Q.

1 Justify the statement that “critical thinking is important for

teachers and learners in the 21st century”. Support your
arguments with logic.
Critical theory is an approach that studies society in a dialectical way by analyzing political
economy, domination, exploitation, and ideologies. It is a normative approach that is based on
the judgment that domination is a problem, that a domination-free society is needed.
Educational institutions, accrediting bodies, students and employers all agree: students need to
develop better critical thinking skills.
Critical Thinking is not just a “nice to have” skill in the 21st century, it is essential. We live in an
age where we have more information at our fingertips than ever before and more opportunity to
communicate with people across the globe.
Educational institutions, accrediting bodies, students and employers all agree: students need to
develop better critical thinking skills. Modern-day access to instant answers means many of us
are falling behind in our ability to ask the right questions or analyze the answers we get.
Critical thinking has been defined as the ability to:
 ask the right questions
 recognize the existence of problems
 read between the lines
 recognize implicit and explicit assumptions
 identify relevant and irrelevant information in arguments
 recognize bias in yourself and others.
Critical thinking is the foundation of strategic thinking, creative thinking, good judgement and
good decision making. Good critical thinking results in the ability to draw the right conclusions
more often.
Why do you think deep learning and critical thinking are so important in
today’s world?
We are living in a world of sound bites, bandwagons, fads, over-simplifications and
misinformation. This takes place in the spectra of politics, social media and vested financial
interests that dominate many information fields. I’ll be exposing some of the most heinous cases
in my session at the African Education Festival. Doubting sources, scrutinizing arguments,
seeking robust evidence to claims and identifying ideological biases behind assumptions is more
important than ever, especially since there is a coarsening of political discourse, an
intensification of polarized and even extremist positions, and much crass persuasive argument at
work.
Importance of critical thinking:
Health and Physical Education in the New Zealand Curriculum (1999) defines critical
thinking as "examining, questioning, evaluating, and challenging taken-for-granted assumptions
about issues and practices" and critical action as "action based on critical thinking".
By adopting this definition of critical thinking and applying their learning in education
contexts, students can:
 become broad and adventurous thinkers
 generate innovative solutions

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  use their reasoning skills to analyze and evaluate
 plan and think strategically

Critical thinking enables students to:

 think about and evaluate their own thinking and behavior on issues related to health
education, physical education, and home economics
 make reasonable and defensible decisions about issues related to individual and
community well-being
 challenge and take action (individually and collectively) to address social, cultural,
economic, and political inequalities
 understand the role and significance of the movement culture and its influence on our
daily lives and the lives of people in our community
In order to help their students to develop critical-thinking skills and to take critical action,
teachers need to:
 have a sound knowledge base from which to support students as they delve more deeply
into content
 remain open to challenge by students, not representing themselves as the sole source of
knowledge
 encourage students to look at the big picture by engaging them in critical-thinking
processes that have relevance beyond the classroom
 be prepared to listen to voices that originate in the classroom and to use students' personal
experiences as starting points for gathering information
 encourage students to question and challenge existing beliefs, structures, and practices
 avoid offering 'how to do it' approaches
 encourage students to be sensitive to the feelings of others
 provide opportunities for inquiry by giving students time for planning, processing, and
debriefing
 structure lessons so that students can work safely and co-operatively and develop creative
forms of shared responsibility
 encourage students to take critical action. When students learn to use democratic
processes inside the classroom, they can transfer these to situations outside the classroom
For students, learning to think critically and to take critical action will include:
 learning to take responsibility for analyzing and evaluating information
 giving each other feedback about their analyses, evaluations, and actions
 questioning and challenging each other's assumptions in a non-threatening manner
 learning to identify any inequalities and power relationships within contexts in health
education, physical education, and home economics, focusing on how these positions are
sometimes reinforced through organizational structures and through certain forms of
language
 reflecting on people's assumptions, beliefs, and behaviors, taking into account a range of
factors
 generating alternative solutions and accepting them or critiquing them in a sensitive
manner
 developing the confidence to work with others in taking critical action
EACHING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS TO TEACHERS AND STUDENTS

