4 Kundur DT Analysis

Discrete-Time LTI Systems Discrete-time Systems
Input-Output Description of Dst-Time Systems
x(n) y(n)
input/ Discrete-time output/
excitation System response
Discrete-Time LTI Systems and Analysis
Discrete-time Discrete-time
signal signal
Dr. Deepa Kundur
University of Toronto
I Input-output description (exact structure of system is unknown
or ignored):
y (n) = T [x(n)]
I “black box” representation:
T
x(n) −→ y (n)
Dr. Deepa Kundur (University of Toronto) Discrete-Time LTI Systems and Analysis 1 / 61 Dr. Deepa Kundur (University of Toronto) Discrete-Time LTI Systems and Analysis 2 / 61
Discrete-Time LTI Systems Discrete-time Systems Discrete-Time LTI Systems Discrete-time Systems
System Properties Terminology: Implication
If “A” then “B” Shorthand: A =⇒ B

Why is this so important?
Example 1:
I mathematical techniques developed to analyze systems are often it is snowing =⇒ it is at or below freezing temperature
contingent upon the general characteristics of the systems being Example 2:
considered α ≥ 5.2 =⇒ α is positive
Note: For both examples above, B 6=⇒ A
I for a system to possess a given property, the property must hold
for every possible input to the system
I to disprove a property, need a single counter-example
I to prove a property, need to prove for the general case
Terminology: Equivalence Common Properties

I Time-invariant system: input-output characteristics do not
If “A” then “B” Shorthand: A =⇒ B
change with time
and I a system is time-invariant iff
If “B” then “A” Shorthand: B =⇒ A T T
x(n) −→ y (n) =⇒ x(n − n0 ) −→ y (n − n0 )
can be rewritten as
for every input x(n) and every time shift n0 .
“A” if and only if “B” Shorthand: A ⇐⇒ B
We can also say:

I A is EQUIVALENT to B =
I A=B
Common Properties Additivity:
I Linear system: obeys superposition principle

I a system is linear iff
T [a1 x1 (n) + a2 x2 (n)] = a1 T [x1 (n)] + a2 T [x2 (n)]
for any arbitrary input sequences x1 (n) and x2 (n), and any
arbitrary constants a1 and a2 .
Homogeneity:
Discrete-Time LTI Systems Discrete-time Systems Discrete-Time LTI Systems The Convolution Sum
Common Properties The Convolution Sum

I Causal system: output of system at any time n depends only on
present and past inputs
I a system is causal iff
y (n) = F [x(n), x(n − 1), x(n − 2), . . .] Recall: ∞

X
for all n.
x(n) = x(k)δ(n − k)
k=−∞
I Bounded Input-Bounded output (BIBO) Stable: every bounded
input produces a bounded output
I a system is BIBO stable iff
|x(n)| ≤ Mx < ∞ =⇒ |y (n)| ≤ My < ∞
for all n and for all possible bounded inputs.
Discrete-Time LTI Systems The Convolution Sum Discrete-Time LTI Systems The Convolution Sum
The Convolution Sum The Convolution Sum

Let the response of a linear time-invariant (LTI) system denoted T to
the unit sample input δ(n) be h(n).
T Therefore,
δ(n) −→ h(n)
T ∞
δ(n − k) −→ h(n − k) X
y (n) = x(k)h(n − k) = x(n) ∗ h(n)
T
α δ(n − k) −→ α h(n − k) k=−∞
T
x(k) δ(n − k) −→ x(k) h(n − k)
∞ ∞ for any LTI system.
T
X X
x(k)δ(n − k) −→ x(k)h(n − k)
k=−∞ k=−∞
T
x(n) −→ y (n)
Causality and Convolution Stability and Convolution

