190 kPa and 330 K, with a 2-
cm nozzle diameter, experiments show a mass flow of 0.133 kg/s. (a) Can this data be
used to correlate an oxygen tank? (b) If so, estimate the oxygen mass flow if the tank
conditions are 300 kPa and 450 K, with a nozzle diameter of 3 cm.
Solution: Problem P5.30, with cp replaced by the specific heat ratio, k, led to the function
m& RTo
= fcn( k )
po D 2

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
For air, R = 287 m2/s2-K and k = 1.40. The given data point reduces to
m& RTo (0.133) (287)(330)

2
= = 0.539 for k = 1.40
po D (190, 000)(0.02) 2
(a) Can we use this air data for oxygen? Yes, because koxygen also equals 1.40. So let’s
do it. For oxygen, from Table A.4, R = 260 m2/s2-K and k = 1.40. The correlation yields
m& RTo m& (260)(450)

= = 0.539, solve for m&oxygen = 0.425 kg / s Ans.(b)
po D 2 (300, 000)(0.03) 2
5.63 The pressure drop per unit length ∆p/L in smooth pipe flow is known to be a function only
of the average velocity V, diameter D, and fluid properties ρ and µ. The following data were
obtained for flow of water at 20°C in an 8-cm-diameter pipe 50 m long:
3
Q, m /s 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.020
∆p, Pa 5800 20,300 42,100 70,800
Verify that these data are slightly outside the range of Fig. 5.10. What is a suitable power-law
curve fit for the present data? Use these data to estimate the pressure drop for
flow of kerosene at 20°C in a smooth pipe of diameter 5 cm and length 200 m if the flow rate is
3
50 m /h.
Solution: For water at 20°C, take ρ ≈ 998 kg/m3 and µ ≈ 0.001 kg/m⋅s. In the spirit of Fig.
5.10 and Example 5.7 in the text, we generate dimensionless ∆p and V:
3
Q, m /s: 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020
V = Q/A, m/s: 0.995 1.99 2.98 3.98
Re = ρVD/µ: 79400 158900 238300 317700
3 2
ρD ∆p/(Lµ ): 5.93E7 2.07E8 4.30E8 7.24E8

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
These data, except for the first point, exceed Re = 1E5 and are thus off to the right of the plot in Fig.
5.10. They could fit a “1.75” Power-law, as in Ans. (c) as in Ex. 5.7 of the text, but only to ±4%.
They fit a “1.80” power-law much more accurately:
1.80
ρ∆pD3  ρ VD 
≈ 0.0901  ÷ ± 1%
L 2  
3
For kerosene at 20°C, take ρ ≈ 804 kg/m and µ ≈ 1.92E−3 kg/m·s. The new length is 200 m, the
3
new diameter is 5 cm, and the new flow rate is 50 m /hr. Then evaluate Re:
50/3600 m ρ VD 804(7.07)(0.05)
V= ≈ 7.07 , and Re D = = ≈ 148100
(π /4)(0.05) 2
s µ 1.92E 3
2 (804)∆p(0.05)3
Then ρ∆pD /(Lµ ) ≈ 0.0901(148100)
3 1.80
≈ 1.83E8 =
(200)(1.92E 3)2
Solve for Δp ≈ 1.34E6 Pa Ans.
5.64 The natural frequency ω of vibra-tion of a mass M attached to a rod, as in Fig. P5.64,

depends only upon M and the stiffness EI and length L of the rod. Tests with a 2-kg mass attached
to a 1040 carbon-steel rod of diameter 12 mm and length 40 cm reveal a natural frequency of 0.9
Hz. Use these data to predict the natural frequency of a 1-kg mass attached to a 2024 aluminum-
alloy rod of the same size.
Fig. P5.64
Solution: For steel, E ≈ 29E6 psi ≈ 2.03E11 Pa. If ω = f(M, EI, L), then n = 4 and j = 3
(MLT), hence we get only 1 pi group, which we can evaluate from the steel data:
ω (ML3 )1/2 0.9[(2.0)(0.4)3 ]1/2

= constant = ≈ 0.0224
(EI)1/2 [(2.03E11)( /4)(0.006)4 ]1/2

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
For 2024 aluminum, E ≈ 10.6E6 psi ≈ 7.4E10 Pa. Then re-evaluate the same pi group:
ω (ML3 )1/2 ω [(1.0)(0.4)3 ]1/2

New = 0.0224 = , or ω alum ≈ 0.77 Hz Ans.
(EI)1/2 [(7.4E10)(π/4)(0.006)4 ]1/2
5.65 In turbulent flow near a flat wall, the local velocity u varies only with distance y from the
wall, wall shear stress τw, and fluid properties ρ and µ. The following data were taken in the
3
University of Rhode Island wind tunnel for airflow, ρ = 0.0023 slug/ft , µ = 3.81E−7 slug/(ft·s), and
2
τw = 0.029 lbf/ft :
y, in 0.021 0.035 0.055 0.080 0.12 0.16

u, ft/s 50.6 54.2 57.6 59.7 63.5 65.9
(a) Plot these data in the form of dimensionless u versus dimensionless y, and suggest a suitable
power-law curve fit. (b) Suppose that the tunnel speed is increased until u = 90 ft/s at y = 0.11 in.
2
Estimate the new wall shear stress, in lbf/ft .
Solution: Given that u = fcn(y, τw, ρ, µ), then n = 5 and j = 3 (MLT), so we expect

n − j = 5 − 3 = 2 pi groups, and they are traditionally chosen as follows (Chap. 6, Section 6.5):
u  ρ u*y 
= fcn  ÷, where u* = (τ w / ρ ) = the ‘friction velocity’
1/2
u*  µ 
12 12
We may compute u * = (τw /ρ) / = (0.029/0.0023) / = 3.55 ft/s and then modify the given data
into dimensionless parameters:
y, in: 0.021 0.035 0.055 0.080 0.12 0.16

ρ u * y/µ : 38 63 98 143 214 286
u/u*: 14.3 15.3 16.2 16.8 17.9 18.6
When plotted on log-log paper as follows, they form nearly a straight line:

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
The slope of the line is 0.13 and its intercept (at yu */ν = 1 ) is 8.9. Hence the formula:
u/u* ≈ 8.9(yu*/ν )0.13 ± 1% Ans. (a)
Now if the tunnel speed is increased until u = 90 ft/s at y = 0.11 in, we may substitute in:
0.13
90  0.0023(0.11/12)u* 
≈ 8.9   = 8.9(54.5u*)0.13 , solve for u* ≈ 4.89 ft/s
u*  3.87E 7 
Solve for τ w = ρ u*2 = (0.0023)(4.89)2 ≈ 0.055 lbf /ft 2 Ans. (b)
5.66 A torpedo 8 m below the surface in 20 °C seawater cavitates at a speed of 21 m/s when
atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa. If Reynolds-number and Froude-number effects are negligible, at
what speed will it cavitate when running at a depth of 20 m? At what depth should it be to avoid
cavitation at 30 m/s?
Solution: For seawater at 20°C, take ρ = 1025 kg/m3 and pv = 2337 Pa. With Reynolds and
Froude numbers neglected, the cavitation numbers must simply be the same:
pa + ρ gz − p v 101000 + (1025)(9.81)(8) − 2337