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Here are some tips to teaching critical thinking skills and creating a critical thinking culture in
your school and in your classrooms:
 A common misconception is in the understanding of the term Critical Thinking. Many
people think that critical thinking is simply about being critical of ideas and proposals.
The first step to creating a critical thinking culture is to introduce the concept with a good
definition.
 Create a culture of critical thinking in your school where questioning is not only accepted
but also encouraged at all levels including teachers and students. Provide opportunities
for deeper learning (reflection, application, guided discussion).
 Introduce “Socratic Questioning” into your school culture. Socrates established the
importance of seeking evidence, closely examining reasoning and assumptions, analyzing
basic concepts, and tracing out implications. His method of questioning can be easily
found through an internet search and is the best-known critical thinking teaching strategy.
 Introduce a model or framework of critical thinking to organize and expedite learning.
For example, the RED model of critical thinking put forward in the 1930s by two experts
in the field, Goodwin Watson & Edward Glaser:
1. Recognize assumptions: This relates to the ability to separate fact from
opinion in an argument.
2. Evaluate Arguments: This is the ability to analyze information objectively
and accurately, question the quality of supporting evidence, and understand
how emotion influences the situation.
3. Draw Conclusions: This is the ability to arrive at conclusions that logically
follow from the available evidence.
 Introduce assessments to measure the current levels of critical thinking in teachers and
provide a development program for those who need support. The ability to teach critical
thinking to students starts with teachers having a good understanding on the concept first.
What are the Importance and Benefits of "Critical Thinking Skills"?
Ability to analyze:
 Critical Thinking is the ability to analyze the way you think and present evidence for your
ideas, rather than simply accepting your personal reasoning as sufficient proof. You can
gain numerous benefits from mastering critical thinking skills, such as better control of
your own learning and empathy for other points of view.
Self-directed:
 Critical Thinking is, in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-
corrective thinking. It presupposes assent to rigorous standards of excellence and mindful
command of their use. It entails effective communication and problem-solving abilities
and a commitment to overcome our native egocentrism and sociocentrism.
Valuable skill:
 From solving problems in class assignments to facing real world situations, Critical
Thinking is a valuable skill for students to master.
Variety of skills:
 Critical Thinking skills teach a variety of skills that can be applied to any situation in life
that calls for reflection, analysis and planning.
Domain-general thinking:

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  Critical Thinking is a domain-general thinking skill. The ability to think clearly and
rationally is important whatever we choose to do. If you work in education, research,
finance, management or the legal profession, then critical thinking is obviously
important. But critical thinking skills are not restricted to a particular subject area. Being
able to think well and solve problems systematically is an asset for any career.

New knowledge economy:

 Critical Thinking is very important in the new knowledge economy. The global
knowledge economy is driven by information and technology. One has to be able to deal
with changes quickly and effectively. The new economy places increasing demands on
flexible intellectual skills, and the ability to analyze information and integrate diverse
sources of knowledge in solving problems. Good critical thinking promotes such thinking
skills, and is very important in the fast-changing workplace.
Enhances language and presentation skills:
 Critical Thinking enhances language and presentation skills. Thinking clearly and
systematically can improve the way we express our ideas. In learning how to analyze the
logical structure of texts, critical thinking also improves comprehension abilities.
Promotes creativity:
 Critical Thinking promotes creativity. To come up with a creative solution to a problem
involves not just having new ideas. It must also be the case that the new ideas being
generated are useful and relevant to the task at hand. Critical thinking plays a crucial role
in evaluating new ideas, selecting the best ones and modifying them if necessary.
crucial for self-reflection:
 Critical Thinking is crucial for self-reflection. In order to live a meaningful life and to
structure our lives accordingly, we need to justify and reflect on our values and
decisions. Critical thinking provides the tools for this process of self-evaluation.
Foundation of science:
 Good Critical Thinking is the foundation of science and a liberal democratic
society. Science requires the critical use of reason in experimentation and theory
confirmation. The proper functioning of a liberal democracy requires citizens who can
think critically about social issues to inform their judgments about proper governance and
to overcome biases and prejudice.

Q.2 How can you apply any one of the theories of critical
thinking in the secondary classroom of Pakistan?
Lack of critical thinking:
Lack of critical thinking among students in Pakistan is among the major reason, Pakistan is left
behind in conducting quality research. It is evident from the dismal performance of the country’s
institutions at global ranking tables such as THE (the higher education) and QS (quacquarelli
symbols).
Top universities:

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Only 3 universities of Pakistan are among top 1000 of these global tables, which raises major
concerns regarding the quality of education at our institutions.
QS global ranking:
Furthermore, as of 2016, Pakistan’s education system has been ranked lowest on QS 2016
ranking, with an overall score of 9.2, finishing on a lower rank of 50. Comparably, India ranks
24 with 60.9 points, finishing with 30 universities in top 500 tier in the global ranking.
Quality research:
Quality research, all over the globe, ca be defined as something that adds to the existing
knowledge by identifying questions that have been empirically tested. In terms of research
quality, Pakistan ranks lowest among all SAARC nations. Furthermore, highly cited papers from
Pakistan are 0.01% of total research produced in the last decade.
Ideology of Pakistan:
Any discussion on the ‘Ideology of Pakistan’ is also discouraged. A state narrative is to be
acknowledged. The journey from Muhammad Bin Qasim to the independence of Pakistan is
muzzled and censored. Any opportunity for discussion and investigation on it can land you in
serious trouble.
Lack of funds:
Often, the lack of research funding is attributed to the stagnating research quality in the country,
however, that is not true. HEC allocated Rs. 41 billion (0.039bn $) in 2014, Rs. 42 billion in
2015 and a massive 91 billion Rs. (US $ 0.087bn) in 2016.
Poor quality of research:
In the last 10 years, Pakistan has also seen a surge in published research papers from 2000
articles in 2006 to 9000 articles in 2015. However, research quality globally as 70% of the
research conducted is of poor quality and does not meet the global criteria.
Such grim and gloomy figures shouldn’t be surprising. It can be attributed to a culture that
discourages independent and critical thinking.
Hierarchical system:
The society we live in is a hierarchical system, where there is nearly zero tolerance for dissent
and almost no scope or opportunity for new ideas and discussions.
Environment required for critical thinking:

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Critical thinking thrives where people with different ideas and viewpoints can argue; where a
healthy debate contributes to the betterment of the society and paves way for a more inclusive
and pluralistic environment.
Richard Feynman’s quotes:
Lack of quality research and critical thinking in Pakistan can be analyzed with two of Richard
Feynman’s quotes, ‘There is no learning without having to pose a question. And a question
requires a doubt.’ And, ‘I can live without doubt and uncertainty. I think it’s much more
interesting to live not knowing them than to have answers which might be wrong,’

Questioning and doubt:

Research begins with doubt and doubt leads to questioning. Questioning and doubt have been the
force and reason behind the rise of various fields, and it is the thriving force of ‘investigation’
which has not halted the research prospects in numerous fields.
The questioning conundrum has deeply hindered learning prospects for students and society in
Pakistan.
Non-existent:
Critical thinking is non-existent because students in educational institutions are not encouraged
to question, ponder and investigate. In classroom, there is no stress on discussing new ideas,
there is no place for open discussions on various topics and issues. Healthy debates take a back
seat while more focus is given covering the syllabus.
study of Durkin (2008):
This can be justified by the study of Durkin (2008) who conducted critical research thinking
skills of South Asian students who went to the UK for higher education.
Schweber in 2010:
A similar study, conducted by Schweber in 2010, explains his experience at Lahore University of
Management Sciences (LUMS), one of the most highly ranked and reputed institution in
Pakistan. He stated that students showed unfamiliarity with questions regarding their critical
skills and felt perplexed and confused.
Importance of healthy debates:

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Therefore, it’s important to encourage and promote healthy debates and active thinking in class.
Merely covering syllabus and subjecting students to endless drills can lead to students possessing
less creativity and expression.
These students can be termed as well trained, but not well educated, as they lack skills which are
needed to examine various aspects and gather evidence to investigate a question. Thus, critical
thinking skills lead to enhanced questioning skills and are considered to be a significant
ingredient for researchers.

Act of questioning:
Teachers in institutions should be advised to encourage the act of questioning in class and build a
more positive relationship with students. It would lead to lessening the communications gap and
students. It would lead to lessening the communication gap and students would feel more
confident in expressing themselves. Students are supposed to consider teachers as their mentors
and role models not someone they should be afraid of questioning or having a discussion with.
social Critical Theory:
Critical Theory (or "social Critical Theory") is a school of thought that stresses the reflective
assessment and critique of society and culture by applying knowledge from the social sciences
and the humanities. As a term, Critical Theory has two meanings with different origins and
histories: the first originated in sociology and the second originated in literary criticism, whereby
it is used and applied as an umbrella term that can describe a theory founded upon critique; thus,
the theorist Max Horkheimer described a theory as critical insofar as it seeks "to liberate human
beings from the circumstances that enslave them".
Neo-Marxist philosophy of the Frankfurt School:
In sociology and political philosophy, the term Critical Theory describes the neo-Marxist
philosophy of the Frankfurt School, which was developed in Germany in the 1930s. This use of
the term requires proper noun capitalization, whereas "a critical theory" or "a critical social
theory" may have similar elements of thought, but not stress its intellectual lineage specifically to
the Frankfurt School.
Frankfurt School theorists drew on the critical methods of Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud.
Critical Theory maintains that ideology is the principal obstacle to human liberation.
Old critical theory:
Critical Theory was established as a school of thought primarily by the Frankfurt School
theoreticians Herbert Marcuse, Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Walter Benjamin, and Erich
Fromm.
Modern Critical Theory:
Modern Critical Theory has additionally been influenced by György Lukács and Antonio
Gramsci, as well as the second-generation Frankfurt School scholars, notably Jürgen Habermas.