For a causal system, y (n) only depends on present and past inputs
values. Therefore, for a causal system, we have:
It can also be shown that
∞
∞
X
y (n) = h(k)x(n − k) X
|h(n)| < ∞ ⇐⇒ LTI system is BIBO stable
k=−∞
n=−∞
−1
X ∞
X
= h(k)x(n − k) + h(k)x(n − k) Note:
k=−∞ k=0
I ⇐⇒ means that the two statements are equivalent
X∞
= h(k)x(n − k) I BIBO = bounded-input bounded-output
k=0
where h(n) = 0 for n < 0 to ensure causality.
PROOF PROOF
For a stable system, y (n) is bounded if x(n) is bounded. What are the implications on h(n)?
To prove the reverse implication (i.e., necessity), assuming ∞
P
We have: n=−∞ |h(n)| = ∞ we must find a
∞ bounded input x(n) that will always result in an unbounded y (n). Recall,
X
|y (n)| = | h(k)x(n − k)|
∞
k=−∞ X
∞ ∞ y (n) = h(k)x(n − k)
X X
≤ |h(k)x(n − k)| = |h(k)| · |x(n − k)| k=−∞
| {z } ∞ ∞
k=−∞ k=−∞ X X
|x(n)|≤Mx <∞ y (0) = h(k)x(0 − k) = h(k)x(−k)
∞
X ∞
X k=−∞ k=−∞
≤ |h(k)|Mx = Mx |h(k)|
k=−∞ k=−∞ Consider x(n) = sgn(h(−n)); note: |x(n)| ≤ 1.
P∞ ∞
Therefore, k=−∞ |h(k)| < ∞ is a sufficient condition to guarantee: X
y (0) = h(k)x(−k)
k=−∞
∞
∞ ∞
X
y (n) ≤ Mx |h(k)| < ∞ X X
k=−∞
= h(k)sgn(h(−(−k))) = h(k)sgn(h(k))
k=−∞ k=−∞
∞
and we can write: X
∞
X = |h(n)| = ∞
|h(n)| < ∞ =⇒ LTI system is stable n=−∞
n=−∞
Discrete-Time LTI Systems The Convolution Sum Discrete-Time LTI Systems The z-Transform and System Function
PROOF The Direct z-Transform

Therefore,
∞
Direct z-Transform:
X
|h(n)| = ∞ I
n=−∞
∞
guarantees that there exists a bounded input that will result in an unbounded output, so it is X
also a necessary condition and we can write: X (z) = x(n)z −n
n=−∞
∞
X
|h(n)| < ∞ ⇐= LTI system is stable
n=−∞
I Notation:
Putting sufficiency and necessity together we obtain: X (z) ≡ Z{x(n)}
∞
X
|h(n)| < ∞ ⇐⇒ LTI system is stable Z
n=−∞ x(n) ←→ X (z)
Note: ⇐⇒ means that the two statements are equivalent.
Discrete-Time LTI Systems The z-Transform and System Function Discrete-Time LTI Systems The z-Transform and System Function
Region of Convergence z-Transform Properties
Property Time Domain z-Domain ROC

Notation: x(n) X (z) ROC: r2 < |z| < r1
x1 (n) X1 (z) ROC1
I the region of convergence (ROC) of X (z) is the set of all values x2 (n) X1 (z) ROC2
Linearity: a1 x1 (n) + a2 x2 (n) a1 X1 (z) + a2 X2 (z) At least ROC1 ∩ ROC2
of z for which X (z) attains a finite value Time shifting: x(n − k) z −k X (z) ROC, except
z = 0 (if k > 0)
and z = ∞ (if k < 0)
I The z-Transform is, therefore, uniquely characterized by: z-Scaling: an x(n) X (a−1 z) |a|r2 < |z| < |a|r1
1
Time reversal x(−n) X (z −1 ) < |z| < r1
1. expression for X (z) r1 2
Conjugation: x ∗ (n) X ∗ (z ∗ ) ROC
2. ROC of X (z) z-Differentiation: n x(n)
dX (z)
−z dz r2 < |z| < r1
Convolution: x1 (n) ∗ x2 (n) X1 (z)X2 (z) At least ROC1 ∩ ROC2
among others . . .
Discrete-Time LTI Systems The z-Transform and System Function Discrete-Time LTI Systems The z-Transform and System Function
Common Transform Pairs The System Function
Signal, x(n) z-Transform, X (z) ROC