Ca = for Flow 1 = ≈ 0.396
ρ V2 (1025)(21)2
101000 + 1025(9.81)(20) − 2337

(a) At z = 20 m: Ca = 0.396 = ,
1025Va2
m
or Va ≈ 27.2 Ans. (a)
m 101000 + 1025(9.81)z b − 2337

(b) At Vb = 30 : Ca = 0.396 = ,
s 1025(30)2
or z b ≈ 26.5 m Ans. (b)
5.67 A student needs to measure the drag on a prototype of characteristic length dp moving at
velocity Up in air at sea-level conditions. He constructs a model of characteristic length dm, such
that the ratio dp/dm = a factor f. He then measures the model drag under dynamically similar

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
conditions, in sea-level air. The student claims that the drag force on the prototype will be identical
to that of the model. Is this claim correct? Explain.
Solution: Assuming no compressibility effects, dynamic similarity requires that

ρ mU m dm ρ pU p d p U dp
Rem = Re p , or: = , whence m = =f
µ µ U d
Run the tunnel at “f ” times the prototype speed, then drag coefficients match:
2
Fm  Um dm   f 
2
Fm Fp
= , or: = ÷ =  ÷ = 1 Yes, drags are the same!
U2 d2 U 2d 2 F U d ÷  f 
P5.68 For the rotating-cylinder function of Prob. P5.20, if L >> D, the problem can
be reduced to only two groups, F/(ρU2LD) versus (ΩD/U). Here are experimental data for
a cylinder 30 cm in diameter and 2 m long, rotating in sea-level air, with U = 25 m/s.
Ω, rev/min 0 3000 6000 9000 12000 15000
F, N 0 850 2260 2900 3120 3300
(a) Reduce this data to the two dimensionless groups and make a plot. (b) Use this plot to
predict the lift of a cylinder with D = 5 cm, L = 80 cm, rotating at 3800 rev/min in water
at U = 4 m/s.
Solution: (a) In converting the data, the writer suggests using Ω in rad/s, not rev/min.
For sea-level air, ρ = 1.2255 kg/m3. Take, for example, the first data point, Ω = 3000
rpm x (2π/60) = 314 rad/s, and F = 850 N.
F 850 ΩD (314)(0.3)
Π1 = = = 1.85 ; Π 2 = = = 3.77
ρU 2 LD (1.2255)(25) 2 (2.0m)(0.3m) U 25
Do this for the other four data points, and plot as follows. Ans.(a)

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
8
7
6
5
F/(ρU2LD)
4
3
2
1
0
0 5 10 15 20
ΩD/U
(b) For water, take ρ = 998 kg/m3. The new data are D = 5 cm, L = 80 cm, 3800 rev/min
in water at U = 4 m/s. Convert 3800 rev/min = 398 rad/s. Compute the rotation Pi
group:
ΩD (398rad / s)(0.05m)
Π2 = = = 4.97
U 4m/ s
Read the chart for Π1. The writer reads Π1 ≈ 2.8. Thus we estimate the water lift force:
F = Π1 ρU 2 LD = (2.8)(998)(4) 2 (0.8m)(0.05m) ≈ 1788 N ≈ 1800 N Ans.(b)
5.69 A simple flow-measurement device for streams and channels is a notch, of angle α, cut
into the side of a dam, as shown in Fig. P5.69. The volume flow Q depends only on α, the
acceleration of gravity g, and the height δ of the upstream water surface above the notch vertex.
Tests of a model notch, of angle α = 55°, yield the following flow rate data:
Fig. P5.69

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
δ, cm: 10 20 30 40
3
Q, m /h: 8 47 126 263
(a) Find a dimensionless correlation for the data. (b) Use the model data to predict the flow
rate of a prototype notch, also of angle α = 55°, when the upstream height δ is 3.2 m.
Solution: (a) The appropriate functional relation is Q = fcn(α, g, δ) and its dimensionless form
is Q/(g1/2δ 5/2) = fcn(α). Recalculate the data in this dimensionless form, with α constant:
1/2 5/2
Q/(g δ ) = 0.224 0.233 0.227 0.230 respectively Ans. (a)
(b) The average coefficient in the data is about 0.23. Since the notch angle is still 55°, we may use
the formula to predict the larger flow rate:
1/2
 m
Q prototype = 0.23g δ 1/2 5/2
= 0.23  9.81 2 ÷ (3.2 m)5/2 ≈ 13.2 m 3 /s Ans. (b)
 
5.70 A diamond-shaped body, of characteristic length 9 in, has the following measured drag
forces when placed in a wind tunnel at sea-level standard conditions:
V, ft/s: 30 38 48 56 61
F, lbf 1.25 1.95 3.02 4.05 4.81
Use these data to predict the drag force of a similar 15-in diamond placed at similar orientation in
20°C water flowing at 2.2 m/s.
Solution: For sea-level air, take ρ = 0.00237 slug/ft3, µ = 3.72E−7 slug/ft·s. For water at 20°C,
take ρ = 1.94 kg/m3, µ = 2.09E−5 slug/ft·s. Convert the model data into drag coefficient and
Reynolds number, taking Lm = 9 in = 0.75 ft:
Vm, ft/s: 30 38 48 56 61
2 2
F/(ρV L ): 0.667 0.649 0.630 0.621 0.621
ρVL/µ: 143000 182000 229000 268000 291000
An excellent curve-fit to this data is the power-law
CF ≈ 2.5Re L−0.111 ± 1%

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
Now introduce the new case, Vproto = 2.2 m/s = 7.22 ft/s, Lproto = 15 in = 1.25 ft. Then
1.94(7.22)(1.25)
Re L,proto = ≈ 837000, which is outside the range of the model data. Strictly
2.09E−5
speaking, we cannot use the model data to predict this new case. Ans.
If we wish to extrapolate to get an estimate, we obtain
2.5 Fproto
CF,proto ≈ 0.111
≈ 0.550 ≈ ,
(837000) 1.94(7.22)2 (1.25)2
5.71 The pressure drop in a venturi meter (Fig. P3.128) varies only with the fluid density, pipe
approach velocity, and diameter ratio of the meter. A model venturi meter tested in water at 20°C
shows a 5-kPa drop when the approach velocity is 4 m/s. A geometrically similar prototype meter is
3
used to measure gasoline at 20°C and a flow rate of 9 m /min. If the prototype pressure gage is
most accurate at 15 kPa, what should the upstream pipe diameter be?
Solution: Given ∆p = fcn(ρ, V, d/D), then by dimensional analysis ∆p/(ρV2) = fcn(d/D). For

water at 20°C, take ρ = 998 kg/m3. For gasoline at 20°C, take ρ = 680 kg/m3. Then, using the
water ‘model’ data to obtain the function “fcn(d/D)”, we calculate
∆pm 5000 ∆p p 15000 m

