EFC101f

act
sandf
igur
e
Cul
l
edbySOPHI
ST@EDGEI
nsi
ghtTut
ors

EFC101
I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOEDUCATI
ONAL
FOUNDATI
ONS
EDGEI
NSI
GHTTUTORS

Focusing on the

background, waxing the wall stronger….

1
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ourgr
aphicswork,
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act
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ghtTut
ors

I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOHI
STORYOFEDUCATI
ON
Hi
storycoul
dbesai dt
obethest
udyofthepastwit
hcr
it
ical
anal
ysi
sandknowl
edge
t
hatthepresentcanof
ferwi
thabi
asforthef
uture.

Hist
oryhastodowi
threcording,anal
yzi
ngandcar
eful
l
ycor
rel
ati
ngpastev
ent
sand
part
icul
arl
yhumanr
ecords.Itisdivi
dedi
nto;

Anci
enthi
stor
yist
heper
iodoft
heear
li
estwr
it
tenr
ecor
dtot
hef
all
ofRomei
nA.
D476.

Medi
eval
hist
orycov
erst
heper
iodcal
l
ed‘
middl
eage’
upt
oaboutl
ate1400.

Modernhist
oryr
efer
stotheperi
odofsci
ent
istdi
scov
eri
esupt
othepr
esentdayof
computer
izi
ngandglobal
i
zat
ion.

Sour
cesofHi
stor
yar
e;

Pr
imar
ysourcesref
ert
oinf
ormat
ionrecor
dedorsuppl
iedbythepar
ti
cipantoranactual
ey
ewit
ness.Itcoul
dbewri
tt
enororal
.Theyar
eclassi
fi
edint
odocumentsorremains.

Documentsarenewspapers,peri
odical
s,magazi
nes,di
ari
es,
minut
es,
voucher
s,pr
ivat
e
l
ett
er,pr
oceedi
ngs,bi
ll
s,consti
tuti
onsandchroni
cles.

Remains/archeol
ogi
calmater
ial
sar
eschoolbui
l
dings,equi
pments,phot
ographs,
text
books,examinat
ionscr
ipt
s,wor
kbooks,
oldmaps,notebooksandwrit
ingmateri
als.

Secondar
ysourcesi
ncl
udealli
nfor
mat i
onordatar
ecor
dedorrepor
tedbysomeone
whoobtai
nedthem i
ndi
rect
ly,
especial
l
yf r
om t
hepri
marysour
ce.

Educaton(
i PLATO)ist
heonethatconsi
stsi
nprovi
dingf
ort
hebodyandsoul
all
the
beautyandperf
ect
ionofwhi
chtheyarecapabl
e.

Educat
ion(
Her
ber
tSpencer
)isseenashav
ingf
ori
tsobj
ectt
hef
ormat
ionofchar
act
er.

Educat
ion(R.
S.Pet
er1973)i
sdef
inedasaprocessofsoci
ali
zat
ion,
encul
tur
ati
onand
tr
ansmissi
onofwhati
swor t
hwhi
l
et ot
hosewhoar ecommitt
edtoit,
betheychi
ldr
enor
adul
ts.

2
Fory
ourgr
aphicswork,
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act
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ST@EDGEI
nsi
ghtTut
ors

Education(SOPHI ST2018)isdef i
nedasthet r
ansmissionofknowledge,ski
ll
s,at
ti
tudes,
andv al
uesofapar t
icul
arsocietyorr
egionfrom generati
onstogenerat
ionsinorder
equippedindi
vidualsforthepositi
vecontr
ibuti
ontothemselvesandt hegrowthand
developmentoft hesocietyorregi
on.

Ingeneral,educati
oncanbedef i
nedast hetransferofknowledge,skil
l
s,andvaluesof
theentir
ehumansoci et
yf r
om generati
onstogener at
ionsinordertopreparet
he
i
ndividual
sf orthei
rposi
tivecontr
ibuti
onstothemsel vesandtheirsoci
etyandtohelp
theindivi
dualattai
nthedev el
opmentofhispot enti
ali
ti
esandal sotoachiev
ehisideal
self
-ful
fi
ll
menti nthesocietyofwhichheisapar t.

Educati
onismoret
hanschool
i
ng,l
i
ter
acyort
rai
ning.Educat
iont
akesal
i
fet
ime
whereasschool
i
ngort
rai
ningi
sonl
yforal
imi
tedtime.

Hist
oryofeducat
ioni
sthest
udyandr
ecor
dsofdev
elopmentofeducat
ionov
ert
he
year
s.

Hi
stor
yofeducat
ioni
sther
ecor
doraccountofpastandear
li
erev
ent
sineducat
ion.

