Chapter 2

MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND

SYMBOLS

Imagine the following scenario.

You traveled through deep space to visit a planet called Sipnarys where
everyone is a genius Mathematician, the Sypnayans. You entered a coffee shop and
you noticed two Sypnayans talking. Here is a part of their conversation:

Sypnayan 1: Hagoudu estei freiou deimu

Sypnayan 2: Eyiedu estoureich salou
Sypnayan 3: Hyetie meich karhou shou leiou

Obviously, you did not understand anything from that conversation. But is it
because they were talking complex things? No. It’s because you simply did not
understand their language. Perhaps they were just laughing at you!

This situation has a very strong analogy in Mathematics. People frequently

have trouble understanding mathematical ideas; not necessarily because the ideas
are difficult, but because they are being presented in a foreign language‒the
language of Mathematics.

Like any language, Mathematics has its own symbols, syntax and rules to
understand the expressed ideas and to communicate these ideas to others. These
rules, symbols and syntax are the focus of this chapter. The basic concepts of
Mathematics such as sets, relations, function and the foundation of propositional
logic are introduced.
Page 1
 Lesson 2.1
MATHEMATICS AS A FORM OF LANGUAGE

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students are expected to be able to
1. Compare Mathematics to other Language;
2. Discuss the characteristic of mathematics as a form of language;
3. Apply some conventions of mathematics;
4. Acknowledge that mathematics is a useful language.

Mathematics vs the Language of Ordinary Speech (English Language)

To understand better how Mathematics is just a form of language, let us

compare it to a language that we are all familiar with which is the English language.
Remember that the main function of a language is to make communication of ideas
between individuals possible. When we learned the English language, we started
with the most basic structure such as the letters of the alphabet and its
corresponding sound. We then combine them to form words which is later on
assigned to different objects, concrete or abstract. Phrases, sentences, and
paragraphs are then built to convey more complex ideas. The language has become
well developed over time that we have created a system of exploring its dimensions
for a more efficient communication. We can now differentiate the different parts of
speech (noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, adjective, etc.) and their functions. Also,
structural rules such as grammar and syntax are now standardized.

From this perspective, Mathematics does not entirely separate itself. It is also
a language that originated from simple and basic mathematical elements such as
numbers and operations. More complex ideas called “expressions” are then
generated by combining these elements. The combination of such elements are
rule-bound, ensuring that the resulting expression is meaningful and abides to the
universality of Mathematics. Here is a more detailed comparison of Mathematics
and the English Language.

The English Language Mathematics

 Uses words  Uses numbers, operations, sets, matrices, etc. in
symbol
 Classifies which are nouns, verbs,  Do not exactly use the words "noun", "verb", or
pronouns, adjectives, etc. "pronoun" but we can picture likeness such as
 Nouns (Names, Places, Events)  Nouns (fixed things like numbers)
 Verbs (action words like listen)  Verbs (actions such as addition, subtraction, etc.)
 Pronouns (he, she, it)  Pronouns (could be variables such as x and y)
 Adjectives (intelligent, hot)  Adjective (of being prime, even, etc.)
 A group of words conveying a  A group of expressions conveying a complete
complete thought is an English thought is a Mathematical Sentence. Equations
Sentence. are classic examples.
 A group of English sentences  A group of equations is called a system of
comprises a paragraph. equations.
Page 2
Characteristics of Mathematics as a Form of Language

While we have seen the similarities of Mathematics to the English language,

there are areas in which it demarcates itself from the English language.

Precise. Mathematics is precise by making very fine distinctions among

mathematical objects. Unlike definitions of words in the English language where a
word may assume different meanings depending on the context in which it is used,
the definitions of mathematical objects are unambiguous. Let us take the word, “set”,
as an example. In the English dictionary, there are about 430 meanings of the word
set but in Mathematics, the idea of set is fixed regardless of the context of its use.

Concise. Mathematics is concise because it makes use of symbols to convey

ideas, and that what could be said in thousands of words may be conveyed with few
symbols.

Powerful. Mathematics is powerful because it expresses ideas in ways that

allow the solution of even a complex problem doable.

The Grammar of Mathematics

It is the structural rules governing the use of symbols representing

mathematical objects like expressions, variables and mathematical statements,
numbers, operations, sets, relations and functions.