= = 0.313 = = , solve for Vp ≈ 8.39
ρ V 2
(998)(4.0) 2
ρ V 2
(680)V 2
s
9 m3 π
Given Q = = Vp A p = (8.39) D 2p , solve for best Dp ≈ 0.151 m Ans.
P5.72 A one-twelfth-scale model of a large commercial aircraft is tested in a

wind tunnel at 20°C and 1 atm. The model chord length is 27 cm, and its wing area is
0.63 m2. Test results for the drag of the model are as follows:
V, mi/h 50 75 100 125
Drag, N 15 32 53 80

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
In the spirit of Fig. 5.8, use this data to estimate the drag of the full-scale aircraft when
flying at 550 mi/h, for the same angle of attack, at 32,800 ft standard altitude. Neglect
Mach number differences between model and prototype.
Solution: Compute the model drag coefficients and Reynolds numbers, plot them, and
extrapolate in the spirit of Fig. 5.8 of the text. For the first point, 50 mi/h = 22.35 m/s. At
20°C and 1 atm, ρ = 1.20 kg/m3 and µ = 1.8E-5 kg/m-s. Compute the first dimensionless
data point:
F 15 N
CD = = = 0.0794
(1/ 2) ρV A2
(1/ 2)(1.20)(22.35) 2 (0.63)
ρVc (1.20)(22.35)(0.27)
Rechord = = = 402, 000
µ 1.8E − 5
Do this for all four model data points:
Rec 402,000 604,000 805,000 1,006,000
CD 0.0794 0.00753 0.00702 0.00678
Now plot them and extrapolate to the prototype Reynolds number. At 32,800 ft =
10,000 m, ρ = 0.4125 kg/m3 and µ ≈ 1.5E-5 kg/m-s (at that altitude, T = 223 K). Full-
scale c = 12(0.27) = 3.24 m, and the full-scale wing area is A = (12)2(0.63) = 90.7 m2.
The full-scale velocity is 550 mi/h = 246 m/s. Full-scale Reynolds number is Rep =
(0.4125)(246)(3.24)/(1.5E-5) = 21,920,000, or log(Rep) = 7.34. The log-log plot and
extrapolation would look like this:

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
-1.0
-1.1
0.82/Re0.18
log(CD) -1.2 Full-scale
-1.3
(estimated)
-1.4
-1.5
5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5
log(Re)
You can see that it is a long way out from those four closely packed model points to a
Reynolds number of 21,920,000. Uncertainty is high. The model curve-fit CD ≈
0.82/Re0.18 can be used to estimate CD(prototype) = 0.82/(21,920,000) 0.18 ≈ 0.039. Our
rather uncertain estimate for the drag of the full-scale aircraft is thus
Full-scale drag ≈ CD ( ρ p / 2) V p2 Ap = (0.039)(0.4125 / 2)(246) 2 (90.7) ≈
≈ 44, 000 N ≈ 10, 000 lbf Ans.
5.73 The power P generated by a certain windmill design depends upon its diameter D, the air
density ρ, the wind velocity V, the rotation rate Ω, and the number of blades n.
(a) Write this relationship in dimensionless form. A model windmill, of diameter 50 cm, develops
2.7 kW at sea level when V = 40 m/s and when rotating at 4800 rev/min. (b) What power will be
developed by a geometrically and dynamically similar prototype, of diameter 5 m, in winds of 12
m/s at 2000 m standard altitude? (c) What is the appropriate rotation rate of the prototype?
Solution: (a) For the function P = fcn(D, ρ, V, Ω, n) the appropriate dimensions are {P} =
{ML2T−3}, {D} = {L}, {ρ} = {ML−3}, {V} = {L/T}, {Ω} = {T−1}, and {n} = {1}. Using (D, ρ,
V) as repeating variables, we obtain the desired dimensionless function:
P  ΩD 
= fcn  , n ÷ Ans. (a)
ρD V
2 3
 V 
(c) “Geometrically similar” requires that n is the same for both windmills. For “dynamic
similarity,” the advance ratio (ΩD/V) must be the same:

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
 ΩD  (4800 r/min)(0.5 m)  ΩD  Ωproto (5 m)

 ÷ = = 1.0 =  ÷ = ,
 V model (40 m/s)  V  proto 12 m/s
rev
or: Ωproto = 144 Ans. (c)
min
3 3
(b) At 2000 m altitude, ρ = 1.0067 kg/m . At sea level, ρ = 1.2255 kg/m . Since ΩD/V and n are
the same, it follows that the power coefficients equal for model and prototype:
P 2700W Pproto
= = 0.138 = ,
ρ D 2V 3 (1.2255)(0.5) 2 (40)3 (1.0067)(5) 2 (12)3
solve Pproto = 5990 W ≈ 6 kW Ans. (b)
5.74 A one-tenth-scale model of a supersonic wing tested at 700 m/s in air at 20°C and
1 atm shows a pitching moment of 0.25 kN·m. If Reynolds-number effects are negligible, what will the
pitching moment of the prototype wing be flying at the same Mach number at 8-km standard altitude?
Solution: If Reynolds number is unimportant, then the dimensionless moment coefficient

M/(ρV2L3) must be a function only of the Mach number, Ma = V/a. For sea-level air, take ρ = 1.225
kg/m3 and sound speed a = 340 m/s. For air at 8000-m standard altitude (Table A-6), take ρ =
0.525 kg/m3 and sound speed a = 308 m/s. Then
Vm 700 Vp m
Ma m = = = 2.06 = Ma p = , solve for Vp ≈ 634
a 340 308 s
 ρ p Vp2 L3p  2
 0.525  634   10 
3
Then M p = Mm  ÷ = 0.25  ÷ ÷  ÷ ≈ 88 kN×m Ans.
 V 2 L3 ÷  1.225  700   1 
 
P5.75 According to the web site USGS Daily Water Data for the Nation, the mean flow rate
in
the New River near Hinton, WV is 10,100 ft3/s. If the hydraulic model in Fig. 5.9 is to match
this condition with Froude number scaling, what is the proper model flow rate?

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
Solution: For Froude scaling, the volume flow rate is a blend of velocity and length terms:
Qm Vm Am Lm Lm 2
= = ( ) = ( Lm ) 5 / 2 or α5/ 2
Qp V p Ap Lp Lp Lp
ft 3 1 5 / 2 ft 3
Fig .5 / 9 : α = 1 : 65 ; ∴ Qmodel = (10100 )( ) = 0.30 Ans.
s 65 s
_________________________________________________________________________
5.76 A 2-ft-long model of a ship is tested in a freshwater tow tank. The measured drag may be
split into “friction” drag (Reynolds scaling) and “wave” drag (Froude scaling). The model data are
as follows:
Tow speed, ft/s: 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 4.0 4.8

Friction drag, lbf: 0.016 0.057 0.122 0.208 0.315 0.441
Wave drag, lbf: 0.002 0.021 0.083 0.253 0.509 0.697
The prototype ship is 150 ft long. Estimate its total drag when cruising at 15 kn in seawater at 20°C.
Solution: For fresh water at 20 °C, take ρ = 1.94 slug/ft 3, µ = 2.09E−5 slug/ft⋅s. Then
evaluate the Reynolds numbers and the Froude numbers and respective force coefficients:
Vm, ft/s: 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 4.0 4.8