1 δ(n) 1 All z Z
1
h(n) ←→ H(z)
2 u(n) 1−z −1
|z| > 1 Z
3 an u(n) 1
|z| > |a| time-domain ←→ z-domain
1−az −1 Z
az −1 impulse response ←→ system function
4 nan u(n) (1−az −1 )2
|z| > |a|
1
5 −an u(−n − 1) 1−az −1
|z| < |a|
az −1 Z
6 −nan u(−n − 1) (1−az −1 )2
|z| < |a| y (n) = x(n) ∗ h(n) ←→ Y (z) = X (z) · H(z)
1−z −1 cos ω0
7 (cos(ω0 n))u(n) 1−2z −1 cos ω0 +z −2
|z| > 1
z −1 sin ω0
8 (sin(ω0 n))u(n) 1−2z −1 cos ω0 +z −2
|z| > 1
1−az −1 cos ω0 Therefore,
9 (an cos(ω0 n)u(n) 1−2az−1 cos ω0 +a2 z −2
|z| > |a| Y (z)
1−az −1 sin ω0 H(z) =
10 (an sin(ω0 n)u(n) 1−2az−1 cos ω0 +a2 z −2
|z| > |a| X (z)
Discrete-Time Fourier Analysis DTFT Discrete-Time Fourier Analysis DTFT
Discrete-Time Fourier Transform (DTFT) Periodicity of the DTFT
Consider
I DTFT pair: ∞
X
1
Z X (ω + 2π) = x(n)e −j(ω+2π)n
x(n) = X (ω)e jωn dω n=−∞
2π 2π ∞
∞
X
X = x(n)e −jωn · e −j2πn
X (ω) = x(n)e −jωn n=−∞
n=−∞ ∞ ∞
X X
−jωn
= x(n)e ·1= x(n)e −jωn = X (ω)
I X (ω) is the decomposition of x(n) into its frequency
n=−∞ n=−∞
components.
Therefore, X (ω) is periodic with a period of 2π.
Periodicity of the DTFT Periodicity of the DTFT
I Since X (ω) = X (ω + 2π), when dealing with discrete I Continuous-Time Sinusoids: Frequency and Rate of Oscillation:
frequencies, only a continuous frequency range of length 2π x(t) = A cos(ωt + φ)
(representing one period) needs to be considered.
I Minimum frequency for ω = 2kπ, k ∈ Z
Maximum frequency for ω = (2k + 1)π, k ∈ Z
2π 1
I
T = =
I Convention is to use ω ∈ [0, 2π) or ω ∈ (−π, π] ω f
I Frequency range of a discrete-time signal is considered to be

ω ∈ (−π, π]
Rate of oscillation increases as ω increases (or T decreases).
ω smaller ω larger, rate of oscillation higher
Periodicity of the DTFT
MINIMUM OSCILLATION
I Discrete-Time Sinusoids: Frequency and Rate of Oscillation:

x[n] = A cos(Ωn + φ)
MAXIMUM OSCILLATION
Rate of oscillation increases as Ω increases UP TO A POINT then
decreases again and then increases again and then decreases again
....
MINIMUM OSCILLATION
-2 2 6 -2 2 6
-3 -1 0 1 3 4 5 -3 -1 0 1 3 4 5
-2 2 6 -2 2 6
-3 -1 0 1 3 4 5 -3 -1 0 1 3 4 5
Discrete-Time Fourier Analysis DTFT Discrete-Time LTI Filtering
DTFT Theorems and Properties LTI Filtering

∞
X
y (n) = x(k)h(n − k)
k=−∞
Property Time Domain Frequency Domain
Notation: x(n) X (ω) Y (ω) = H(ω)X (ω)
x1 (n) X1 (ω)
x2 (n) X1 (ω) where
F
Linearity: a1 x1 (n) + a2 x2 (n) a1 X1 (ω) + a2 X2 (ω) x(n) ←→ X (ω)
Time shifting: x(n − k) e −jωk X (ω)
F
Time reversal x(−n) X (−ω) h(n) ←→ H(ω)
Convolution: x1 (n) ∗ x2 (n) X1 (ω)X2 (ω) F
Correlation: rx1 x2 (l) = x1 (l) ∗ x2 (−l) Sx1 x2 (ω) = X1 (ω)X2 (−ω) y (n) ←→ Y (ω)
= X1 (ω)X2∗ (ω) [if x2 (n) real]
Wiener-Khintchine: rxx (l) = x(l) ∗ x(−l) Sxx (ω) = |X (ω)|2
among others . . . H(ω) = |H(ω)|e jΘ(ω)

|H(ω)| ≡ system gain for freq ω
∠H(ω) = Θ(ω) ≡ phase shift for freq ω
Discrete-Time LTI Filtering Discrete-Time LTI Filtering
Complex Nature of X (jω) Complex Nature of X (jω)