Operations

Unary Operations are used on single mathematical objects. Taking the

additive inverse of a number and squaring it are examples of a unary operation.

Binary Operations are used between two objects. The four fundamental
operations of mathematics are binary operations.

Variables

A variable can be thought of as a mathematical “John Doe” because it can be

used as a placeholder or a symbol of something that has one or more values.

Conventionally, we use letters as variables.

Example 2.1.1

What number, when doubled and added to 1, is greater than 10?

Mathematically, 2x+1>10.

Page 3
Expressions

Expressions are mathematical ideas formed by combining numbers and

variables using the different operations of mathematics.

Expressions are in their simpler forms if they involve fewer symbols and
operations.

Mathematical Statements

A mathematical statement is the analogue for an English sentence. It should

state a complete thought.

Writing Mathematical Statements Using Variables

Since Mathematics is concise, mathematical sentences are expressed using

symbols.

Exercises

Symbolize the following statements.

1. The square of a number is always nonnegative.

A. x2  1 B. x 2  0 C. 1  x2 D. x 2 = 0
2. The sum of two numbers is greater than their product.
A. ab  a  b B. a  b  ab C. ab  a  b D. a + b > ba
3. The quotient of two numbers less 3 is equal to 6.
a 1
A.  3  6 B. a    3  6 C. a  b  6 D. ab - 3 = 6
b b
4. A number subtracted from its cube is 9.
A. y  x3  9 B. x3  y  9 C. y  y 3  9 D. y 3 - y = 9
5. Maria is 4 times younger than his brother (x). Which gives the age of Maria
(y)?
A. y  x B. y  4 x C. y 
4
D. y =
x
x 4
6. A number y is four less than the product of two consecutive numbers.
A. y  4  x  x  1 B. y  x  x  1  4 C. y  x  x  2   4 D. y < 4 - x (x + 1)

Types of Mathematical Statements

Universal Statements are those that hold true for all elements of a set. In
other words, these statements attribute a property to all elements in a particular
universe of discourse. They explicitly or implicitly use universal quantifiers such as
"all", "every" and "each."
Page 4
Example 3.1.2

The following are examples of universal statements.

1 1
1. For all x  8 ,  .
x 3
2. The square of a real number is nonnegative.
This statement is also equivalent to the following.
a. The square of each real number is nonnegative.
b. The square of every real number is nonnegative.
c. The squares of all real numbers are nonnegative.

Existential Statements attribute a property to at least one object or entity, but

not all, in a particular universe of discourse.

Example 3.1.3

The following are examples of existential statements.

1. There exists a real number x such that 2x  5  10 .
2. There exist a prime number that is even.
Conditional Statements says that if one thing is true then some other things
are also true. It is a statement that may be written in the form “If P then Q ,” where
P and Q are simple propositions. Also, P is called the hypothesis and Q is called
the conclusion.

Example 3.1.4

The following are examples of conditional statements.

1. A polygon is a pentagon, if it has five sides.
2. If a rectangle is a square, then the adjacent sides are congruent.

Universal Conditional Statements are statements that are both universal and
conditional.

Example 3.1.5

The following are examples of universal conditional statements.

1. All real numbers are rational if they can be expressed as a ratio of two
integers, where the denominator is not zero.
2. For all numbers, if they are divisible by 6, then they are also divisible by 2
and 3.

Page 5
 Exercise 2.1
Mathematics as a Form of Language

Name:___________________________ Score:_______
Course and Year:__________________ Date:_______

A. Identify whether the following statements are true or false.

Answer
1. Mathematics is a form of language.
2. 3x 2  4 x  1 is a correct mathematical sentence?
3. 1
 x 2  2 is a correct mathematical sentence.
x
4. Variables are used to fancy mathematical ideas.
5. Variables are used when the value of something is unknown.

B. Translate the following Mathematically.

Answer
1. A number less its cube is zero.
2. The square of the sum of two numbers is 3 less
than their product.
3. The difference of the squares of two is greater than
the square of their difference.
4. The square root of the sum of three numbers is 4
more than their product.
5. The cube root of the cube root of the square of a
number is 1.

C. Identify the type of the following statements.

Answer
1. There exists a number that is both even and prime.
2. For all positive numbers, if it is less than one, then
its cube is also less than 1.
3. The square of a positive number is always positive.
4. For every real number, there is a corresponding
multiplicative inverse.
5. There exists a whole numbers less than every
natural number.