Rem = VmLm/ν : 143000 297000 446000 594000 743000 892000
CF,friction: 0.00322 0.00287 0.00273 0.00261 0.00254 0.00247
Frm = Vm/√(gLm): 0.099 0.199 0.299 0.399 0.498 0.598
CF, wave: 0.00040 0.00106 0.00186 0.00318 0.00410 0.00390
3
For seawater, take ρ = 1.99 slug/ft , µ = 2.23E−5 slug/ft⋅s. With Lp = 150 ft and V p =
15 knots = 25.3 ft/s, evaluate
ρ p Vp L p 1.99(25.3)(150) 25.3
Re proto = = ≈ 3.39E8; Frp = ≈ 0.364
µp 2.23E−5 [32.2(150)]1/2
For Fr ≈ 0.364, interpolate to C F,wave ≈ 0.0027

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
2 2
Thus we can immediately estimate Fwave ≈ 0.0027(1.99)(25.3) (150) ≈ 77000 lbf. However, as
mentioned in Fig. 5.8 of the text, Rep is far outside the range of the friction force data, therefore
we must extrapolate as best we can. A power-law curve-fit is
0.0178 0.0178
CF,friction ≈ 0.144 , hence CF,proto ≈ ≈ 0.00105
Re (3.39E8)0.144
2 2
Thus Ffriction ≈ 0.00105(1.99)(25.3) (150) ≈ 30000 lbf. Ftotal ≈ 107000 lbf. Ans.
5.77 A dam spillway is to be tested by using Froude scaling with a one-thirtieth-scale model. The
3
model flow has an average velocity of 0.6 m/s and a volume flow of 0.05 m /s. What will the
velocity and flow of the prototype be? If the measured force on a certain part of the model is 1.5 N,
what will the corresponding force on the prototype be?
Solution: Given α = Lm/Lp = 1/30, Froude scaling requires that

Vm 0.6 m Qm 0.05 m3
Vp = = ≈ 3.3 ; Q p = 5/2 = ≈ 246 Ans. (a)
√α (1/30)1/2 (1/30)5/2
The force scales in similar manner, assuming that the density remains constant (water):
 ρ p  Vp   L p 
2 2 2
 1   1 2
Fp = Fm  ÷ ÷  ÷ = Fm (1)  ÷  ÷ = (1.5 N)(30) ≈ 40500N
3
Ans. (b)
  V   L  √   
5.78 A prototype spillway has a characteristic velocity of 3 m/s and a characteristic length of 10
m. A small model is constructed by using Froude scaling. What is the minimum scale ratio of the
model which will ensure that its minimum Weber number is 100? Both flows use water at 20°C.
Solution: For water at 20°C, ρ = 998 kg/m3 and Y = 0.073 N/m, for both model and prototype.
Evaluate the Weber number of the prototype:
ρ p Vp2 L p 998(3.0)2 (10.0)

We p = = ≈ 1.23E6; for Froude scaling,
Yp 0.073
2
We m ρm  Vm   L m   Yp  100
=  ÷  ÷  ÷ = (1)( α )2 (α )(1) = α 2 = if α = 0.0090
We p ρ p  Vp ÷

÷
 L p   Ym  1.23E6
Thus the model Weber number will be ≥100 if α = Lm/Lp ≥ 0.0090 = 1/111. Ans.

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
5.79 An East Coast estuary has a tidal period of 12.42 h (the semidiurnal lunar tide) and tidal
currents of approximately 80 cm/s. If a one-five-hundredth-scale model is constructed with tides
driven by a pump and storage apparatus, what should the period of the model tides be and what
model current speeds are expected?
Solution: Given Tp = 12.42 hr, Vp = 80 cm/s, and α = Lm/Lp = 1/500. Then:

12.42
Froude scaling: Tm = Tp α = = 0.555 hr ≈ 33 min Ans. (a)
500
Vm = Vp α = 80 (500) ≈ 3.6 cm/s Ans. (b)
5.80 A prototype ship is 35 m long and designed to cruise at 11 m/s (about 21 kn). Its drag is to be
simulated by a 1-m-long model pulled in a tow tank. For Froude scaling find (a) the tow speed, (b)
the ratio of prototype to model drag, and (c) the ratio of prototype to model power.
Solution: Given α = 1/35, then Froude scaling determines everything:

Vtow = Vm = Vp √α = 11/√ (35) ≈ 1.86 m/s
3 1
F /F (V /V )2 (L /L )2 (√ )2 ( )2 (1/35)3 A
1
Pm /Pp = (Fm /Fp )(Vm /Vp ) = α 3 (√α ) = α 3.5 = 1/353.5 ≈
254000
5.81 An airplane, of overall length 55 ft, is designed to fly at 680 m/s at 8000-m standard altitude.
A one-thirtieth-scale model is to be tested in a pressurized helium wind tunnel at 20°C. What is the
appropriate tunnel pressure in atm? Even at this (high) pressure, exact dynamic similarity is not
achieved. Why?
Solution: For air at 8000-m standard altitude (Table A-6), take ρ = 0.525 kg/m 3, µ =
1.53E−5 kg/m⋅s, and sound speed a = 308 m/s. For helium at 20°C (Table A-4), take gas
constant R = 2077 J/(kg·°K), µ = 1.97E−5 kg/m·s, and a = 1005 m/s. For similarity at this
supersonic speed, we must match both the Mach and Reynolds numbers. First convert L p =
55 ft = 16.8 m. Then
680 V m
Ma p = = 2.21 = Ma m = m , solve for Vmodel ≈ 2219
308 1005

lOMoARcPSD|9631704

ρ VL
Re p = |p = 0.525(680)(16.8) = 3.91E8 = Rem = ρHe (2219)(16.8/30)
µ 1.53E 5 1.97E 5
p p
Solve for ρHe ≈ 6.21 kg/m 3 = = He
,
RT (2077)(293)
Even with Ma and Re matched, true dynamic similarity is not achieved, because the specific heat
ratio of helium, k ≈ 1.66, is not equal to kair ≈ 1.40.
P5.82 A one-fiftieth scale model of a military airplane is tested at 1020 m/s in a

wind tunnel at sea-level conditions. The model wing area is 180 cm2. The angle of attack
is 3 degrees. If the measured model lift is 860 N, what is the prototype lift, using Mach
number scaling, when it flies at 10,000 m standard altitude under dynamically similar
conditions? [NOTE: Be careful with the area scaling.]
Solution: At sea-level, ρ = 1.2255 kg/m3 and T = 288 K. Compute the speed of sound
and Mach number for the model:
m Vm 1020 m / s
am = kRT = 1.4(287)(288) = 340 ; Mam = = = 3.0
s am 340 m / s
Now compute the lift-force coefficient of the model:
Fm 860 N
CL,m = = = 0.0749
(1/ 2) ρ mVm2 Am (1/ 2)(1.2255kg / m )(1020m / s ) 2 (0.0180m 2 )
3
For dynamically similar conditions, the prototype must have the same lift coefficient. At
10,000 m standard altitude, from Table A.6, read ρ = 0.4125 kg/m3 and T = 223.16 K.
The prototype wing area is (0.0180m2)(50)2 = 45 m2. (The writer cautioned about this
scaling.) Then compute
ap = kRT = 1.4(287)(223) = 299 m / s, then V p = Ma p a p = (3.0)(299) = 898 m / s