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In Habermas's work, Critical Theory transcended its theoretical roots in German idealism, and
progressed closer to American pragmatism. Concern for social "base and superstructure" is one
of the remaining Marxist philosophical concepts in much of contemporary Critical Theory.
Marxist intellectuals:
While critical theorists have been frequently defined as Marxist intellectuals, their tendency to
denounce some Marxist concepts and to combine Marxian analysis with other sociological and
philosophical traditions has resulted in accusations of revisionism by Classical, Orthodox, and
Analytical Marxists, and by Marxist-Leninist philosophers. Martin Jay has stated that the first
generation of Critical Theory is best understood as not promoting a specific philosophical agenda
or a specific ideology, but as "a gadfly of other systems".
CRITICAL THEORY AND EDUCATION:
Though relatively few educators--including educational technologists--appear to concern
themselves directly with critical theory (McLaren, 1994a), a number of influential educators are
pursuing the theory in one or more of its current manifestations.
Henry Giroux and Peter McLaren:
Henry Giroux and Peter McLaren are among the best known of today's critical theorists, and we
find critical theorists working across a spectrum of intellectual frames:
postmodernism (Peters, 1995) critical pedagogy (Kanpol, 1994) power (Apple, 1993; Cherry
Holmes, 1988) teaching (Beyer, 1986 Gibson, 1986) Henricksen & Morgan, 1990 Simon, 1992;
Weiler & Mitchell, 1992) curriculum (Apple, 1990; Giroux, Penna & Pinar, 1981; Beyer &
Apple, 1988; Pinar, 1988; Castenell & Pinar, 1993) feminist pedagogies (Ellsworth, 1989a;
Lather, 1991; Luke & Gore, 1992); teacher education (Sprague, 1992); mass
media/communications studies (Hardt, 1993); vocational-technical studies (Davis, 1991);
research summaries about critical theory (Ewert, 1991); and research using methods of the
critical sciences (Carr & Kemmis, 1986; Grumet, 1992).
Habermasian critical theory:
At least two publications attend in depth to Habermasian critical theory in education. Ewert
(1991) has written a comprehensive analysis of the relationships of Habermasian critical theory
to education, and in A Critical Theory of Education, Young (1990) tries to present a rather
complete picture of Habermas's critical theory and its relations to education. Young says that
critical theorists believe that extreme rationalization has lent itself to the further development of
an alienated culture of manipulation. In the science of education, this led to a view of pedagogy
as manipulation, while curriculum was divided into value-free subjects and value-based subjects
where values were located decisionistically. The older view of pedagogy as a moral/ethical and
practical art was abandoned.
Young (1990) further points out that Habermas and other critical theorists believe that:
We are on the threshold of a learning level characterized by the personal maturity of the
decentered ego and by open, reflexive communication which fosters democratic participation and
responsibility for all. We fall short of this because of the one-sided development of our rational
capacity for understanding.
Paulo Freire:
Another seminal thinker who is responsible for several notions of critical theory in education is
Paulo Freire. Freire's work, especially Pedagogy of the Oppressed (Freire, 1969), has been very
influential in critical-education circles:
Freire's project of democratic dialogue is attuned to the concrete operations of power (in and out
of the classroom) and grounded in the painful yet empowering process of conscientization. This
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process embraces a critical demystifying moment in which structures of domination are laid bare
and political engagement is imperative. This unique fusion of social theory, moral outrage, and
political praxis constitutes a kind of pedagogical politics of conversation in which objects of
history constitute themselves as active subjects of history* ready to make a fundamental
difference in the quality of the lives they individually and collectively live. Freire's genius is to
explicate ... and exemplify ... the dynamics of this process of how ordinary people can and do
make history in how they think, feel, act, and love (West, 1993, p. xiii).