Page 6
 Lesson 2.2
SETS
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students are expected to
1. Define sets and related terms;
2. Enumerate different types of sets;
3. Perform operations on sets;
4. Represent sets in different ways;
5. Solve problems involving sets.

OK class, it is assumed that

you have a good background
on sets from high school math
...give me an example of a set.

C FAUCET, ma’am.

Oh well, let us review

key concepts then.

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Sets and related concepts together with their respective symbols, binary
operations and representations present a sound foundation to understand more
advanced concepts in math. This is the reason why many higher mathematics
courses start with sets introduction. Similarly, set is being introduced in the
secondary education to prepare students for college mathematics.

Sets and Related Terms

We begin by reviewing terms and concepts regarding sets.

A set is a well-defined collection of objects such as set of letters, set of

numbers, set of books, set of students, set of stars, sala set, etc.

An element, denoted by (Greek letter Epsilon), is any object that belongs to,
or a member of a set.

A set is written using the following conventions:

a) Use capital English letters to denote sets;

b) Enclose elements using curly braces; and
c) Use commas to separate elements.
Page 7
Example 2.2.1

The set of letters may be denoted by L *a, b, c, , x, y, z+. The choice of “L”
to represent the set is to remind readers that the elements are “letters” of the English
alphabet. The ellipsis indicates that there are letters in between those listed.

Example 2.2.2

The set of natural numbers may be represented as N * , , , +. The

ellipsis after the number 3 means that the list of numbers after 3 goes on indefinitely.
Here are other examples of sets of numbers.

ℝ
Set of Real numbers

ℚ ℚ′
Set of Rational Numbers Set of Irrational Numbers
𝜋, 𝑒, 2, …

ℤ 𝔽
Set of Integers Set of Fractions
*… − 3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3, … + *… 1 2 , 2 3 … +

ℕ− 𝕎
Set of Negative Integers Set of Whole numbers
*… − 3, −2, −1+ *0,1,2,3, … +

*0+ ℕ
Set of Natural numbers
*1,2,3, … +

Example 2.2.3

The set of students may be written as

P *Christian, Justin, Mark, Angela, Michelle, ea+. The set has only six elements.

Example 2.2.4

Consider the following expressions.

Mark P a N *a, b+ L N

Note that we negate symbols with a slash to mean “not”. In example 2.2.4, a
is not an element of set N and {a, b} is not an element of set L.

Page 8
Methods of Naming Sets

There are two common methods of naming sets. Each method has its own
advantage. Here are the two method.

Roster method is done by listing all the elements, as in example 2.2.3. This
method is also called tabular method.

Example 2.2.5

M *Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, aturday, unday +.

G {Atok, akun, okod, uguias, Itogon, Kabayan, Kapangan, Kibungan,

La Trinidad, Mankayan, ablan, Tuba, Tublay}.

P { }

Rule method is done by describing what the set is about. It uses a variable to
represent the elements of the set accompanied by a descriptive phrase. The
following examples illustrate how sets M, G, and P in example 2.2.5 may be
represented using the rule method:

Example 2.2.6

M *x |x is a day in the week + which is read as “M is the set of x such that x

is a day in a week.

G *y | y is a municipality of enguet+ is read as “G is the set of y such that y

is a municipality of enguet”.

P {x| x ,x } is read as “P is the set x such that x satisfies the

equation x and x is greater than ”.

In ordinary language, sets M, G, and P are simply the “set of all days in a
week”, the “set of all municipalities of enguet”, and the set of all positive real
numbers that satisfy the equation x ”, respectively.

Each method has its own advantage. The roster method has the advantage of
identifying the individual element of the set which is an information not provided in
rule method. Roster method is used when the identity of the individual element is
important to consider. Roster method may be used to answer the question “who can
be qualified to receive social amelioration fund from the government? who are the
residents of Benguet? etc.”. However, if the purpose is simply to know what the set
is about and there is no need to identify the individual element, then rule method is
more efficient to use because the identity of the set, regardless of its size, can be
known with just a phrase
Page 9
Cardinality of a Set

The cardinality of set A is the number of elements in set A. In symbol, the

cardinality of set A is written as n(A).