ρp 0.4125
Fproto = CL, p V p2 Ap = (0.0749)( )(898)2 (45) = 561, 000 N = 126, 000 lbf Ans.
2 2

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
5.83 A one-fortieth-scale model of a ship’s propeller is tested in a tow tank at 1200 r/min and
exhibits a power output of 1.4 ft·lbf/s. According to Froude scaling laws, what should the
revolutions per minute and horsepower output of the prototype propeller be under dynamically
similar conditions?
Solution: Given α = 1/40, use Froude scaling laws:

1200 rev
Ω p /Ωm = Tm /Tp = √α , thus Ω p = 1/2
≈ 190 Ans. (a)
(40) min
 ρ p  Ωp 
3 53
 Dp   1 
Pp = Pm  ÷ ÷  ÷ = (1.4)(1)  ÷ (40)5
 ρm  Ωm   Dm   40 
5.84 A prototype ocean-platform piling is expected to encounter currents of 150 cm/s and waves
of 12-s period and 3-m height. If a one-fifteenth-scale model is tested in a wave channel, what
current speed, wave period, and wave height should be encountered by the model?
Solution: Given α = 1/15, apply straight Froude scaling (Fig. 5.6b) to these results:
150 cm
Velocity: Vm = Vp √α = = 39
√ 15
12 3
Period: Tm = Tp √α = = 3.1 s; Height: H m = α H p = = 0.20 m Ans.
√ 15 15
*P5.85 As shown in Ex. 5.3, pump performance data can be non-dimensionalized. Problem
P5.61 gave typical dimensionless data for centrifugal pump “head”, H = ∆p/ρg, as follows:

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
gH Q
2 2
≈ 6.0 − 120 ( 3
)2
n D nD
where Q is the volume flow rate, n the rotation rate in r/s, and D the impeller diameter. This
type of correlation allows one to compute H when (ρ, Q, D) are known. (a) Show how to
rearrange these Pi groups so that one can size the pump, that is, compute D directly when (Q, H,
n) are known. (b) Make a crude but effective plot of your new function. (c) Apply part (b) to
the following example: When H = 37 m, Q = 0.14 m3/s, and n = 35 r/s, find the pump diameter
for this condition.
Solution: (a) We have to eliminate D from one or the other of the two
parameters. The writer chose to remove D from the left side. The new
parameter will be
3
gH nD 2 / 3 gH
Π3 = ( ) =
n2D 2 Q n 4 / 3Q 2 / 3
n D3 gH
= fcn( 4/3
)
Q n Q2/3
For convenience, we inverted the right-hand parameter to feature D. Thus the function
will enable one to input (Q, H, n) and immediately solve for the impeller diameter. Ans.(a)
(b) The new variable hopelessly complicates the algebra of the original parabolic formula.
However, with a little (well, maybe a lot of) work, one can compute and plot a few
values:

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
20
0.0363x
y = 4.41e
15
3
nD /Q
10
nD 3/Q = 6.76
5
Part (c) gH/(n4/3Q2/3)

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
It fits a least-squared exponential curve quite well, as you see. Ans.(b)
gH (9.81m / s 2 )(37 m)
4/3 2/3
= = 11.76 Hence
n Q (35r / s ) 4 / 3 (0.14m 3 / s ) 2 / 3
nD 3 35 D 3
≈ 4.41 exp[0.0363(11.76)] = 6.76 = , Solve D ≈ 0.30 m Ans.(c )
Q 0.14
(c) For the given data, H = 37 m, Q = 0.14 m3/s, and n = 35 r/s, calculate Π3:
A 30-cm pump fits these conditions. These Π value solutions are shown on the crude plot above.
[NOTE: This problem was set up from the original parabolic function by using D
= 30 cm, so the curve-fit is quite accurate.]
5.86 Solve Prob. 5.49 for glycerin, using the modified sphere-drag plot of Fig. 5.11.

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
Solution: Recall this problem is identical to Prob. 5.85 above except that the fluid is glycerin,
with ρ = 1260 kg/m3 and µ = 1.49 kg/m·s. Evaluate the net weight:
π ρ F 1260(0.525)
W = (7800 − 1260)(9.81) (0.025)3 ≈ 0.525 N, whence 2 = ≈ 298
6 µ (1.49)2
From Fig. 5.11 read Re ≈ 15, or V = 15(1.49)/[1260(0.025)] ≈ 0.7 m/s. Ans.
5.87 In Prob. 5.61 it would be difficult to solve for Ω because it appears in all three
dimensionless coefficients. Rescale the problem, using the data of Fig. P5.61, to make a plot of
dimensionless power versus dimensionless rotation speed. Enter this plot directly to solve for Ω for
3
D = 12 cm, Q = 25 m /hr, and a maximum power P = 300 W, in gasoline at 20°C.
Fig. P5.61
Solution: For gasoline, ρ = 680 kg/m3 and µ = 2.92E−4 kg/m·s. We can eliminate Ω from the
power coefficient for a new type of coefficient:
P Ω3 D9 PD 4 Q
Π3 = × = , to be plotted versus
ΩD
3 5
Q 3
Q 3
ΩD3
The plot is shown below, as computed from the expressions in Fig. P5.61.

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
Fig. P5.87
Below Π3 < 10,000, an excellent Power-law curve-fit is (Q/ΩD3 ) ≈ 1.43/Π 30.4 ± 1%.
3
We use the given data to evaluate Π3 and hence compute Q/ΩD :
(300)(0.12)4 Q 1.43 25/3600
Π3 = = 273, whence ≈ ≈ 0.152 =
(680)(25/3600)3 ΩD3 (273)0.4 Ω(0.12)3
3
5.88 Modify Prob. 5.61 as follows: Let Ω = 32 r/s and Q = 24 m /h for a geometrically similar
pump. What is the maximum diameter if the power is not to exceed 340 W? Solve this problem
by rescaling the data of Fig. P5.61 to make a plot of dimensionless power versus
dimensionless diameter. Enter this plot directly to find the desired diameter.

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
Solution: We can eliminate D from the power coefficient for an alternate coefficient:
5/3
P  ΩD3  P Q
Π4 = ×
3 5  ÷ = , to be plotted versus
ΩD  Q  Ω Q
4/3 5/3
ΩD3
The plot is shown below, as computed from the expressions in Fig. P5.61.
Fig. P5.88
Below Π4 < 1,000, an excellent Power-law curve-fit is (Q/ΩD ) ≈ 2.12/Π 4 ± 1%.