Q.3 Enlist three strategies for developing critical thinking

in the classroom interaction. Explain which one is best and
why is it so?
COOPERATIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES:
Cooperative teaching and learning have been a popular area in educational circles for more than
a decade. This area gained its strength with the emergence of two major schools of thought one is
“Constructivism” and the other is “Connectivism”. Cooperative teaching is a successful strategy
in which small teams, each with students of different ability levels are made. They use a variety
of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject.
Cooperative teaching and learning is an approach to group work that minimizes the occurrence
of unpleasant experiences and maximizes the learning with a sense of achievement and
satisfaction that result from working with a high-performance team.
Student communication makes cooperative learning meaningful. To accomplish their group’s
task, students must exchange ideas, make plans, and propose solutions.
Cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small groups, with students of
different ability levels, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding.
Cooperative classroom activities result in students striving for mutual uplift so that all group
members:
• benefit from each other's efforts.
• recognize that all group members share a common goal.
• realize that one's performance is mutually caused by oneself and one's team
members.
• jointly celebrate when a group member is recognized for achievement.
Concept of Cooperative Learning:
Several definitions of cooperative learning have been given by various theorists. cooperative
learning is a process that involves students working in teams to accomplish a common goal,
under conditions that include the following elements:
Positive interdependence:
Team members are obliged to rely on one another to achieve the goal. If any team members fail
to do their part, everyone suffers consequences.

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Individual accountability:
All students in a group are held accountable for doing their share of the work and for mastery of
all of the material to be learned.
Face-to-face promotive interaction:
Although some of the group work may be parceled out and done individually, some must be
done interactively, with group members providing one another with feedback, challenging
reasoning and conclusions, and perhaps most importantly, teaching and encouraging one another.
Appropriate use of collaborative skills:
Students are encouraged and helped to develop and practice trust-building, communication, and
conflict management skills.
Group processing:
Team members set group tasks, periodically assess what they are doing well as a team, and
identify changes they will make to function more effectively in the future.
Cooperative learning by George (2000):
George (2000) defines cooperative learning as the process of obtaining knowledge in a socially
rich environment by one or two small groups of students.
Attributes:
Research has shown that cooperative learning techniques:
• promote student learning and academic achievement
• increase student retention
• enhance student satisfaction with their learning experience
• help students develop communication skills
• develop students' social skills
• promote student self-esteem
• help to promote critical thinking
Cooperative learning has shown to positively affect students' self-esteem and attitudes towards
school and classmates. It has been suggested that an improvement in students' positive behavior
will in turn increase motivation for academic achievement.
The purpose of cooperative learning:
There are basically four main reasons why Cooperative Learning is to be recommended.
1. Interaction brings multiple dimensions
Working in groups students can bring multidimensional thoughts and discussions over a single
subject. Such rich discussion and generation of knowledge is rarely possible when each learner
works in isolation. Cooperative learning enables them to ask questions from each other and bring
out what a teacher might not be able to even by asking random questions from a few members of
class.
2. Improved critical thinking
In a cooperative classroom where multiple and even opposite view points are received openly,
the learners learn to discuss and raise questions. They do not simply learn or memorize the
concepts rather they work together to understand, explore and reach a consensus or at least bring
all thoughts on one page. This asks for deeper and critical analysis of the subject.
Major Outcomes of Cooperative Learning
Learning
• increased academic learning
• increased critical thinking ability
• more time spent on learning tasks (less day dreaming)

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• increased student retention
• increased student motivation to learn
• enhanced student satisfaction with their learning experience
Social Development
• reduces disruptive behavior
• develops peer relationships
• promote student self-esteem
• students use appropriate social skills
• improved attitude towards school
Communication
• students learn to share information
• helps students to consider other people's point of view
• helps students develop skills in oral communication
Models of Cooperative Learning
Many teachers perceive that efforts to set up cooperative learning groups have a variety
of problems that range from student resistance to inappropriate assignments. It is useful to learn
how different classroom researchers helped to try a model that could provide organization and
guidance. The models listed below are only a few of many. These can be adapted in many ways
or a new model can be developed depending on the requirements of the classroom.
The Jigsaw Model:
In this model the student becomes a member of both a learning group and a research team. After
determining the learning group’s goal, the members join research teams to learn about a
particular piece of the learning puzzle. Each puzzle piece must be solved to form a complete
picture.
Group Investigation:
It is more student directed in its approach. After the teacher presents an introduction to the unit,
the students discuss what they have learned and outline possible topics for further examination.
From this list of student-generated topics, each learning group chooses one and determines
subtopics for each group member or team.
Numbered Heads Together:
It is a way of reviewing information that has been previously presented through direct instruction
or text. Numerous simple models enhance questioning, discussion, and class presentations by
structuring the activity in a cooperative format.
Think-Pair-Share:
To encourage responses from all students. Students pair with a partner to share their responses to
a question. Students are then invited to share their responses with the whole class. There are a
variety of ways to share, including Stand Up and Share-everyone stands up and as each student
responds he or she sits down. Anyone with a similar response also sits down. Continue until
everyone is seated. Or do a “quick whip” through the class in which students respond quickly
one right after another.
Role of the teacher in cooperative learning:
A cooperative learning classroom brings additional responsibilities to the teachers and the
role of teacher is enriched even more. The role of teacher includes but is not limited to
• Specify academic objectives
• Specify collaborative skills
• Decide on group size