Example 2.2.7

The cardinality of a null set is 0. So if set B is a null set, then n(B) = 0.

The cardinality of a unit set is 1. So if Set C is a unit set, then n(C) = 1.

The cardinality of set M in example 2.2.5 is 7. In symbol, n(M) .

The cardinality of set N in example 2.2.2 is unknown because its last element
cannot be identified. In symbol, n(N) = .

The Universal Set and Subsets

The universal set, denoted by U, is the set that contains all the elements
under consideration. It is dependent on the limit put for its coverage. That is, the set
of residents of La Trinidad is the universal set if it is the limit of discourse. The set of
faculty members of Benguet State University, the set of flowers along the Balili river,
the set of gasoline stations in La Trinidad, etc. are examples of a universal set
provided all discussions revolve only on the elements of such sets.

Set A is a subset of set B, denoted by A , if all elements of A are also

elements of B. et A is a “proper” subset of set , denoted by A , if all elements
of set A are also in set B but some elements of set B are not in set A. For instance,
the set of all freshman students of Benguet State University is a subset of the set of
all students in that University.

Types of Sets

Finite vs. Infinite Set. A finite set is a set with elements that are countable one
by one. Its cardinality can be assigned a certain number. Sets M, G, and P in
example 2.2.6 are finite sets. An infinite set on the other hand is a set that is not
finite. In other words, it is a set with elements that are not countable one by one.
Set N in example 2.2.2 is an infinite set.

Equal vs. Equivalent Sets. Set A is equal to B, denoted by A=B, if they have
exactly the same elements. For example, the sets A={a, e, i, o, u} and B={i, o, a, u,
e} are equal because both of these sets contain all the vowels of the English
alphabet. Set A is equivalent to set B, denoted by A ~ , if they have the same
cardinality. This means that sets with the same number of elements, regardless of

Page 10
the nature of the elements are equivalent. Sets A={a, e, i, o, u} and C={1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
is a pair of equivalent sets because the cardinality of both of them is 5.

Unit Set vs. Null Set. A unit set is a set that contains only one element. The
set of capitals of a province is an example of a unit set since each province has only
one capital. The set of all positive integers less than 100 that satisfy the equation
x3 - 2 00 is another example of a unit set because there is only one positive
integer that makes the equation true. An empty set, or a null set is a set that
contains no elements. The Greek letter phi, , is used to symbolize the null set. An
empty curly brace * + may also be used to denote an empty set.

Practice Exercise

1. Consider the following sets:

U={a, b, c, d, 1, 2, 3, 4}
A={a, b, c, d} B={1, 2, 3, 4} C={ }
D={a, b, 1, 2} E={ } F={d, e, 5, 6}
G={d, c, b, a} H={x| x<5, x ℕ} I={x| x<5, x }
a. Identify all the subsets of the universal set.
b. Identify all equal sets.
c. Identify all the equivalent sets.
d. Identify all the unit sets.
e. Identify all the null sets.

2. Which of the following is true? Explain your answer.

a. All equal sets are also equivalent
b. All equivalent sets are also equal.

Cardo, can you give

us an example of a
null set?

Brilliant Cardo!!! Class, the thoughts in

Cardo’s mind is an example of a null set.

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Page 11
Operations on Sets

1. Set A union set B, denoted by A , is the set of all elements that belong
to set A, or set B, or to both set A and set B.

2. Set A intersection Set B, denoted by A , is the set of all elements that

belong to both set A and set B.

Example 2.2.9

Consider the following sets.

W *a, e, i, o, u+ X *a, b, c, d, e+ Y *x x is a consonant+

Thus,

W X *a, e, i, o, u, a, b, c, d, e, a, e+ = *a, e, i, o, u, b, c, d,+. Since a set

should contain distinct elements, repeated elements are written once. Thus, set
W X should contain only eight distinct elements instead of twelve.

W Y *a, b, c, , x, y, z+. If U is the universal set that contains all letters

of the English alphabet, then W Y = U.

W X *a, e+. In layman’s terms, the intersection of two sets is the set that
contains the common elements of the given two sets.

W Y . Sets W and Y have no common elements. They are called

disjoint sets.

Note how the words “or” and “and” are used in conjunction with “union” and
“intersection, respectively.

