Gauss’ Law

Flux Capacitor (Schematic)

Carl Friedrich Gauss

1777 – 1855
 What? — The Flux!
STRONG
E-Field

Angle Matters Too

Weak
E-Field

θ
dA

Number of E-lines
through differential area
“dA” is a measure of
strength
Electric Field & Force Law Depends on Geometry
Point of charge: Field spreads in 3D like
inverse area of sphere = 1/(4πr2)
kQ 1
E= 2 µ 2
r r

Line of Charge: Field spreads in 2D like

C = 2p r inverse circumference of circle = 1/(2πr)

2kl 1
E= µ
r r

Sheet of Charge: Field spreads in 1D like a

constant — Does not spread!

E = 2p ks = constant
 What? The Flux!
Planar Surface
 Given:
– planar surface, area A E

– uniform field E
– E makes angle θ with NORMAL to
plane
θ
 Electric Flux:
normal
Φ = E•A = E A cos θ
 Units: Nm2/C
AREA = A=An
 Visualize: “Flow of Wind”
Through “Window”
 What? The Flux! General Case

Air Flow Analogy

 What? The Flux!
General Surface
 For any general surface: break up into
infinitesimal planar patches
 Electric Flux
 Surface integral
® ®
E
 dA is a vector normal to each
®
patch and
has a magnitude |dA|= dA ®
dA
CLOSED surfaces:
– define the vector dA as pointing
OUTWARDS
E
– Inward E gives negative flux 𝚽 Area = dA

– Outward E gives positive flux 𝚽 dA

 What? The Flux!
 Closed cylinder of length L, radius R
®
E
 Uniform E parallel to cylinder axis dA

 What is the total electric flux through

surface of cylinder?
L
(a) (2πRL)E
(b) 2(πR2)E
(c) Zero (πR2)E–(πR2)E=0 ®

What goes in — dA R
MUST come out!
Hint!
Surface area of sides of cylinder: 2πRL
Surface area of top and bottom caps (each): πR2
(a) front
+EA?
–EA?
0?
(b) rear
+EA?
–EA?
0?

(c) top
+EA?
–EA?
0?

(c) Whole cube

+EA?
–EA?
0?
 Electric Flux:
 Spherical surface of radius R=1m; E is RADIALLY INWARDS and has EQUAL
magnitude of 10 N/C everywhere on surface
 What is the flux through the spherical surface?

(a) (4/3)πR3 E = -13.33π Nm3/C

(b) 2πR E = -20π Nm/C

(c) 4πR2 E= -40π Nm2/C

What could produce such a field?

What is the flux if the sphere is not centered on the charge?

 Electric Flux: Example
r (Inward!)

q (Outward!)

Since r is Constant on the Sphere — Remove

E Outside the Integral!

Surface Area Sphere

Gauss’ Law:
Special Case!
Gauss’s Law: Gravitational Field vs Electric Field

q
Compute the Surface Integral
For each of the four Surfaces where +
is a proton and – an electron
 Gauss’ Law: General Case
 Consider any ARBITRARY CLOSED
surface S -- NOTE: this does NOT
have to be a “real” physical object!
qins S
 The TOTAL ELECTRIC FLUX
through S is proportional to the
TOTAL CHARGE ENCLOSED!

 The results of a complicated integral is

a very simple formula: it avoids long
calculations!

(One of Maxwell’s 4 equations!)

 Gauss’ Law:

"+ " = +q
"- " = -q
F1 = +2 + 5 + 7 - 3- 4 - 7 F2 = +3+ 5 +10 - 3- 4 - 6 F 3 = +2 + 5 + 8 - 5 - 6 - 7

0 + -
 23-3 A Charged Isolated Conductor

Learning Objectives • 23.17 For a conductor with a cavity

that contains a charged object,
• 23.14 Apply the relationship determine the charge on the cavity
between surface charge density σ wall and on the external surface.
and the area over which the
• 23.18 Explain how Gauss’ law is used
charge is uniformly spread.
to find the electric field magnitude E
• 23.15 Identify that if excess near an isolated conducting surface
charge (positive or negative) is with a uniform surface charge density
placed on an isolated conductor, σ.
that charge moves to the surface
• 23.19 For a uniformly charged
and none is in the interior.
conducting surface, apply the
• 23.16 Identify the value of the relationship between the charge
electric field inside an isolated density σ and the electric field
conductor. magnitude E at points near the
conductor, and identify the direction
of the field vectors.
 Properties of Conductors
Inside a Conductor in Electrostatic Equilibrium, the
Electric Field Is ZERO. Why?

Because If the Field Is Not Zero, Then Charges Inside

the Conductor Would Be Moving.

SO: Charges in a Conductor Redistribute Themselves

Wherever They Are Needed to Make the Field Inside the
Conductor ZERO.