Inf
ormal educati
onref
erst
oeducati
onthattakesplacei
npedagogicall
yunor
gani
zed
sett
ings;charact
eri
zedbyunst
ruct
uredl
earning.Thi
scouldberegardedasmoder
n
homet rai
ning.

Formaleducati
onreferstot heorgani
zed,
str
uct
uredandv i
siblysyst
emat i
zedlear
ning
taki
ngplaceinphysical
lyidenti
fi
ablepl
aces,
wit
hinthesoci
et yinset
tingsli
keschools,
i
nsti
tut
es, uni
ver
sit
ies,churchesandmosques.

Non-
formal
educati
oncover
slear
ningandi
nstr
ucti
ons,
taki
ngpl
acei
nsi
tuat
ionl
i
ket
he
mechani
cworkshopwit
houtastr
uctur
edcur
ri
culum.

Indi
genous/
tradit
ionalsyst
em ofeducati
oni
sthesystem t
hroughwhichthesociet
y
passedit
sattit
udes,beli
efs,mor
als,cust
oms,t
radi
ti
onsetcfrom onegenerat
ionto
another
.

Tr
adit
ionaleducat
ioncur
ri
culum consi
stsmainl
yoft
hel
ear
ningoff
unct
ional
ski
l
lsand
moral
s.Learni
ngwasdonet hroughoralwor
kandmemori
zati
on.

Faf
unwa(
1974)i
dent
if
ied7car
dinal
goal
sofeducat
ion.

Themet
hodsoft
eachi
ngi
ntr
adi
ti
onaleducat
ioni
ncl
ude;
Demonst
rat
ion,
cer
emoni
es

3
Fory
ourgr
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andfest
ival
s,r
eci
tati
on,taboos,
pract
icalar
ts,
imi
tat
ion,
recr
eat
ionalar
ts,
stor
ytel
l
ing,
prov
erbsandsuperst
iti
ons.

I
slami
ceducati
onwasbr
oughtt
oHausal
andi
nNi
ger
iai
ntheear
ly14thcent
urybyt
he
Wangar
atrader
s.

TheIsl
amiceducat
ioncompr
isest
heQur
ani
cschool
s,t
heI
lmi
andt
heMadr
asa
school
s.

Thet
eacher
sint
heQur
ani
cschool
sar
ecal
l
edMal
l
ams

I
slamiceducat
ioni
ntr
oducedsomeArabi
cwor dsi
ntoNigeri
alanguages.Exampl
esar
e
Al
afiah[
goodhealt
h],
Barka[
congr
atul
ati
ons]andShar
ia[punishment]
.

El
l
iotcommi
ssi
onwasest
abl
i
shedi
nJune1943wi
th13member
sledbySi
rWal
ter
El
l
iot
.

Thecommi ssi
oni
ncludesthree(3)membersfr
om theWestAfr
icancol
onies;Rever
end
I.
O.RansomeKuti(
Nigeri
a),K.A.Kor
sah(GoldCoast–Ghana)andE.H.Taylor(
Sier
ra
Leone)
.

Twor
epor
ts(
maj
ori
tyandmi
nor
it
y)wer
esubmi
tt
edbyt
hecommi
ssi
on.

Themajori
tyrepor
trecommendedt
heest
abl
i
shmentandupgr
adi
ngoft
hreehi
gher
i
nsti
tut
ionsinWestAfri
ca

Themi
nor
it
yrepor
trecommendedonl
yone.

TheBrit
ishparl
iamentacceptedthemajor
it
yreportandest
abl
i
shedt
heuni
ver
sit
y
col
legeatIbadan,af
fi
li
atedtotheUniv
ersi
tyofLondon.

Asqui
thcommi
ssi
onwasest
abl
i
shedi
nAugust1943t
ocompl
i
mentt
heef
for
toft
he
El
l
iotcommi
ssi
on.

I
tconsi
stsof11member
s,l
edbyMr
.Just
iceCy
ril
Asqui
th.

Thetwocommi ssi
on(El
liotandAsqui
th)r
epor
tedt her
ecommendat
ionoft
he
th
est
abli
shmentofUniv
ersityCol
legeI
badanon17 Nov ember1948wit
hthr
eefacul
ti
es;
Art
s,Sci
enceandMedicine.

Ashbycommi
ssi
onwassetupi
n1959,
andwasl
ateradopt
edi
n1960.

4
Fory
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ors

Phel
ps-
stokescommi
ssi
onwasest
abl
i
shedi
n1911

I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOPHI
LOSOPHYOFEDUCATI
ON
Phil
osophyisderi
vedfr
om thet
woGr ds‘
eekwor phi
l
a‘and‘
sophi
a’
.Al
aymanal
so
rel
atesphi
losophywit
hwisdom.