3 0.85
3
We use the given data to evaluate Π4 and hence compute Q/ΩD :
340 Q 2.12 24/3600
Π4 = = 20.8, whence = ≈ 0.161 =
4/3
680(32) (24/3600) 5/3
ΩD 3
(20.8) 0.85
32D3
Solve for D ≈ 0.11 m Ans.
P5.89 Wall friction τw, for turbulent flow at velocity U in a pipe of diameter D, was
correlated, in 1911, with a dimensionless correlation by Ludwig Prandtl’s student H.
Blasius:

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
τw 0.632
≈
ρU 2
( ρUD / µ )1/ 4
Suppose that (ρ, U, µ, τw) were all known and it was desired to find the unknown velocity
U. Rearrange and rewrite the formula so that U can be immediately calculated.
Solution: The easiest path the writer can see is to get rid of U2 on the left hand side by
multiplying both sides by the Reynolds number squared:
τw ρUD 2 τ w ρ D2 0.632 ρUD 2 ρUD 7 / 4

( ) = ≈ ( ) = 0.632 ( )
ρU 2 µ µ 2
( ρUD / µ )1/ 4 µ µ
ρUD ρUD τ ρ D2
Solve for ( ) and clean up : ≈ 1.30 ( w 2 ) 4 / 7 Ans.
µ µ µ
5.90 Knowing that ∆p is proportional to L, rescale the data of Example 5.7 to plot dimensionless
∆p versus dimensionless viscosity. Use this plot to find the viscosity required in the first row of data
in Example 5.7 if the pressure drop is increased to 10 kPa for the same flow rate, length, and
density.
Solution: Recall that Example 5.7, where ∆p/L = fcn(ρ, V, µ, D), led to the correlation
1.75
ρ D3∆p  ρ VD 
≈ 0.155  ÷ , which is awkward because µ occurs on both sides.
Lµ 2  µ 
We can form a “µ-free” parameter by dividing the left side by Reynolds-number-squared:
ρ D3 ∆p/Lµ 2 ∆pD 0.155
Π4 = 2
= ≈ (3)
( VD/ ) V L ( VD/ )0.25
2
Correlation “3” can now be used to solve for an unknown viscosity. The data are the first row of
Example 5.7, with viscosity unknown and a new pressure drop listed:
kg m
L = 5 m; D = 1 cm; Q = 0.3 m 3 /hr; ∆p = 10,000 Pa; ρ = 680 3
; V = 1.06
s

lOMoARcPSD|9631704

(10000)(0.01) ? 0.155
Evaluate Π 4 = = 0.0262 = , or Re ≈ 1230 ???
(680)(1.06)2 (5.0) R 0.25
This is a trap for the unwary: Re = 1230 is far below the range of the data in Ex. 5.7, for which
15000 < Re < 95000. The solution cannot be trusted and in fact is quite incorrect, for the flow
would be laminar and follow an entirely different correlation. Ans.
*P5.91 The traditional “Moody-type” pipe friction correlation in Chap. 6 is of the form
2 ∆p D ρVD ε
f = = fcn( , )
ρV 2
L µ D
where D is the pipe diameter, L the pipe length, and ε the wall roughness. Note that fluid
average velocity V is used on both sides. This form is meant to find ∆p when V is known.
(a) Suppose that ∆p is known and we wish to find V. Rearrange the above function so that V is
isolated on the left-hand side. Use the following data, for ε/D = 0.005, to make a plot of your
new function, with your velocity parameter as the ordinate of the plot.
f 0.0356 0.0316 0.0308 0.0305 0.0304
ρVD/µ 15,000 75,000 250,000 900,000 3,330,000
(b) Use your plot to determine V, in m/s, for the following pipe flow: D = 5 cm, ε = 0.025 cm,
L = 10 m, for water flow at 20°C and 1 atm. The pressure drop ∆p is 110 kPa.

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Solution: We can eliminate V from the left side by multiplying by Re 2. Then

rearrange:
ε ρVD 2 ρD 3 ∆p ε
Re D = fcn( f Re 2D , ), or : = fcn( , )
D µ Lµ 2 D
We can add a third row to the data above and make a log-log plot:
f ReD2 8.01E6 1.78E8 1.92E9 2.47E10 3.31E11
log(ReD )
6
log(f ReD 2)
4
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
It is a pretty good straight line on a log-log plot, which means a power-law. A good fit is
ρVD
( 2ρ D ∆p ε
3
≈ 4.85 ) 0.507 for = 0.005
µ Lµ 2 D
Different power-law constants would be needed for other roughness ratios.

(b) Given pipe pressure drop data. For water, take ρ = 998 kg/m3 and µ = 0.001 kg/m-s.
Calculate the value of (f ReD2) for this data:

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
2 ρD 3 ∆p 2(998kg / m 3 )(0.05m) 3 (110000 Pa )

f Re 2D = = = 2.75 E 9
L µ2 (10 m)(0.001 kg / m − s ) 2
ρVD (998) V (0.05)
Power − law : =4.85 ( 2.75 E 9) 0.507 ≈ 296,000 =
µ 0.001
Solve for V ≈ 5.93 m / s Ans.(b)

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FUNDAMENTALSOF ENGINEERINGEXAMPROBLEMS:Answers
FE5.1 Given the parameters (U, L, g, ρ, µ) which affect a certain liquid flow problem. The ratio
2
V /(Lg) is usually known as the
(a) velocity head (b) Bernoulli head (c) Froude No. (d) kinetic energy (e) impact energy
FE5.2 A ship 150 m long, designed to cruise at 18 knots, is to be tested in a tow tank with a
model 3 m long. The appropriate tow velocity is
(a) 0.19 m/s (b) 0.35 m/s (c) 1.31 m/s (d) 2.55 m/s (e) 8.35 m/s
FE5.3 A ship 150 m long, designed to cruise at 18 knots, is to be tested in a tow tank with a
model 3 m long. If the model wave drag is 2.2 N, the estimated full-size ship wave drag is
(a) 5500 N (b) 8700 N (c) 38900 N (d) 61800 N (e) 275000 N
FE5.4 A tidal estuary is dominated by the semi-diurnal lunar tide, with a period of 12.42
hours. If a 1:500 model of the estuary is tested, what should be the model tidal period?
(a) 4.0 s (b) 1.5 min (c) 17 min (d) 33 min (e) 64 min
3
FE5.5 A football, meant to be thrown at 60 mi/h in sea-level air ( ρ = 1.22 kg/m ,
2
µ = 1.78E−5 N⋅s/m ) is to be tested using a one-quarter scale model in a water tunnel
3 2
(ρ = 998 kg/m , µ = 0.0010 N⋅s/m ). For dynamic similarity, what is the proper model water
velocity?
(a) 7.5 mi/hr (b) 15.0 mi/hr (c) 15.6 mi/hr (d) 16.5 mi/hr (e) 30 mi/hr
3
FE5.6 A football, meant to be thrown at 60 mi/h in sea-level air ( ρ = 1.22 kg/m ,
2
µ = 1.78E−5 N⋅s/m ) is to be tested using a one-quarter scale model in a water tunnel
3 2
(ρ = 998 kg/m , µ = 0.0010 N⋅s/m ). For dynamic similarity, what is the ratio of model force to
prototype force?
(a) 3.86:1 (b) 16:1 (c) 32:1 (d) 56.2:1 (e) 64:1
FE5.7 Consider liquid flow of density ρ, viscosity µ, and velocity U over a very small model
spillway of length scale L, such that the liquid surface tension coefficient Y is important. The
2
quantity ρU L/Y in this case is important and is called the
(a) capillary rise (b) Froude No. (c) Prandtl No. (d) Weber No. (e) Bond No.
FE5.8 If a stream flowing at velocity U past a body of length L causes a force F on the body
which depends only upon U, L and fluid viscosity µ, then F must be proportional to
2 2
(a) ρUL/µ (b) ρU L (c) µU/L (d) µ UL (e) UL/µ