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• Assign students to groups
• Arrange the room
• Plan materials
• Assign roles to students (reader, recorder, calculator, checker, reporter, materials
handler etc.)
• Explain the task (explain procedures, give examples, asks questions to check task is
understood by all)
• Test and question individual children (to promote individual accountability)
• Promote inter group co-operation (have groups check with each other and help each
other)
• Monitor students' behavior (while students are working, circulate to see whether
they understand the assignment and the material, give immediate feedback)
• Praise good use of group skills
• Provide assistance on understanding a task
• Provide assistance on how the group can work together more effectively
• Reflect regularly to improve cooperative learning and teaching strategies
Meyers and Jones (1993) define active
learning as anything that “provides opportunities for students to talk and listen, read,
write”.
Dialogue:
Dialogue in a classroom is of two major kinds i.e., discussion and debate.
Formal debate:
In formal debating contest, there are rules for participants to discuss and share differences, within
a framework defining how they will interact.
Informal debate:
Informal dialogue discourse is relatively common. The quality and depth of a debate improves
with the knowledge and skills of its participants as debaters.

Q.4 Critically analyze the relationship between teachers’ classroom

questioning behaviors and a variety of students’ outcomes, including
achievement, retention and level of participation.
Fond memories of teachers:
Most of us have fond memories of teachers who were kind and supportive. They made us feel
valued and learning was fun. And, some of us painfully remember a teacher who was unkind and
made us feel unvalued and disengaged.
communication dynamics:
This study explores the communication dynamics between a third-grade teacher and her students,
and it describes how some students experienced privilege while others were disrespected or
ignored by the teacher.
Known as microaggressions, acts of disrespect and neglect can explain why some students fail to
thrive at school.
disrespectful behavior:
Earlier research has shown that disrespectful behavior that remains unresolved poses a barrier for
building healthy relationship; this study indicated a similar dynamic for teacher-student
relationships.

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Microaggressions:
By recognizing how microaggressions occur, teacher can potentially avoid them and know what
to do when they occur. Teachers play various roles in a typical classroom, but surely one of the
most important is that of classroom manager.
Poorly managed classroom:
Effective teaching and learning cannot take place in a poorly managed classroom. If students are
disorderly and disrespectful, and no apparent rules and procedures guide behavior, chaos
becomes the norm. In these situations, both teachers and students suffer. Teachers struggle to
teach, and students most likely learn much less than they should.
Well-managed classrooms:
In contrast, well-managed classrooms provide an environment in which teaching and learning
can flourish.
Efforts for a well-managed classroom:
But a well-managed classroom does not just appear out of nowhere. It takes a good deal of effort
to create and the person who is most responsible for creating it is the teacher.
We live in an era when research tells us that the teacher is probably the single most important
factor affecting student’s achievement- at least the single most important factor that we can do
much about.
Study of S. Paul Wright, Sandra Horn, and William Sanders (1997):
To illustrate, as a result of their study involving some 60,000 students, S. Paul Wright, Sandra
Horn, and William Sanders (1997) note the following:
Result:
The results of this study will document that the most important factor affecting students learning
is the teacher. In addition, the results show wide variation in effectiveness among teachers. The
immediate and clear implication of this finding is that seemingly more can be done to improve
education by improving the effectiveness of the teachers than by any other single factor.
Effective teachers:
Effective teachers appear to be effective with students of all achievement levels regardless of the
levels of heterogeneity in their classes.
Ineffective teacher:
If the teacher is ineffective, students under that teacher’s tutelage will achieve inadequate
progress academically, regardless of how similar or different they are regarding their academic
achievement.
Questioning patterns and behaviors:
This study on the questioning patterns and behaviors of prospective teachers is a follow-up on
previous research, which explored teachers’ approach to questioning in the primary and
secondary classroom.
Factual questioning:
Finding of that study suggested that many teachers actually believed that they were asking
divergent questions when in fact most of the time was spent on procedural, factual questions that
did little to stimulate critical thinking and lively classroom discussion. The study concluded with
the assumption that many practicing teachers may not be trained specifically in the art of
effective questioning.
current study:

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This current study investigates the possible outcome of prospective teachers’ questioning
behaviors and patterns when appropriate scaffolding is applied in a teacher education setting.
While post-lesson conferencing provides an opportunity to address gaps in student questioning
skills and teaching in general, not much is done to incorporate direct instruction as another form
of scaffolding during practicum.
instructional video:
Supported by recent research and scholarship, this study explores the use of instructional video
as a tool for strengthening teacher questioning skills during a three-week practicum exercise.
Learning outcomes:
Learning outcomes should be specific and well defined. When developing a list of students
learning outcomes, it is important that statements be specific and well defined.
Outcomes:
Outcomes should explain in clear and concise terms the specific skills students should be able to
demonstrate, produce, and known as a result of the program’s curriculum.
They should also exclude the greatest number of possible alternatives so that they can be
measured.

Example:
For example, the learning outcome “Students completing the BS in chemistry should be well
practiced in the relative skills of the field” is too vague.
In this example, we do not know what the relevant skills of the field of chemistry include. This
will create problems in measuring the behavior of interest and drawing valid conclusions about
the program’s success.
Realistic:
Learning outcomes should be realistic. It is important to make sure that the outcomes are
attainable. Outcomes need to be reviewed in the lights of students’ ability, developmental levels,
their initial skill sets, and the time available to attain these skill sets (i. e, 4 years). They should
also be in line with what is being taught.
rely on active verbs:
Learning outcomes should rely on active verbs in the future tense. It is important that outcomes
be stated in the future tense in terms of what students should be able to do as a result of
instruction.
Example:
For example, the learning outcome “students have demonstrated proficiency in…” is stated in
terms of students’ actual performance instead of what they will be able to accomplish upon
completion of the program.
active and observable:
Learning outcomes should be active and observable so that they can be measured.
Example:
For example, outcomes like “Students will develop an appreciation of, and will be exposed to…”
are latent terms that will be difficult to quantify.

Q.5 Write a diary of a shopping day. Write down a detailed reflection of

that day using guidelines of reflective writing.
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Diary:
Today I went shopping with my sister. We wanted to buy some clothes for us. We left the house
at 2pm. We went to a mall for shopping. When I was in the tops section, I was pulled by
someone by my hand. I was shocked and turned back suddenly. To my surprise, it was my very
old and best friend fareeha whom I lost due to certain circumstances. We both shared our
happiness by hugging each other. Today it was a remarkable day in my life as I met her. We
shared each other's contact numbers and renewed our lost gift of God which is called
"FRIENDSHIP". Then we three went to the food court area and ordered some snacks for us. We
happily ate our food and catchup on with each other’s life. It was getting late; we said our
goodbyes. Then me and my sister left for home with all the shopping bags and happy smiles on
our faces.
REFLECTIVE WRITING
Reflection:
Reflection is a form of personal response to experiences, situations, events or new information. It
is a 'processing' phase where thinking and learning take place. There is neither a right nor a
wrong way of reflective thinking; there are just questions to explore.
Opportunity to consider:
Reflection offers you the opportunity to consider how your personal experiences and
observations shape your thinking and your acceptance of new ideas.

improve your analytical skills:

Reflective writing can help you to improve your analytical skills because it requires you to
express what you think, and more significantly, how and why you think that way. In addition,
reflective analysis asks you to acknowledge that your thoughts are shaped by your assumptions
and preconceived ideas; in doing so, you can appreciate the ideas of others, notice how their
assumptions and preconceived ideas may have shaped their thoughts, and perhaps recognize how
your ideas support or oppose what you read.
definition of reflection offered by Moon (1999):
One tentative definition of reflection is offered by Moon (1999):
‘a form of mental processing with a purpose and/or anticipated outcome
that is applied to relatively complex or unstructured ideas for which there is
not an obvious solution’.
Purpose of Reflection:
We reflect in order to:
• Consider the process of our own learning – a process of metacognition
• Critically review something - our own behavior, that of others or the product of
behavior (e.g., an essay, book, painting etc.)
• Build theory from observations: we draw theory from generalizations - sometimes
in practical situations, sometimes in thoughts or a mixture of the two.
• Engage in personal or self-development
• Make decisions or resolve uncertainty
Reflective writing:
Reflective writing is not just conveying information, instruction or argument. It is not pure
description, though there may be descriptive elements. It does not include straight forward