Phi
l
osophycanbedescr
ibedpr
ofessi
onal
l
yas;

 Theor
eti
cal
ori
ent
ati
ont
oissuesorpr
obl
ems

 Syst
emat i
cmet hodoft
hinki
ngabouti
ssuesconcer
ningl
i
fe,
man,
real
i
ty,
knowledge,v
aluesandsoon

 Cr
it
ical
ref
lect
ion

 Pr
ocessofaski
ngr
efl
ect
ivequest
ions

 Rat
ional
inv
est
igat
ionoranal
ysi
sofi
ssues

 Sy
stemat
icandconsi
stenceuseofl
ogi
cal
thi
nki
ng.

Phi
l
osophycanbeappl
i
edi
nthr
eemet
hods,
theyar
e;

1.SPECULATI
VEPHILOSOPHY: iti
sawayofthi
nkingsyst
ematical
l
yabout
ever
ythi
ngt
hatexi
sts.I
tinv
olv
esaski
ngref
lect
ivequest
ionsaboutev
ery
thi
ng.

2.PRESCRI
PTIVEPHILOSOPHY: i
tseekst
oest
abl
i
shst
andar
dsornor
msbywhi
ch
thi
ngsar
ejudgedorappr
aised.

3.ANALYTI
CPHILOSOPHY:i
tfocusesonwor dsandmeaning.I
tseekscl
ari
ficat
ion
oft
hemeani
ngofwordsemployedinspeculat
iveandpr
escri
pti
vephil
osophy.

Phi
l
osophyofeducat
ioncanbedescr
ibedt
echni
cal
l
yas;

 Appl
i
edbr
anchofphi
l
osophyt
hatr
elat
est
oeducat
ion;

 Appl
i
cat
ionofphi
l
osophyt
oeducat
ion;

 Theuseofmet
hodort
ool
sofphi
l
osophyt
oinv
est
igat
epr
obl
em andi
ssuesi
n

5
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ourgr
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educat
ion;

 Deduct
ionofeducat
ioni
mpl
i
cat
ionf
rom sy
stemat
icphi
l
osophy
.

 Rat
ional
inv
est
igat
eofi
ssuesandpr
obl
emsi
neducat
ion

 Cr
it
ical
anal
ysi
sofeducat
ioni
ssues

 Examinati
onoftherel
evanceoftheideasofphi
losopher
s’educat
orand
phil
osophi
calschool
softhoughttoeducati
on.

Phil
osophyofeducati
oncanbedescr
ibedastheappl
icati
onofphil
osophicalmet
hods,
processesandout
lookst
oeducati
onali
ssuesandprocesses.I
tisahybri
dt y
peof
appli
edphil
osophy.

Thecomponent
sofphi
l
osophy
/phi
l
osophyofeducat
ion;

 Metaphysi
csisderi
vedfrom Gr
eekword‘
taMet
aphy si
cal
’whichmeans‘t
hings
beyondthephysi
cal’
,i
tcanbedescri
bedast
hetheor
yofulti
matereal
i
ty,
theory
ofbeyondnessortr
anscendent
ali
sm.

 Epi
stemologycanbedescr
ibedasthetheor
yofknowl edge;i
tdeal
switht
he
nat
ure,t
ype,or
igi
nandvali
dit
yofhumanknowl edge,etc.i
tcanbeseenasabil
it
y
tor
ecognizewhatonehascomeacr ossbef
ore;arepit
ionofcogni
ti
veawareness.

 Axiol
ogyisderi
vedfrom t
heGreekwor
ds‘axias’
and‘
l
ogo’meaning‘theor
yof
val
uesorwor t
h’.I
tcanbedescri
bedasthetheor
yofval
ues.Axi
ologyisdon
undertwocategori
es,t
heyar
e;

Et
hicscanbedescr
ibedast
het
heor
yofmor
alv
alues.

Aest
het
icist
hetheor
yofv al
uesi
nrel
ati
ont
obeaut
y.Thati
s,t
hest
andar
dofj
udgi
ngar
t
andi
tseff
ecti
ntheenvi
ronment.

 Logici
sderi
vedfrom t
heGreekword‘l
ogi
kos’whi
chmeans‘
reasoni
ng’
;i
tcanbe
descri
bedasthepri
nci
pleofcor
rectr
easoni
ngandval
i
dargument.

Logi
cal
argument
scoul
dbe;

Deduct
ivel
ogi
cist
hemet
hodofmaki
ngspeci
fi
cconcl
usi
onf
rom gener
alsi
tuat
ion.

6
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ourgr
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ors

I
nduct
ivel
ogi
cist
hemet
hodofmaki
nggener
alconcl
usi
onf
rom par
ti
cul
arsi
tuat
ions.

Di
alect
icl
ogi
cisawayofr
econci
l
ingt
wocont
radi
ctor
yfact
ual
stsement
s.