3. Set difference. The difference of two sets A and B, denoted by A − , is

the set of all elements that are in set A, but not in set B.

4. Complement of a set. The complement of set A, denoted by A (or A-

prime), is the set of all elements of the universal set that are not in set A.

Example 2.2.10

Consider the following sets.

W *a, e, , o, u+ X *a, b, c, d, e+
Y *x x is a consonant+
U *x x is a letter of the English alphabet+

Page 12
 Then,

W − X *i, o, u+
X − W *b, c, d+
Y − X *f, g, h, , x, y, z+
W *b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z+
U
U.

Venn Diagrams

We may represent sets, their properties and operations by using enclosed

geometric figures such as circles, triangles, rectangles, squares, etc. These
representations are called Venn diagrams. Normally, we use a rectangle to
represent the universal set while ovals for subsets.

Example 2.2.11

Given the following sets,

L * , , , , + M * , , , , + N * , , , , , , , , , +, then:

L M * , , , , , , , + L M * , +
N
L M
6 10 2 1
4 3
8 5 7

M * , , , , + M−L * , , +
N N
L M L M
6 10 2 1 6 10 2 1
4 3 4 3
9 8 5 9 8 5
7 7

Application of Sets

Sets and other related concepts can be used to solve real life problems such
as the following:

Page 13
Example 2.2.12

Ma’am Xinom and Ma’am August are very generous teachers. On a Friday
ma’am Xinom and ma’am August, decided to treat their math students to a
serving of French fries each with the following choices of dips: catsup, mayonnaise,
and mustard. Among their 42 students, 26 wanted mustard as a dip, 19 wanted
mayonnaise, 17 wanted catsup, 11 wanted mustard and mayonnaise, 10 wanted
mustard and catsup, 7 wanted mayonnaise and catsup and 6 wanted all three as
dips. How many students wanted (a) catsup dip only; (b) mustard but not
mayonnaise; (c) mayonnaise but not mustard; (d) catsup and mustard but not
mayonnaise; (e) mayonnaise and mustard but not catsup; and (f) none of the three
dips?

Problems or situations similar to the above are solvable by using concepts

related to sets such as Venn diagram. A Venn diagram provides a visual
representation of the distribution of the elements among the given sets. By using
Venn diagram, it becomes easier to see how many elements belong to one set only,
to either of any two sets only, to both of any two sets, to all of the three sets, and to
none of the given sets. Naming a set is done arbitrarily, but naming a set with a
particular letter that has relation with the characteristics of the elements of a set may
also be done especially if it facilitates memory recall about the set. Use legend to
identify what set a given letter represents by providing descriptive words about the
set. Thus, in the example, R is used for catsup because it is red, Y for mustard
because it is yellow and W for mayonnaise because it is white.
Let: R Y U
R = Catsup 4
6 11
Y = Mustard
6
W = Mayonnaise 1 5
U Math students of Ma’am Xinom
and Ma’am August 7
2
W
So with the use of Venn diagram above, we can now answer the questions in
the problem. There are (a) 6 students who wanted catsup dip only; (b) 15 students
wanted mustard but not mayonnaise; (c) 8 students wanted mayonnaise but not
mustard; (d) 4 students wanted catsup and mustard but not mayonnaise; (e) 5
students wanted mayonnaise and mustard but not catsup; and (f) 2 students did not
want any of the three dips.

Page 14
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content/uploads/2018/09/30110559/cheering.jpg
 Exercise 2.2
Sets

Name:____________________________ Score:_____
Course and Year:___________________ Date:______

1. Draw one Venn diagram to represent the relationship of the following sets of numbers.
Irrational Numbers ℚ’ Rational Numbers ℚ Real Numbers ℝ
Integers ℤ Whole Numbers Counting Numbers ℕ

2. From Example 2.2.12, represent the sets described in questions a, b, c, d, e, and f using
the following symbols: , , −, .

3. The following are some properties of real numbers under addition and multiplication
(recall your high school math): Closure, Commutativity, Associativity, and Distributivity.
Verify if these properties hold or not under union and intersection by using the following
sets: * + * + * +.