Recall, Fourier Transform:
∞
Rectangular coordinates: rarely used in signal processing
Z
I
X (jω) = x(t)e −jωt dt ∈ C
−∞
X (jω) = XR (jω) + j XI (jω)
and Inverse Fourier Transform:
Z ∞ where XR (jω), XI (jω) ∈ R.
1
x(t) = X (jω)e jωt dω
2π −∞
Z 0 Z ∞
1 jωt 1 I Polar coordinates: more intuitive way to represent frequency content
= X (jω)e dω + X (jω)e jωt dω
2π −∞ 2π 0
X (jω) = |X (jω)| e j∠X (jω)
Note: If x(t) is real, then the imaginary part of the negative frequency sinusoids where |X (jω)|, ∠X (jω) ∈ R.
(i.e., e jωt for ω<0) cancel out the imaginary part of the positive frequency
sinusoids (i.e., e jωt for ω>0)
Magnitude and Phase of X (jω) Magnitude and Phase of X (jω)

Z ∞
1
x(t) = X (jω)e jωt dω
2π −∞
|X (jω)|: determines the relative presence of a sinusoid e jωt in
I
Z ∞
1
= |X (jω)| e j∠X (jω) e jωt dω
x(t) 2π −∞
Z ∞
1
= |X (jω)| e j(ωt+∠X (jω)) dω
2π −∞
I ∠X (jω): determines how the sinusoids line up relative to one

I Recall, e j(ωt+∠X (jω)) = cos(ωt + ∠X (jω)) + j sin(ωt + ∠X (jω)).
another to form x(t)
I The larger |X (jω)| is, the more prominent e jωt is in forming x(t).
I ∠X (jω) determines the relative phases of the sinusoids (i.e. how they line
up with respect to one another).
LTI Filtering LTI Systems as Frequency-Selective Filters

∞
X
y (n) = x(k)h(n − k)
k=−∞
I Filter: device that discriminates, according to some attribute of
Y (ω) = H(ω)X (ω)
the input, what passes through it
where
F
x(n) ←→ X (ω) I For LTI systems, given Y (ω) = H(ω)X (ω)
F
h(n) ←→ H(ω) I H(ω) acts as a weighting or spectral shaping function of the
F
y (n) ←→ Y (ω) different frequency components of the signal
I LTI system is known as a frequency shaping filter
H(ω) = |H(ω)|e jΘ(ω) LTI system ⇔ filter

|Y (ω)| = |H(ω)||X (ω)|
∠Y (ω) = Θ(ω) + ∠X (ω)
Causal FIR Filters Causal IIR Filters

Definition: a discrete-time finite impulse response (FIR) filter is one
Definition: a discrete-time infinite impulse response (IIR) filter is one
in which the associated impulse response has finite duration.
in which the associated impulse response has infinite duration.
∞
X ∞
y (n) = h(k)x(n − k) X
y (n) = h(k)x(n − k)
k=−∞
k=−∞
M−1
X ∞
= h(k)x(n − k)
X
= h(k)x(n − k)
k=0
k=0
I lower limit of k = 0 is from causality requirement I lower limit of k = 0 is from causality requirement
I upper limit of 0 ≤ M − 1 < ∞ is from the finite duration I necessary upper limit of ∞ is from the infinite duration
requirement; in this case the support is M consecutive points requirement
starting at time 0 and ending at M − 1
LCCDEs LCCDEs
Linear constant coefficient difference equations (LCCDEs) are an Q: Why does an LCCDE have a rational system function?
important class of filters that we consider in this course: N
X M
X
y (n) = − ak y (n − k) + bk x(n − k)
k=1 k=0
N
X M
X N M
X X
y (n) = − ak y (n − k) + bk x(n − k) a0 y (n) = − ak y (n − k) + bk x(n − k) a0 ≡ 1
k=1 k=0 k=1 k=0
N
X M
X
ak y (n − k) = bk x(n − k)
They have a rational system function: k=0 k=0
N
X M
X
PM −k Z{ ak y (n − k)} = Z{ bk x(n − k)}
k=0 bk z polynomial in z
H(z) = N
= k=0 k=0
another polynomial in z
P
1 + k=1 ak z −k N M
X X
ak Z{y (n − k)} = bk Z{x(n − k)}
Depending on the values of N, M, ak and bk they can correspond to k=0 k=0
either FIR or IIR filters.
z-Transform Properties LCCDEs
Property Time Domain z-Domain ROC N