Thesour
cesofknowl
edgear
e

 Int
uit
ive/i
nsi
ghtknowledgecomesintoone’smindinaf l
ashorsuddenl
yaft
era
l
ongpr ocessofunconsci
ousnesssearchi
ngfrom t
herighti
nfor
mat i
onor
solut
iontoaproblem.Iti
sref
erredt
oas‘ ah-
ahknowledge’.

 Revelat
ionknowledgecanbesimplydescr
ibedasknowl
edger ev
ealedor
di
sclosedtoonebyspiritofwhat
everonebeli
evesi
n.i
tisacquir
ethroughv
isi
on,
tr
ancemedi t
ati
onordreams.

 Aut
hor
itat
iveknowl
edgeisthetypeofknowl
edgeobt
ainedf
rom exper
ts.Thati
s,
aut
hor
it
iesofapart
icul
arfi
eld.

 Empi r
ical
knowledgei
sbasedont
hesenses;
byseei
ng,
smel
l
ing,
feel
i
ng,
touchingandheari
ng.

 Rationalorl
ogi
calknowl
edgei
sbasedonl
ogical
reasoni
ng.I
tisbyabst
ract
reasoningal
oneandnotonexper
iment
sorobser
vati
ons.

 Pragmati
cknowledgeisclosetoempiri
calknowl
edge.I
tisnotonl
ybasedont
he
sensesbutemphasizesexperi
mentat
ion.

I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOSOCI
OLOGYOFEDUCATI
ON
Soci
ologyi
sthesci
ent
if
icst
udyofhumansoci
all
i
fe,
groupsandsoci
eti
es.

Soci
ologyi
sthey
oungestofsoci
alsci
ences.I
tispopul
arl
yknownas“
sci
enceof
soci
ety”
.

Soci
ologyori
ginat
edi
nthe19thcent
uryandwascoinedbyaFr
enchmancal led,
AugustusComt ei
n1838whoisregardedandknownasthef
atherofsoci
ology.

Soci
ologywascoinedf
rom Lati
nandGreekwords,Soci
usi
nLatinwor
dmeanssoci
ety
,
andl
ogystandsforsci
ence,soci
ologyi
mpl
y‘sci
enceofsoci
ety
’.

AugustusComteinhi
swor ksuggest
edt
hef
oll
owi
ngt
hreest
agesofhumani
ntel
l
ect
ual
devel
opmentinsoci
ology
,theyare;

7
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ors

 Theol
ogi
cal
stage

 Themet
aphy
sical
orabst
ractst
age

 Theposi
ti
vi
sti
corsci
ent
if
icst
ages

Sociol
ogyofeducati
oncanbedefi
nedast hestudyofeducat
ional
str
uict
ures,
processes,
andpract
icesf
rom asoci
ologi
calperspect
ive.

Soci
ologyofeducat
ioncanal
sobedef
inedastheappl
i
cat
ionoft
hegener
alpr
inci
ples
andfi
ndingsofsoci
ologyt
othef
iel
dofeducat
ion.

Values:i
tist
hebeli
efthatsomet
hingi
sgood,desi
rabl
e,i
mpor t
ant,
andworthstri
vi
ng
for
.Itist
heideaspeopleshar
eaboutwhati
sgood,bad,desi
rabl
e,andundesi
rabl
e.

Nor
ms:
concept
sandbehav
ior
sthatconst
it
utet
henor
mal

Stat
us: soci
all
ydefi
nedposit
ionofi
ndi
vidual
sint
hesoci
ety(
student
,pr
ofessor
,
governor,vi
ce-
chancel
lor
,andadmini
str
ator)
.

Thet
wot
ypesofst
atusar
e;

I
nher
it
edst
atus:
e.g.APr
incewhol
aterbecameaki
ng

Achi
evedst
atus:
e.g.aMedi
cal
Doct
or

Rol
e:everyst
atuscar
ri
esaclust
erofexecrat
edbehavi
ors;
howthepersoni
nthatst
atus
i
sexpectedtothi
nk,f
eel
,aswellasexpect
ati
onsabouthowtheyshoul
dbetr
eatedby
ot
hers.

Soci
alacti
on:i
tisor
ient
edt
owar
dot
her
s.Thesecanbepast
,pr
esent
,orf
utur
e,known
orunknown.

Conf
ormi
ty:
impl
i
esbehav
ingi
naccor
dancewi
thnor
ms.

Soci
ali
nter
act
ion:
itr
efer
stoway
sinwhi
chpeopl
erespondt
ooneanot
her
.

Gl
obal
i
zati
on:i
tref
erstoi
ncr
easi
ngi
nter
connect
ednessofal
lsoci
eti
es;
thati
smaki
ng
t
heworl
daglobalvi
ll
age.