4. Given the following sets: * , , , , , , , , + * , , , , +

*, , , + * , , , , + * , , , , + * , , , +
Determine: a) b) c) ( )– ( )
d) e) ( ) f)

5. Doctor Armel and Doctor Nike have twenty-four patients. Twelve of the patients have
symptom alpha, six of the patients have symptom beta, and fifteen of the patients have
symptom gamma. There is only one patient who has all the three symptoms. Two of
the patients show symptoms alpha with beta, but do not have symptom gamma. Two of
the patients have symptom beta and gamma but do not have symptom alpha. If all of
the patients of Doctor Armel and Doctor Nike have at least one of the mentioned
symptoms, how many patients are sick with disease Omega, if disease Omega is
manifested by symptoms alpha and gamma but not beta? Draw a complete Venn
diagram to represent the problem situation.

6. Complete a Venn diagram to represent the following:

There are 208 students under the new BS Math course. The Mathematics-Physics-
Statistics Department offers math subjects under Prof. Annie, Prof. Ennet and Prof.
Yano.
 4 students take math subjects under all three professors.
 48 students are enrolled under Prof. Ennet.
 There are twice as many students who are enrolled under both Prof. Ennet and Prof.
Yano (but not Prof. Annie) as those who are enrolled under both Prof. Ennet and
Prof. Annie (but not Prof. Yano), and 4 times as many as those who are enrolled
under all 3 professors.
 124 students join the math classes of Prof. Yano.
 27 poor misguided BS Math students do not study any math subject.
 The group of students who are enrolled under both Prof. Ennet and Prof. Yano (but
not Prof. Annie) is exactly the same size as the group made up of students who are
enrolled under both Prof. Annie and Prof. Yano.

Page 15
 Lesson 2.3
RELATIONS

In ordinary language, relations are a kind of links existing between objects.

For example, the phrases “mother of,” “neighbor of,” “is older than,” “is an ancestor
of,” suggest a relation between two people. In like manner, the phrases “is greater
than,” “is less than,” “is the square of,” and “is the cube root of” describe how two
numbers are related.

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students are expected to be able to
1. Define a cartesian product;
2. Identify the cartesian product of any given two sets;
3. Define relations in their own words;
4. Correctly describe relations in different ways;

We now introduce the concept of cartesian product between two sets. This
concept plays a major role in formally defining a relation.

Cartesian Product of Two Sets

Given two sets A and B (not necessarily different), the set AxB (read as A
cross B) is called the Cartesian product of sets A and B . The elements of AxB
consist of all ordered pairs  a,b  where a  A and b  B . The Cartesian product is
also called product set, direct product, or cross product.
AxB   a, b  | a  A, b  B
The Cartesian product is named after Rene Descartes whose formulation of
analytic geometry gave rise to this concept.

Example 2.3.1

Given two sets A and B such that A  1, 2,3 and B  a, b, c . Then
AxB  1, a  , 1, b  , 1, c  ,  2, a  ,  2, b  ,  2, c  ,  3, a  ,  3, b  , 3, c  .

Definition of Relation

Given two sets A and B (not necessarily different), a relation R from A to

B is any subset R of A  B . We call R a binary relation from A to B or between A
and B . If (a, b)  R , we write a R b and say a is related to b . If a is not related to
b , that is, (a, b)  R , we write a R b.

Page 16
Example 2.3.1

Given two sets A  1, 2,3 and B= a,b,c , then

AxB  1, a  , 1, b  , 1, c  ,  2, a  ,  2, b  ,  2, c  ,  3, a  ,  3, b  , 3, c  .

From this Cartesian product, we can define several relations from A to B by

identifying a subset. Here are some.
R1  1, a  , 1, b  , 1, c 
R2  1, a  ,  2, a  ,  3, a 
R3   2, a  ,  2, b  ,  2, c  ,  3, a  ,  3, b  ,  3, c 
R4  1, a  ,  2, b  ,  3, c 
R5  1, a  , 1, b  , 1, c  ,  2, a  ,  2, b  ,  2, c  ,  3, a  ,  3, b  ,  3, c 
R6  

In contrast, the following are not relations from A to B since they are not
subsets of AxB .
R7   a,1 , 1, b  , 1, c 
R8   a, b  ,  2, b  ,  2, c  ,  3, a  ,  3, b 

Page 17
 Lesson 2.4
FUNCTIONS

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students are expected to be able to
1. Define functions;
2. Describe functions in different ways;
3. Differentiate relations from functions;
4. Enumerate, define, and describe different types of functions; and
5. Solve problems on functions.