Excess Charges Are Always on the

Surface of the Conductors.
 Conducting Sphere
 A spherical conducting shell has
an excess charge of +10 C.
 A point charge of –15 C is located
at center of the sphere. +10 C -
R2
 Use Gauss’ Law to calculate the R1 +

charge on inner and outer surface + +

of spherical shell + –15C
+
-
S1 -
(a) Inner: +15 C; outer: 0 S2
(b) Inner: 0; outer: +10 C
(c) Inner: +15 C; outer: –5 C "+ " = +5C
"- " = -5C
Hint: E-Field is Zero inside conductor so
 Gauss’ Law: Conducting Sphere
 Inside a conductor, E = 0 under
static equilibrium! Otherwise
electrons would keep moving!
 Construct a Gaussian surface inside –5 C
the metal as shown. (Does not have
to be spherical!)
+15C

 Since E = 0 inside the metal, flux –15C

through this surface = 0
 Gauss’ Law says total charge
enclosed = 0
 Charge on inner surface = +15 C

Since TOTAL charge on shell is +10 C,

Charge on outer surface = +10 C - 15 C = -5 C!
 Faraday’s Cage Safe in the Plane!?

 Given a hollow conductor of arbitrary shape.

Suppose an excess charge Q is placed on this
conductor. Suppose the conductor is placed in an
external electric field. How does the charge
distribute itself on outer and inner surfaces?

(a) Inner: Q/2; outer: Q/2

(b) Inner: 0; outer: Q
(c) Inner: Q; outer: 0

 Choose any arbitrary surface inside the

metal

 Since E = 0, flux = 0 Inside cavity is “shielded”

from all external electric
 Hence total charge enclosed = 0 fields! “Faraday Cage effect”

 All charge goes on outer surface!

 Safe in the Plane!?
Faraday’s Cage: Electric Field Inside
Hollow Conductor is Zero

Safe in the Car!?

E=0

• Choose any arbitrary surface inside

the metal Inside cavity is “shielded”
• Since E = 0, flux = 0 from all external electric
• Hence total charge enclosed = 0 fields! “Faraday Cage effect”
All charge goes on outer surface!
 Field on Conductor Perpendicular to Surface
We know the field inside the conductor is zero, and
the excess charges are all on the surface. The charges
produce an electric field outside the conductor.

On the surface of conductors in electrostatic

equilibrium,
the electric field is always perpendicular to the
surface.

Why?
Because if not, charges on the surface of the
conductors would move with the electric field.
 Charges in Conductors
• Consider a conducting shell, and a negative charge inside
the shell.
• Charges will be “induced” in the conductor to make the
field inside the conductor zero.
• Outside the shell, the field is the same as the field produced
by a charge at the center!
 Gauss’ Law: Conducting Plane
• Infinite CONDUCTING plane with
uniform areal charge density s
• E is NORMAL to plane
• Construct Gaussian box as shown.
• Note that E = 0 inside conductor

As
Applying Gauss' law, we have, = AE
e0

s
Solving for the electric field, we get E =
e0
 Gauss’ Law: Conducting
 Charged conductor of arbitrary shape: no
symmetry; non-uniform charge density
 What is the electric field near the surface where + +
+
+
the local charge density is σ? + +
+
(a) σ/ε0 +
+ +
(b) Zero + +

(c) σ/2ε0 E=0

As
Applying Gauss' law, we have, = AE
e0 THIS IS A
GENERAL
s RESULT FOR
Solving for the electric field, we get E = CONDUCTORS!
e0
 23-4 Applying Gauss’ Law: Cylindrical Symmetry

Learning Objectives
• 23.20 Explain how Gauss’ law • 23.22 Explain how Gauss’ law
is used to derive the electric can be used to find the electric
field magnitude outside a line field magnitude inside a
of charge or a cylindrical cylindrical non-conducting
surface (such as a plastic rod) surface (such as a plastic rod)
with a uniform linear charge with a uniform volume charge
density λ. density ρ.
• 23.21 Apply the relationship
between linear charge density λ
on a cylindrical surface and the
electric field magnitude E at
radial distance r from the
central axis.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All
rights reserved.
 23-4 Applying Gauss’ Law: Cylindrical Symmetry
Figure shows a section of an infinitely long
cylindrical plastic rod with a uniform charge density
λ. The charge distribution and the field have
cylindrical symmetry. To find the field at radius r, we
enclose a section of the rod with a concentric
Gaussian cylinder of radius r and height h.
The net flux through the cylinder from Gauss’ Law
reduces to

yielding

A Gaussian surface in the form

of a closed cylinder surrounds
a section of a very long,
uniformly charged, cylindrical
plastic rod.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All

rights reserved.
 Gauss’ Law: Cylindrical Symmetry
• Charge of q = 10 C is uniformly spread
over a line of length L = 1 m. r = 1 mm
E=?
• Use Gauss’ Law to compute magnitude
of E at a perpendicular distance of 1 L=1 m
mm from the center of the line.

• Approximate as infinitely long line

— E radiates outwards.