Anomie:i
tischar
act
eri
zedbyt
hebr
eakdownofnor
msgov
erni
ngsoci
ali
nter
act
ioni
n
thesoci
ety
.

8
Fory
ourgr
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ST@EDGEI
nsi
ghtTut
ors

Social
izati
onistheprocessoftransmi
tti
ngt
hecult
ural
her
it
agesoft
hepart
icul
ar
societ
y,wherebytheiryoungoneslear
nthei
rrul
es,
cust
oms,bel
i
efs,
val
ues,
norms,and
otherpracti
cesoftheirsoci
algr
oup.

Soci
ali
zat
ionst
art
sfr
om bi
rt
hthr
oughadul
thood.I
tisal
i
fet
imeandady
nami
cpr
ocess.

I
nfor
mal social
izati
onisthet
ypeofsoci
ali
zati
onthati
nvol
vestheacti
vi
ti
esofthefamil
y.
E.
g.,
parentteachingthei
rchi
ldr
enhometraini
ng,
howt oeat,
sit
,tal
k,wal
k,andother
waysofli
fe.

For
mal soci
ali
zati
onisthetypeofsoci
ali
zati
onthatinv
olv
est
heact
ivi
ti
esoft
heschool
.
Theschoolservesasthebaseorbackgroundforfor
mal.

Agentsofsocial
izat
ioninclude;t
hefamil
y,t
heschool,
peergr
oup,
cul
tur
alassoci
ati
ons,
fest
ival
s,r
eli
giousorganizati
ons,andt
hemassmedi a.

I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOPSYCHOLOGYOFEDUCATI
ON
Theword‘psychol
ogy’comesf
rom t eekwor
heGr ds‘
psy
che’
(br
eat
h,spi
ri
t,orsoul
),and
‘
logi
a’(
thestudyof….
).

Psy
chol
ogyi
sthest
udyoft
hebr
eat
h,spi
ri
t,orsoul
.

Psychologyhasbeenpercei
vedast
heprofessi
on(cli
nical
psychology
),Schol
arl
y
di
scipl
ine(academicpsy
chology
)andsci
ence(resear
chpsy chol
ogy)

Psychol
ogyist
hesci
enceandprof
essi
onwhichisconcer
nedpr
imar
il
ywi
tht
he
underst
andi
ngofhumanbehav
ior,
mental
processandemoti
ons.

Psy
chol
ogyi
sthesci
enceoft
hei
ntel
l
ect
s,char
act
ersandbehav
iorofani
mal
sincl
udi
ng
man.

Psychol
ogyofeducati
onistheappl
i
cat
ionofpsy
chol
ogi
cal
findi
ngsandpr
inci
plest
o
educati
onal
issuesorprobl
ems.

Psychol
ogyofeducati
onf ocusesonlear
ningmethodsasstr
uctur
edori
mpar
ted
accordi
ngt
opsy chol
ogicalandindi
vi
dualneedsofthest
udents.

Pur
epsy
chol
ogyr
efer
redt
othenat
ural
sci
encer
elat
edar
easi
npsy
chol
ogy
.Iti
sdi
vi
ded

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ors

i
ntosixmainbr
anches;
Experi
mentalpsychol
ogy,
abnormal psychology
,social
psychol
ogy
,devel
opmental
psychol
ogy,comparat
ivepsychology,andpsychologi
cal
psychol
ogy
.

Appli
edpsychologyi
sconcer
nedwi
thsol
vi
ngpracti
cal
probl
emsr el
atedt
ohuman
behavi
orbyusingthefi
ndi
ngsandmet
hodsofpsychol
ogi
calsci
ence.

Abnor
mal
psy
chol
ogyorpsy
chopat
hol
ogyf
ocusesont
hest
udyofabnor
mal
behav
ior
.

Ani
mal
psy
chol
olgyst
udi
eshowani
mal
respondt
ost
imul
usi
nat
ri
alander
rorpr
ocess.

Biol
ogical
psy
chol
ogyi
sthesci
ent
if
icst
udyofbi
ologi
cal
basi
sofbehav
iorandment
al
condit
ion.

Cli
nical
psychol
ogyisthest
udyandappl icat
ionofpsychol
ogytounderst
andi
ng,
prevent
ing,
andrel
iev
ingpsychol
ogical
lybaseddistr
essordy sf
unct
ionandpr
omote
subj
ectivewel
lbei
ngandpersonaldevelopmentoftheindi
vidual
.

Chi
ldpsychol
ogyst
udiesthechi
l
d’sgrowthanddevel
opment.Thisinv
olvedt
hest
ages
oft
heirsoci
al,
emoti
onal,
mentalandphysi
caldev
elopment
al pr
ogress.

Cogni
ti
vepsychologyist
hest
udyofcogni
ti
onort
hement
alpr
ocessesbr
ingabout
behav
iorpsy
chologist
.