X M
X
Notation: x(n) X (z) ROC: r2 < |z| < r1 ak Z{y (n − k)} = bk Z{x(n − k)}
x1 (n) X1 (z) ROC1 k=0
| {z }
k=0
| {z }
x2 (n) X1 (z) ROC2 z −k Y (z) z −k X (z)
Linearity: a1 x1 (n) + a2 x2 (n) a1 X1 (z) + a2 X2 (z) At least ROC1 ∩ ROC2 N M
z −k X (z)
X X
Time shifting: x(n − k) ROC, except ak z −k Y (z) = bk z −k X (z)
z = 0 (if k > 0)
k=0 k=0
and z = ∞ (if k < 0)
z-Scaling: an x(n) X (a−1 z) |a|r2 < |z| < |a|r1 N
X M
X
Time reversal x(−n) X (z −1 ) 1
r1
< |z| < r1
2
Y (z) ak z −k = X (z) bk z −k
Conjugation: x ∗ (n) X ∗ (z ∗ ) ROC k=0 k=0
dX (z)
z-Differentiation: n x(n) −z dz r2 < |z| < r1 PM
Y (z) k=0 bk z −k
Convolution: x1 (n) ∗ x2 (n) X1 (z)X2 (z) At least ROC1 ∩ ROC2 H(z) ≡ = PN a0 ≡ 1
X (z) k=0 ak z
−k
among others . . . PM PM
−k
k=0 bk z k=0 bk z −k
H(z) = N
= PN
· z −0 + k=1 ak z −k −k
P
1 1+ k=1 ak z
FIR LCCDEs Block Diagram Represenation
M−1 ∞
Adder:
X X
y (n) = bk x(n − k) = h(k)x(n − k) +
k=0 k=−∞
M−1
X Unit delay:
−k
H(z) = bk z
k=0
Constant multiplier:
Please note: upper limit is M − 1 opposed to M (which is used for the general
Unit advance:
LCCDE case) to meet common FIR convention of an M-length filter.
By inspection:
bn 0 ≤ n ≤ M − 1 Signal multiplier:
+
h(n) =
0 otherwise
FIR Filter Implementation IIR LCCDEs

M−1
X
y (n) = bk x(n − k)
N M
k=0 X X
y (n) = − ak y (n − k) + bk x(n − k)
... k=1
PM
k=0
M
bk z −k X 1
H(z) = k=0
P N
= bk z −k · PN
1+ k=1 ak z −k 1 + k=1 ak z −k
|k=0 {z
...
} | {z }
+ + + + + H1 (z) H2 (z)
= H1 (z) · H2 (z)
Requires:
I M multiplications
I M − 1 additions
I M − 1 memory elements

Adder: +
Direct Form I IIR Filter Implementation Direct Form II IIR Filter Implementation
Unit delay:
+ + + +
Constant multiplier: + + + +
+ +Unit advance: + +
+ + + +
Signal multiplier:
+
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
+ + + +
LTI All-zero system LTI All-pole system LTI All-pole system LTI All-zero system
Requires: M + N + 1 multiplications, M + N additions, M + N memory locations Requires: M + N + 1 multiplications, M + N additions, M + N memory locations
Direct Form II IIR Filter Implementation Stability of Rational System Function Filters
+ +
+ +
N
X M
X
+ + y (n) = − ak y (n − k) + bk x(n − k)
k=1 k=0
PM −k
+ + k=0 bk z
H(z) = P N
ak z −k
...
...
...
1+ k=1
+ +
Recall, for BIBO stability of a causal system the system poles must
... be strictly inside the unit circle.
For N>M
Why?
Requires: M + N + 1 multiplications, M + N additions, max(M, N) memory
locations

Adder: +
Stability of Rational System Function Filters Stability of Rational System Function Filters
Unit delay:
Constant multiplier: ∞
X
H(z) = h(n)z −n
Unit advance: n=−∞
Recall, ∞ ∞
X X
−n
∞
Signal multiplier:
|H(z)| ≤ |h(n)z |= |h(n)||z −n |
+
X
|h(n)| < ∞ ⇐⇒ LTI system is stable n=−∞ n=−∞
n=−∞
When evaluated for |z| = 1 (i.e., on the unit circle),
∞
X
|H(z)| ≤ |h(n)|< ∞
n=−∞
Therefore, BIBO stability =⇒ ROC includes unit circle