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FE5.9 In supersonic wind tunnel testing, if different gases are used, dynamic similarity requires
that the model and prototype have the same Mach number and the same
(a) Euler number (b) speed of sound (c) stagnation enthalpy
(d) Froude number (e) specific heat ratio
FE5.10 The Reynolds number for a 1-ft-diameter sphere moving at 2.3 mi/hr through seawater
2
(specific gravity 1.027, viscosity 1.07E−3 N⋅s/m ) is approximately
(a) 300 (b) 3000 (c) 30,000 (d) 300,000 (e) 3,000,000
FE5.11 The Ekman number, important in physical oceanography, is a

dimensionless combination of µ, L, ρ, and the earth’s rotation rate Ω. If the Ekman
number is proportional to Ω, it should take the form
(a ) ρ Ω 2 L2 / µ (b) µ ΩL / ρ (c) ρ ΩL / µ (d ) ρ ΩL2 /μ (e) ρ Ω / L µ
FE5.12 A valid, but probably useless, dimensionless group is given by

( µTo g ) /( ϒLα ) , where everything has its usual meaning, except α. What are the
dimensions of α ?
(a) ΘL-1 T -1 (b)ΘL -1T -2

( c) ΘML -1 ( d) Θ -1LT -1
( e) ΘLT -1

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COMPREHENSIVEPROBLEMS
C5.1 Estimating pipe wall friction is one of the most common tasks in fluids engineering. For
long circular, rough pipes in turbulent flow, wall shear τw is a function of density ρ, viscosity µ,
average velocity V, pipe diameter d, and wall roughness height ε. Thus, functionally, we can write
τw = fcn(ρ, µ, V, d, ε). (a) Using dimensional analysis, rewrite this function in dimensionless form.
(b) A certain pipe has d = 5 cm and ε = 0.25 mm. For flow of water at 20°C, measurements show
the following values of wall shear stress:
Q (in gal/min) ~ 1.5 3.0 6.0 9.0 12.0 14.0
τw (in Pa) ~ 0.05 0.18 0.37 0.64 0.86 1.25
Plot this data in the dimensionless form suggested by your part (a) and suggest a curve-fit formula.
Does your plot reveal the entire functional relation suggested in your part (a)?
Solution: (a) There are 6 variables and 3 primary dimensions, therefore we expect 3 Pi groups.
The traditional choices are:
τw  ρVd ε   ε
= fcn  , ÷ or: C f = fcn  Re, ÷ Ans. (a)
 µ  d
2
V d
(b) In nondimensionalizing and plotting the above data, we find that ε /d = 0.25 mm/50 mm = 0.005
for all the data. Therefore we only plot dimensionless shear versus Reynolds number, using ρ = 998
3
kg/m and µ = 0.001 kg/m⋅s for water. The results are tabulated as follows:
V, m/s Re Cf
0.0481972 2405 0.021567
0.0963944 4810 0.019411
0.1927888 9620 0.009975
0.2891832 14430 0.007668
0.3855776 19240 0.005796
0.4498406 22447 0.00619
When plotted on log-log paper, Cf versus Re makes a slightly curved line.
A reasonable power-law curve-fit is shown on
0 642
the chart: Cf ≈ 3.63Re− . with 95%
correlation. Ans. (b)
This curve is only for the narrow Reynolds number
range 2000−22000 and a single ε /d.

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
C5.2 When the fluid exiting a nozzle, as in Fig. P3.49, is a gas, instead of water,
compressibility may be important, especially if upstream pressure p1 is large and exit diameter
d2 is small. In this case, the difference (p 1 − p2) is no longer controlling, and the gas mass
& reaches a maximum value which depends upon p 1 and d2 and also upon the absolute
flow, m,
upstream temperature, T1, and the gas constant, R. Thus, functionally, m&= fcn(p1, d 2, T1, R). (a)
Using dimensional analysis, rewrite this function in dimensionless form. (b) A certain pipe has d2 =
1 cm. For flow of air, measurements show the following values of mass flow through the nozzle:
T1 (in °K) 300 300 300 500 800

p1 (in kPa) 200 250 300 300 300
m& (in kg/s) 0.037 0.046 0.055 0.043 0.034
Plot this data in the dimensionless form suggested by your part (a). Does your plot reveal the entire
functional relation suggested in your part (a)?
Solution: (a) There are n = 5 variables and j = 4 dimensions (M, L, T, Θ), hence we expect only n
− j = 5 − 4 = 1 Pi group, which turns out to be
& RT1
m
Π1 = = Constant Ans. (a)
d2
(b) The data should yield a single measured value of Π1 for all five points:
T1 (in °K) ~ 300 300 300 500 800

2
& (RT1 )/(p1d 2 ):
m 0.543 0.540 0.538 0.543 0.543
Thus the measured value of Π1 is about 0.543 ± 0.005 (dimensionless), which is very close to the
theoretical value of 0.538 developed in Chap. 9 for air, k = 1.40. The problem asks you to plot this
function, but since it is a constant, we shall not bother. Ans. (a, b)
C5.3 Reconsider the fully-developed drain-ing vertical oil-film problem (see Fig. P4.80) as an
exercise in dimensional analysis. Let the vertical velocity be a function only of distance from the plate,
fluid properties, gravity, and film thickness. That is, w = fcn(x, ρ, µ, g, δ).
(a) Use the Pi theorem to rewrite this function in terms of dimensionless parameters.

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
b) Verify that the exact solution from Prob. 4.80 is consistent with your result in part (a).
Solution: There are n = 6 variables and j = 3 dimensions (M, L, T), hence we expect only n
− j = 6 − 3 = 3 Pi groups. The author selects ( ρ, g, δ) as repeating variables, whence
w µ x
Π1 = ; Π2 = ; Π3 =
gδ ρ δ3 δ
Thus the expected function is

w  µ x
= fcn  , ÷ Ans. (a)
δ  δ3 δ
(b) The exact solution from Problem 4.80 can be written in just this form:
ρ gx w µ 1 xx 
w= ( x − 2δ ), or: =  − 2÷
2µ gδ ρ gδ 3 2 δ δ 
Π1 Π2 Π3
Yes, the two forms of dimensionless function are the same. Ans. (b)
C5.4 The Taco Inc. Model 4013 centrifugal pump has an impeller of diameter D = 12.95 in. When
pumping 20°C water at Ω = 1160 rev/min, the measured flow rate Q and pressure rise ∆p are given
by the manufacturer as follows:
Q (gal/min) ~ 200 300 400 500 600 700