Car
eercounsel
li
ngi
sanotheraspectofpsy
chol
ogycl
osel
yrel
atedt
o
i
ndust
ri
al/
organi
zat
ional
psychol
ogy.

Devel
opmental
psychol
ogyDevel
opment
alpsy
chologi
stsconcent
rateonthegr
owt
h
anddevel
opmentofthehumanmindi
nit
senti
reexist
encethati
sfrom cr
adlet
ogr
ave.

Educati
onalpsy
chologyi
sdevotedtot
hestudyofhowhumansl ear
nineducati
onal
set
tings,
especi
all
yschool
s,andtheef
fect
ivenessofeducat
ionali
nter
vent
ions.

Forensi
c/LegalPsychol
ogyForensicpsychol
ogyandl
egal
psychol
ogyaret
hearea
concernedwiththeappli
cat
ionalofpsychol
ogical
met
hodsandpri
nci
plest
olegal
questi
onsandi ssues.

Heal
thpsychol
ogyconcer
nsi
tsel
fwi
thunder
standinghowbi
ology,behavi
or,andsoci
al
cont
exti
nfl
uenceheal
thandr
elat
edi
ssuesli
keil
lnessanddi
ff
erencediseasesorman.

I
ndust
ri
alandor
gani
ti
onal
psy
chol
ogyf
ocusest
ovar
yingdegr
eesont
hepsy
chol
ogyof

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t
hewor
kfor
ce,
cust
omer
,andconsumer
,andconsumerr
elat
ion.

Occupati
onalheal
thpsychology[
OHP]i stherelat
ivel
ynewdiscipl
inethatemergedout
oftheconfl
uenceormarriageamongt hreebranchesofpsychologynamely;heal
th
psychol
ogy,i
ndustr
ial
andor gani
zat
ional psy
chology,andoccupati
onalheal
th.

Personal
i
typsychol
ogygener
all
yrefer
stotheper
son’spersonal
i
ty.Themai
nfocusof
thi
sstudyist
hepatter
nofperson’
sbehavi
our,
thoughtandemot i
onsaswel
l.

SchoolPsychol
ogyisafi
eldt
hatappl
i
espr i
nci
plesofcl
i
nicalpsychol
ogyand
educati
onalpsychol
ogyt
othedi
agnosisandtr
eatmentofstudent’
sbehavi
oral
and
l
earningprobl
ems.

Sportpsychol
ogyisaspeciali
zati
onwithi
npsy chol
ogythatseekstounderst
and
psychologi
cal
/mentalfact
orsthataf
fectperf
ormanceinspor t
s,physi
calact
ivi
tyand
exerci
secanapplythesetoenhanceindiv
idualandteam perf
ormance.

Psy
choanal
ysi
sisaschool
ofpsy
chol
ogyf
oundedbySi
gmundFr
eud.

Freudbeli
evedt
hatt
hehumanwascomposedoft
hreeel
ement
s:t
hei
d,t
heegoandt
he
superego.

TheI
discomposedofpr
imar
yur
geswi
thani
mal
i
sti
ctendenci
es.

Theegoi
sthecomponent
sofper
sonal
i
tychar
gedwi
thdeal
i
ngwi
thr
eal
i
ty.

Thesuperegoisthepartofper
sonal
i
tyt
hathol
dsal
loft
hei
deal
sandv
alueswe
i
nter
nali
zefrom ourpar
entandcul
tur
e.

Cognit
ivetheor
iesf
ocusoni
nter
nal
stat
e,suchasmot
ivat
ion,
probl
em sol
vi
ng,
deci
sion
making,andatt
enti
on.

I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOCOUNSELLI
NGPSYCHOLOGY
Counsel
l
ingisone-t
o-onei nter
personal
rel
ati
onshipbet
weentwoindi
vi
dual
s,onewhoi
s
i
nneedofhelp[cl
ient]andt heotherwhohastheexpert
iset
oprov
ideassi
stance
[
counsel
or]whohelpsr esolvetheprobl
em orneed.

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ors

Guidanceisanassist
ancegivent
osomeonei ntomakehim/herawareofandknowthe
di
recti
oni nwhi
chhe/sheiscorni
ngfrom andwher
ehe/sheisheadi
ngtoinli
fe.I
tisa
processofdir
ecti
ng,pi
lot
ing,
orguidi
ngsomeoneinordert
or eal
i
zehis/
hergoalsor
potenti
als.

Thepersongui
dingisusual
l
yanybody
,acounsel
or,
par
ent
,teacher
,rel
ati
onor
somebodyinposit
ionofaut
hor
it
y.