ROC includes unit circle =⇒ BIBO stability is also true.
Stability of Rational System Function Filters Stability of Rational System Function Filters
. . . because
Therefore,
∞ H(z) ROC
X LTI system
|h(n)| < ∞ ⇐⇒ ⇐⇒ includes
is stable
n=−∞ unit circle
For a causal rational system function, the ROC includes the unit
circle if all the poles are inside the unit circle.
ARMA, MA and AR Filters ARMA, MA and AR Filters

Other commonly used terminology for the filters described include: Other commonly used terminology for the filters described include:
I Autoregressive moving average (ARMA) filter: I Moving average (MA) filter:
N
X M
X M
X
y (n) = − ak y (n − k) + bk x(n − k) y (n) = bk x(n − k)
k=1 k=0 k=0
PM −k M
k=0 bk z
X
H(z) = H(z) = bk z −k
+ Nk=1 ak z −k
P
1
k=0
I has both poles and zeros I has zeros only; no poles; is BIBO stable
I IIR I FIR
Discrete-Time LTI Filtering
ARMA, MA and AR Filters

Other commonly used terminology for the filters described include:
I Autoregressive (AR) filter:
N
X
y (n) = − ak y (n − k)
k=1
1
H(z) = PN
1+ k=1 ak z −k
I has poles only; no zeros
I IIR

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Discrete-Time LTI Systems Discrete-time Systems

Input-Output Description of Dst-Time Systems

System Properties Terminology: Implication

If “A” then “B” Shorthand: A =⇒ B

Terminology: Equivalence Common Properties

We can also say:

Common Properties Additivity:

I Linear system: obeys superposition principle

T [a1 x1 (n) + a2 x2 (n)] = a1 T [x1 (n)] + a2 T [x2 (n)]

Common Properties The Convolution Sum

y (n) = F [x(n), x(n − 1), x(n − 2), . . .] Recall: ∞

|x(n)| ≤ Mx < ∞ =⇒ |y (n)| ≤ My < ∞

for all n and for all possible bounded inputs.

The Convolution Sum The Convolution Sum

Causality and Convolution Stability and Convolution

where h(n) = 0 for n < 0 to ensure causality.

PROOF The Direct z-Transform

Region of Convergence z-Transform Properties

Property Time Domain z-Domain ROC

Common Transform Pairs The System Function

Signal, x(n) z-Transform, X (z) ROC

Discrete-Time Fourier Analysis DTFT Discrete-Time Fourier Analysis DTFT

Discrete-Time Fourier Transform (DTFT) Periodicity of the DTFT

Periodicity of the DTFT Periodicity of the DTFT

I Frequency range of a discrete-time signal is considered to be

Discrete-Time Fourier Analysis DTFT Discrete-Time Fourier Analysis DTFT

ω smaller ω larger, rate of oscillation higher

Periodicity of the DTFT

I Discrete-Time Sinusoids: Frequency and Rate of Oscillation:

Discrete-Time Fourier Analysis DTFT Discrete-Time Fourier Analysis DTFT

DTFT Theorems and Properties LTI Filtering

among others . . . H(ω) = |H(ω)|e jΘ(ω)

Discrete-Time LTI Filtering Discrete-Time LTI Filtering

Complex Nature of X (jω) Complex Nature of X (jω)

Magnitude and Phase of X (jω) Magnitude and Phase of X (jω)

I ∠X (jω): determines how the sinusoids line up relative to one

Discrete-Time LTI Filtering Discrete-Time LTI Filtering

LTI Filtering LTI Systems as Frequency-Selective Filters

H(ω) = |H(ω)|e jΘ(ω) LTI system ⇔ filter

Causal FIR Filters Causal IIR Filters

Discrete-Time LTI Filtering Discrete-Time LTI Filtering

z-Transform Properties LCCDEs

Property Time Domain z-Domain ROC N

Discrete-Time LTI Filtering Discrete-Time LTI Filtering

FIR LCCDEs Block Diagram Represenation

FIR Filter Implementation IIR LCCDEs

Discrete-Time LTI Filtering Discrete-Time LTI Filtering

Discrete-Time LTI Filtering Discrete-Time LTI Filtering

Therefore, BIBO stability =⇒ ROC includes unit circle

Discrete-Time LTI Filtering Discrete-Time LTI Filtering

ARMA, MA and AR Filters ARMA, MA and AR Filters

ARMA, MA and AR Filters

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