• Choose cylindrical surface of Line of Charge:

radius r, length L co-axial with line λ = q/L
of charge. Units: [C/m]
 Gauss’ Law: Cylindrical Symmetry
• Approximate as infinitely long
r = 1 mm
line — E radiates outwards. E=?
• Choose cylindrical surface of
radius r, length L co-axial with
L=1m
line of charge.

F = EA = E2p rL l

q lL Acyl = 2p rL
F= =
e0 e0 dA || E so cos θ = 1

lL l l
E= = = 2k
2pe 0 rL 2pe 0 r r
 Compare to Finite Line Example From Last Week!
L/2
dx
Ey = k l r ò (r 2 + x 2 )3/2
- L/2
• Add the Vectors!
L/2
é x ù • Horrible Integral!
= kl r ê 2 2 2 ú
ë r x + r û- L/2
• Trig Substitution! r

2k l L
=
r 4r 2 + L2
If the Line Is Infinitely Long (L >> r) …
Blah, Blah, Blah…

2k l L
2kl
Ey = =
r L2 r

With Gauss’s Law We Got Same

Answer With Two Lines of Algebra! r
A-Rod
What? The Flux!

A Constant Area:

dA

Changing Area:
E
 Gauss’ Law: General Case

 Consider any ARBITRARY

CLOSED surface S -- NOTE: this S
“Gaussian Surface” does NOT
E
have to be a “real” physical object! +q
 The TOTAL ELECTRIC FLUX
through S is proportional to the
TOTAL CHARGE ENCLOSED!

 The results of a complicated

integral is a very simple formula: it
avoids long calculations!

(One of Maxwell’s 4 equations!)

Examples

What is Flux
Through
Surfaces:
S1 =
S2 = +q/ε0
S3 = –q/ε0
S4 = 0
0
 Gauss’ Law: Insulating Plate
• Infinite INSULATING plane with uniform

charge density s

• E is NORMAL (perpendicular) to plane

• Construct Gaussian box as shown

q As
Applying Gauss' law = F, we have, = 2 AE
e0 e0
Surface Charge;
s σ = q/A
Solving for the electric field, we get E = Units: [C/m2]
2e 0

For an insulator, E=σ/2ε0, and for a conductor, E=σ/ε0.

 Recall Disk of Charged Sheet From Last Week!
• Add the Vectors!

• Horrible Integral!

• Trig Substitution!

• So Hard We Didn’t Do It!

If the Disk Has Large Radius (R>> z) …

Blah, Blah, Blah…

With Gauss’s Law We Got Same

Answer With Two Lines of Algebra!
 Insulating and Conducting Planes
s insu
s insu
Einsu =
2e 0
Q
s insu = Q / A

Insulating Plate: Charge Distributed Homogeneously.

Q/2
s cond
Econd = = 2Einsu
e0
s cond = Q / ( 2A )
s cond s cond

Conducting Plate: Charge Distributed on the Outer Surfaces.

Electric Field Inside a Conductor is ZERO!
Two Insulating Sheets
s + = +Q+ / A s - = -Q- / A

ER = EL
 >?
(b) < ? >?
>?
=? (c) < ?
(a) < ?
=?
=?
 4 = 3 > 2 >1
The field from the plates cancels out so ignore them
and use Coulombs inverse square law for the
central charge only.
Two Conducting Sheets s + = + 12 Q+ / A

E does not pass through a conductor s - = - 12 Q- / A

Formula for E different by Factor of 2

7.68

4.86

ER = E- ¹ EL

7.68 4.86
12.54
 Gauss’ Law: Spherical Symmetry
• Consider a POINT charge q & pretend Asphere = 4p r 2
that you don’t know Coulomb’s Law
• Use Gauss’ Law to compute the electric
field at a distance r from the charge
r
• Use symmetry:
q
– place spherical surface of radius R
centered around the charge q
– E has same magnitude anywhere on
surface
F = EA = E4p r 2
– E normal to surface

q kq
q E= = 2
F= 4pe 0 r 2
r
e0
 Electric Fields With Spherical
Symmetry: Shell Theorem
+10 C

A spherical shell has a charge of +10C and a

point charge of –15C at the center.
What is the electric field produced
OUTSIDE the shell?
-15C

If the shell is conducting?

Field Inside a Conductor is ZERO!

E
And if the shell is insulating?
E=k(15C)/r2
Charged Shells
Behave Like a Point Charge of Total E=0 E=k(5C)/r2
Charge “Q” at the Center
r
Once Outside the Last Shell! Conducting
Electric Fields With Insulating Sphere
r<R
æ Vins ö æ 4p r 3 / 3 ö r3
qins = Q ç ÷ = Qç ÷ =Q 3
è Vtotal ø è 4p R / 3 ø
3
R

r>R
qins = Q

F = EA = qins / e 0

r 3
r < R ® E4p r 2 = Q 3 / e 0
R

r > R ® E4p r 2 = Q / e 0
 Summary

• Electric Flux: a Surface Integral (Vector Calculus!);

Useful Visualization: Electric Flux Lines Like Wind
Through a Window.
• Gauss’ Law Provides a Very Direct Way to
Compute the Electric Flux.