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decision or judgment (e.g., whether something is right or wrong, good or bad). It is neither a
summary of course notes nor a standard essay.
Thinking reflectively:
Thinking reflectively involves: 
1. Thinking about what was done. Analyze the event by thinking in depth from different
perspectives. Use subject theory, reflective models and personal insight. The critical
evaluation you make of your and others’ actions should be applied to future events.
2. Thinking about what happened, what did and didn’t work, and what you think
about it.
3. Critically evaluating what you would do differently in the future and explain why.
Types of Reflective Writing:
There is no one set for reflective writing. It may take the form of several types. Some examples
might include:
 Learning Logs/Journals
Learning logs/journals can be used in different ways. Sometimes they may be a formal part of
reflective writing, or sometimes they may form the basis of a later reflective assignment. The
aim of a learning log/journal is partly to reflect on events and your actions as they happen, but
also to chart your development as you learn.
 Presentations
A presentation is much more conversational, and sometimes interactive, than an essay or a
learning log, it might be tempting to make this more about illustrating what you have done to
your audience, rather than reflecting upon it.

 Reflective Essays
Theoretically, this is probably the type of reflective writing that you are most used to. Much of
what is expected of you in a normal academic essay is still expected of you in a reflective essay.
You will still be expected to analyze what you are saying, reference any sources that you have
used (and you should use sources) and have a clear structure to the essay. Thinking about what
you want to include in the essay, and how you will structure it, is often key to getting the
reflection right. Think about all of the incidents or events that have most contributed to your
learning.
The format:
In a reflective essay, a writer primarily examines his or her life experiences, hence the term
‘reflective’. The purpose of writing a reflective essay is to provide a platform for the author to
not only recount a particular life experience, but to also explore how he or she has changed or
learned from those experiences. Reflective writing can be presented in various formats, but
you’ll most often see it in a learning log format or diary entry. Diary entries in particular are used
to convey how the author’s thoughts have developed and evolved over the course of a particular
period.
The format of a reflective essay may change depending on the target audience. Reflective essays
can be academic, or may feature more broadly as a part of a general piece of writing for a
magazine, for instance. For class assignments, while the presentation format can vary, the
purpose generally remains the same: tutors aim to inspire students to think deeply and critically
about a particular learning experience or set of experiences.
Typical examples of reflective essay formats:

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A focus on personal growth:
A type of reflective essay often used by tutors as a strategy for helping students to learn how to
analyze their personal life experiences to promote emotional growth and development. The essay
gives the student a better understanding of both themselves and their behaviors.
A focus on the literature:
This kind of essay requires students to provide a summary of the literature, after which it is
applied to the student’s own life experiences.
Reflective writing structure:
Non-academic reflective writing is usually unstructured – such as writing in a personal diary,
learning journal, or narrative for design development. You should structure your reflective
assignments.
major components:
Reflection usually has the following major components:
 Introduction: the event, incident or topic
 Description and problematization of the event
 Cause and effect of the critical event — don't write too much description at this stage
 Explain and critique what happened, what are you trying to resolve here, what you have
learnt and how you would move forwards
Practicing Reflective Writing:
Reflective writing involves a process of self-assessment that can be meaningful and memorable
whether it is associated with classroom projects, portfolio reflections, and assessment activities,
in journals about field or lab experiences, and much more.
While practicing reflective writing:
• Be aware of the purpose of your reflective writing and state if it is appropriate
• Reflective writing requires practice and constant standing back from oneself.
• Practice reflecting writing on the same event /incident through different people’s
viewpoints and disciplines.
• Deepen your reflection / reflective writing with the help of others through
discussing issues with individuals and groups, getting the points of others.
• Always reflect on what you have learnt from an incident, and how you would do
something differently another time.
• Try to develop your reflective writing to include the ethical, moral, historical and
socio-political contexts where these are relevant.
CONCLUSION:
In short, the reflective writing process begins with writing what you already know, or
believe, about an incident, topic or problem and then increasingly questioning the
substance and meaning of what you wrote in relation to other events, resources, practices
and environments.

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