Counselingpsychol
ogyf ocusesonprovi
dingther
apeuti
cal
lytreatment
stocli
entswho
experi
enceawi dev ar
iet
yofsy mptoms.Counseli
ngpsychologyasaspecial
tyfaci
li
tat
es
personalandinter
personalfuncti
oni
ngacrossli
fespanwithaf ocusonemotional
,
social
,vocati
onal,
educat i
onalanddevel
opmentconcerns.

Guidancei
nvol
ves2t
o50peopl
e,whi
l
ecounsel
i
ngi
nvol
vesonl
y2t
oamaxi
mum of5
people.

Gui
dancei
slesspr
ivat
e,mor
eopenwhi
l
ecounsel
l
ingi
spr
ivat
eandconf
ident
ial
.

Any
bodycangi
vegui
dancebutonl
ypr
ofessi
onal
scancounsel
.

Gui
dancei
sst
ruct
uredandf
ormal
butcounsel
l
ingi
slessst
ruct
uredandl
essf
ormal
.

Mar
it
alcounsel
l
ing-deal
swi
thpr
e-mar
it
alandmar
it
alpr
obl
ems.

Careercounsel
l
ing-
handl
escareerpr
obl
emsofi
ndi
vi
dual
ssuchaschoi
ceofj
ob,
i
ntervi
ewsandchoiceofjob.

School
counsel
l
ing-
takespl
acei
ntheschool
set
ti
ng[
pri
mar
ytohi
gheri
nst
it
uti
ons]
.

Leisur
ecounsel
or-
deal
swi
tht
hecompl
expr
obl
emsofwhati
ndi
vi
dual
candowi
tht
hei
r
l
eisurehour
sandtime.

Pastoralcounsel
l
ing-
sol
vesi
ndi
vi
dual
’
spr
obl
emswi
thcounsel
i
ngandr
eli
gious
pr
inciples.

Rehabil
i
tati
oncounsel
l
ing-
dealswithprobl
emsconcerni
ngthecommuni
tysuchas
di
saster,
rape,
orphanandindi
vidual
sthathav
edeviat
edfrom t
henor
m suchasdr
ug
addi
ctorconvict
s.

Developmentalcounsel
l
ing-deal
swi
thpr
obl
emsofphy
sical
,cogni
ti
ve,
andsoci
al
changesacrosslif
espan.

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Cl
ini
calcounsel
l
ing-usespsychologi
cal
pri
nci
plestoprevent
,di
agnoseandtreat
pr
oblemsofpsychological
disor
dersuchasseveredepressi
on,
alcohol
i
sm orphobi
as.

For
ensiccounsel
li
ng-appl
iespsychologicalpri
nci
plestoimprovethel
egalsyst
em,
such
asi
nterpr
eti
ngandexpressingthev al
idityofeyewitnesstest
imony,t
hejur
y
del
i
berati
onprocessandthebestwayt oselectj
urors.

I
ndust
ri
al/
organi
zati
onal
counsell
i
ng-hel
pst
oincr
easepr
oduct
ivi
tyi
nbusi
ness,
i
ndust
ri
esandgov er
nmentagenci
es.

Engi
neeri
ngcounsell
ing-t
hesear
econcernedwi
tht
heaspectofhumanbehav
iourand
mentalpr
ocessthatshoul
dbeconsi
deredwhendesi
gni
ngequipmentandi
nstr
uments.

Spor
tcounsel
l
ing-t
hisdeal
swi
thhowt
oenhanceamat
eurandpr
ofessi
onal
athl
etes.

Therear
efiv
estagesinindi
vi
dual
counsel
l
ing;
obt
aini
ngcl
i
ent
,di
agnosi
s,t
reat
ment
,
ter
minat
ion,f
oll
ow-up.

Therearesi
xst agesingroupcounsel
li
ng;f
ormationofthegroup/obtai
ningcl
i
ent s,
ori
entat
ion,
transit
ionstage,
workingst
age,consoli
dat
ion/t
erminati
on,andevaluati
on.

Ref
err
alt
akest
hreeway
s;

 Counsel
orr
efer
red:
thecounsel
orr
efer
sthecl
i
entt
oexper
ts.

 Ot
her
sref
err
al:
cli
ent
sar
eref
err
edt
othecounsel
orbyot
her
s.

 Sel
fref
err
al:
thei
ndi
vi
dual
goest
othecounsel
oronhi
s/herown.

Ter
minat
ionmeanst
heend,
thati
s,t
heendoft
hecounsel
l
ingr
elat
ionshi
porsessi
on.

Fol
l
ow-
upmeanst
opostcheck.Tof
indouti
fthedesi
redbehav
iouri
smai
ntai
ned.

Groupcounsel
li
ngisaninter
-per
sonall
edbyaprofessi
onal
trai
nedcounsel
orand
conduct
edwithindi
vi
dualswhoar ehav
ingt
ypi
caldevel
opmentalpr
oblems.