∆p (psi) ~ 36 35 34 32 29 23
(a) Assuming that ∆p = fcn(ρ, Q, D, Ω), use the Pi theorem to rewrite this function in terms of
dimensionless parameters and then plot the given data in dimensionless form. (b) It is desired

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
to use the same pump, running at 900 rev/min, to pump 20°C gasoline at 400 gal/min.
2
According to your dimensionless correlation, what pressure rise ∆p is expected, in lbf/in ?
Solution: There are n = 5 variables and j = 3 dimensions (M, L, T), hence we expect

n − j = 5 − 3 = 2 Pi groups. The author selects (ρ, D, Ω) as repeating variables, whence
∆p Q ∆p  Q 
Π1 = ; Π = , or: = fcn  3 ÷ Ans. (a)
 ΩD 
2
ρΩ2 D 2 ΩD3 ρΩ 2 D 2
3
Convert the data to this form, using Ω = 19.33 rev/s, D = 1.079 ft, ρ = 1.94 slug/ft , and use ∆p in
2 3
lbf/ft , not psi, and Q in ft /s, not gal/min:
Q (gal/min) ~ 200 300 400 500 600 700

2 2
∆p/(ρΩ D ): 6.14 5.97 5.80 5.46 4.95 3.92
3
Q/(ΩD ): 0.0183 0.0275 0.0367 0.0458 0.0550 0.0642
The dimensionless plot of Π1 versus Π2 is shown below.
(b) The dimensionless chart above is valid for the new conditions, also. Convert 400 gal/min to
3
0.891 ft /s and Ω = 900 rev/min to 15 rev/s. Then evaluate Π2:
Q 0.891
Π2 = = = 0.0473
ΩD 15(1.079)3
3

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
This value is entered in the chart above, from which we see that the corresponding value of Π1 is
3
about 5.4. For gasoline (Table A-3), ρ = 1.32 slug/ft . Then this new running condition with
gasoline corresponds to
∆p ∆p lbf lbf
Π 2 = 5.4 = = , solve for ∆p = 1870 2 = 13 2 Ans. (b)
ρΩ D
2 2 2
1.32(15) (1.079)2
ft in

lOMoARcPSD|9631704
C5.5 Does an automobile radio antenna vibrate in resonance due to vortex shedding? Consider
an antenna of length L and diameter D. According to beam-vibration theory [e.g. Kelly [34], p.
401], the first mode natural frequency of a solid circular cantilever beam is ωn = 3.516[EI/
4 12
(ρAL )] / , where E is the modulus of elasticity, I is the area moment of inertia, ρ is the beam
material density, and A is the beam cross-section area. (a) Show that ωn is proportional to the
antenna radius R. (b) If the antenna is steel, with L = 60 cm and D = 4 mm, estimate the natural
vibration frequency, in Hz. (c) Compare with the shedding frequency if the car moves at 65
mi/h.
Solution: (a) From Fig. 2.13 for a circular cross-section, A = π R2 and I = π R4/4. Then the
natural frequency is predicted to be:
Eπ R 4 /4 E R
ω n = 3.516 = 1.758 = Const × RP Ans. (a)
2 4
R L L2
3
(b) For steel, E = 2.1E11 Pa and ρ = 7840 kg/m . If L = 60 cm and D = 4 mm, then
2.1E11 0.002 rad

ω n = 1.758 ≈ 51 ≈ 8 Hz Ans. (b)
7840 0.62
(c) For U = 65 mi/h = 29.1 m/s and sea-level air, check ReD = ρUD/µ = 1.2(29.1)(0.004)/
(0.000018) ≈ 7800. From Fig. 5.2b, read Strouhal number St ≈ 0.21. Then,
ω shed D ω shed (0.004) rad
= ≈ 0.21, or: ω shed ≈ 9600 ≈ 1500 Hz Ans. (c)
2π U 2π (29.1) s
Thus, for a typical antenna, the shedding frequency is far higher than the natural vibration
frequency.

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White 7th ed solutionary

Ingeniería De Proyectos En Ingeniería Química (Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios

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115 SolutionsManual • Fluid Mechanics, Seventh Edition

ρVL (1.10)V p (7 Lm ) ρVL (1.205)(67.1)( Lm )

P5.3 The transfer of energy by viscous dissipation is dependent upon viscosity µ,

Brinkman number = k a U b Toc µ1 yields Br = µ U 2 /(kTo ) Ans.

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Chapter5 • Dimensional Analysis and Similarity 116

Drag, lbf: 31 115 249

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117 SolutionsManual • Fluid Mechanics, Seventh Edition

(b) The horsepower required to overcome drag is

Power = FV = (210)(95.3) = 20030 ft×lbf/s ÷ 550 = 36.4 hp Ans. (b)

ρ pV p D p (1.20)(5.36)(16.8) ρ V D (1.20)(Vm )(1.7)

(b) For similarity, the force coefficients will be equal:

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Chapter5 • Dimensional Analysis and Similarity 118

5.8 The Morton number Mo, used to correlate bubble-dynamics studies, is a dimensionless

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119 SolutionsManual • Fluid Mechanics, Seventh Edition

5.10 Determine the dimension {MLTΘ} of the following quantities:

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Chapter5 • Dimensional Analysis and Similarity 120

Assume arbitrary exponents and make the group dimensionless:

R1 E a ρb t c = ( L)1 ( ML2 / T 2 ) a ( M/L3 ) b (T) c = M 0 L0 T 0 ,

The single pi group is

5.12 The Stokes number, St, used in particle-dynamics studies, is a dimensionless combination of

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121 SolutionsManual • Fluid Mechanics, Seventh Edition

Solution: The “function” of ρ, λ, and Y must have velocity units. Thus

P5.14 In forced convection, the heat transfer coefficient h is a function of thermal

Four dimensions, 3 pi groups expected.

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Chapter5 • Dimensional Analysis and Similarity 122

The final desired dimensionless function is

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123 SolutionsManual • Fluid Mechanics, Seventh Edition

5.16 Convection heat-transfer data are often reported as a heat-transfer coefficient h, defined by

where Q& = heat flow, J/s

The writer thinks Ω should be correlated versus h, so he chooses (L, ρ, g) as repeating

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Chapter5 • Dimensional Analysis and Similarity 124

Solve for Ω Mars ≈ 1.23 Hz Ans.(b)

Solution: Establish the variables and their dimensions:

Then n = 4 and j = 3, hence we expect n − j = 4 − 3 = 1 Pi group, found as follows:

Π1 = (∆p/L)a (µ )b (b)c Q1 = {M/L2 T2}a {M/LT}b{L}c{L3/T}1 = M0 L0 T 0

solve a = −1, b = +1, c = −4

Clearly, if b is doubled, the flow rate Q increases by a factor of 24 = 16. Ans.

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125 SolutionsManual • Fluid Mechanics, Seventh Edition

5.19 The period of oscillation T of a water surface wave is assumed to be a function of density ρ,

Solution: Establish the variables and their dimensions:

T = fcn( ρ , λ , h , g , Y )

Then n = 6 and j = 3, hence we expect n − j = 6 − 3 = 3 Pi groups, capable of various arrangements

P5.20 A fixed cylinder of diameter D and length L, immersed in a stream flowing

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