Gr
oupcounsel
l
ingi
nvol
ves4t
omaxi
mum of10peopl
e.

Casest
udy;i
tisusedtogenerat
einfor
mati
ononparti
cul
arpr
obl
em.Iti
nvolvesal
lthat
coul
deverhavetakenpl
aceintheli
feoft
hecl
ienti
nrel
ati
ontoapar
ti
cularprobl
em.

Quest
ionnai
re;
compi
l
ati
onofasetofquest
ionsf
ort
hepur
poseofobt
aini
ngf
act
sand

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opi
nionaboutaphenomenon

I
nter
view:
afacet
ofaceencount
erf
ort
hepur
poseofel
i
cit
ingi
nfor
mat
iononspeci
fi
c
pr
oblem.

I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOEARLYCHI
LDHOODEDUCATI
ON
Ear
lychil
dhoodeducat
ioncanbedef
inedast
het
rai
ninggi
vent
othechi
l
drendur
ingt
he
vul
nerabl
estagesi
nlif
e.

NAEYCdescr
ibedear
lychi
l
dhoodeducat
ionast
heeducat
ionwhi
chcommencesf
rom
bi
rt
htoageeight
.

UNESCOdef
inesear
lychi
l
dhoodast
heper
iodf
rom bi
rt
hto8y
ear
sol
d

Day
car
e/pl
aygr
oupcat
ersf
orchi
l
drenbel
owt
heageoft
hree.

Cr
èchescat
ersf
orchi
l
drenbel
owt
hreey
ear
sandi
tisusual
l
ylocat
edwher
ethemot
her
i
sworki
ng.

Nur
sery/
pre-
pri
mar
yschool
isusual
l
yforchi
l
drenbet
weent
hreeandf
ivey
ear
sin
Ni
geri
a.

Thekinder
gar
tenrefer
stotheschool
forchi
ldr
enbetweenf
iveandsi
xyear
s.Thati
s,
chi
ldr
enwhoar eabouttoent
erthepr
imaryschool
.

Teachingmethodsinearlychil
dhoodeducat i
onincl
ude; l
ectur
e,playway,
discussi
on,
demonst r
ati
on,pr
oblem solv
ing,proj
ectassignment,excursi
on,fi
eldt
ri
p,v
alues
cl
ari
ficat
ionmethod,tel
l
ingstoriesandbrainstor
ming.

I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPARATI
VEEDUCATI
ON
Compar at
iveeducati
onisafieldofst
udydealingwi
ththecompari
sonofcurrent
educati
onaltheoryandpract
ice,ot
hercul
turesandothersy
stemsofeducat
ionin
di
ffer
entsociety,
state,
regi
onandcount r
ies.

ThePhaseofTr
avel
er’
sTal
es:
Thi
sphasewasmar
kedbydescr
ipt
iver
epor
tsof

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t
rav
eler
swhocompr
isedmi
l
itar
yconquer
ors,
busi
nessexpedi
ti
onsandev
enexpl
orer
s.

ThePhaseofSel ect
iveEducati
onBor r
owing(1817-1900):
itr
efer
stothesigni
fi
cant
changesofapproachthatsuggestedamor esystematicandcomprehensi
vecoll
ect
ion
ofdataandinturn“select
ivebor
rowing”i
neducat i
on.

ThePhaseofCulturalContextorthePeriodofPhil
osophers(1900-
1945)
:thi
sper
iodi
s
al
soref
erstoast heperiodofcultur
alanalysi
s.Dur
ingthisperi
odemphasisi
n
comparat
iveeducati
onshiftedfrom descri
pti
ontoanalysi
s.

ThePhaseofSocialSciencePerspecti
ves–1945topr esent:t
hisi
stheperi
odthatis
presumedtohavejuststart
edaftertheSecondWorldWar .Duri
ngthi
speri
odemphasi s
i
ncompar at
iveeducati
onshift
edf r
om descri
pti
veaccounttoasocialsci
enceapproach.

Plat
owasaGr eekphi
l
osopherwhocompar
edt
heai
msandst
ruct
ureoft
heSpar
tan
andGreeksy
stems.

Jul
iusCaesar(
102-
42BC)isaRomanemper
orwhodescr
ibedhowchi
l
drenwer
e
educat
edincount
ri
esbeyondRome.

IbnKhal
dun(1332-1506)wasaTunisianbornscholarwhomadecompari
sonbet
ween
theEast
ernMoslem cultur
eandthatofthewest .Heemphasi
zedt
heneedtoest
abl
i
sh
simi
lar
it
iesanddif
ferencesbet
weenthepr esentandthepast
.

Her
odotus(
484-
425BC)at
tempt
edacompar
isonofcul
tur
einhi
scomment
ari
esont
he
Per
sianwar
s.

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