Brief History

Developed in the seventeenth century, the concept of function remains as

one of the most basic and important concepts in Mathematics. Galileo (1564-1642)
gave the idea of function as the dependency relationship between two quantities,
such as the time it takes an object to descend along an inclined plane that is raised
to a certain height depends on the slope or length of the inclined plane.

Rene Descartes (1596-1650), in his book Geometry (1637), used the concept
to describe many mathematical relationships. In a 1673, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
(1646-1716) introduced the term function to mean any quantity varying from point to
point of a curve, such as the length of a tangent or a normal line. Leonhard Euler
(1707-1783) formalized the representation of a function by denoting it as f(x).

Definition of a Function

A function is a set of ordered pairs, (x,y), drawn from two sets of values X and
Y in which every x-value is paired to a unique y-value. In this case, a set of ordered
pairs in which an x-value is paired to more than one y-value is not a function.
However, a set of ordered pairs in which more than one x-value are paired to one y-
value is a function and it is called a many-to-one function.

Example 2.4.1

Consider all the relations provided in example 2.3.1 (R1-R6). Of these, only R2
and R4 are considered functions because they contain no two ordered pairs that
have the same x - value.

Ways of Representing a Function

Ordered Pairs. By definition, a function is a set of ordered pairs.

Page 18
Example 2.4.2

Let us define a function on single digit natural numbers by the following set of
order pairs {(1,1), (2,4), (3,6), (4,8)}. The elements of this function consist of four
ordered pairs.
X Y
Mapping or Arrow Diagram. This is done
by directing a one-sided arrow from each of the
first coordinate to its corresponding second 1 1
2
coordinate. The function in the example 2.4.2 is 2 3
the same as the arrow diagram at the right. 4
3 5
6
4 7
Table Form. It is important that when using 8
a table, the correspondence between the
coordinates of each ordered pair is maintained. X 1 2 3 4
The following table is the same function described in example Y 2 4 6 8
2.4.2.

Graph. A function may be graphed by plotting

each ordered pair in the cartesian plane. The first
coordinate of each ordered pair is plotted against the
horizontal axis while that of the second coordinate is
plotted against the vertical axis. The graph at the right
side represents the function described in example 2.4.2.
The four points correspond to the four ordered pairs of
the function.

Equation. A function may be represented by an equation which shows the

relation between the first coordinate and the second coordinate in each ordered pair.
In example 2.4.2, the relation between the x-values and the y-values is such that
each y-value is twice that of the x-value in each ordered pair. Thus
y  2 x where x  5 and x  .

The first three ways of representing a function is used when the function has
finite number of elements. The last two ways are practical in describing a function
with infinite number of elements.

Example 2.4.3.

Consider a relation of the set of real numbers ( ) onto itself. Then the cross
product x or 2 consists of infinitely many ordered pairs. From this cross product,
let us define our first function as the set of ordered pairs in which the first
coordinates consist of whole numbers less than or equal to five while the second
coordinates are the cube of the first coordinates. This function is finite and may be
represented in the following ways:

Page 19
 Ordered Pair  0, 0 , 1,1 ,  2,8 , 3, 27  ,  4, 64  , 5,125 
X Y
Arrow Diagram
0 0
1 1
2 8
3 27
64
4
125
5

Table X 0 1 2 3 4 5
Y 0 2 8 27 64 125

Now, we define our second function on as the set of ordered pairs whose y
coordinates are four less than the square of their first coordinates. The number of
elements of this function is infinite because the first coordinates are the entire real
number which is uncountable, and it follows that the second coordinates are also
uncountable. Thus, the practical ways of representing this function are equation and
graph.

Equation y  x2  4 where and x  .

Graph

Function Notations and Terminology

Naming a function. Functions are usually named using letters. For instance,
the function represented by
f : X  Y defined by f ( x)  y  x 2  4

which read as “the function ƒ from X to Y defined by f ( x)  y  x 2  4 " is understood

to have the name "f" and f ( x)  y  x 2  4 is the rule for which the elements of set

Page 20
X are paired with the elements of set Y . The arrow,  , is read "is mapped to" while
f ( x) is read “f of x”, or y is the function of x which means that the value of y depends
on the value of x.

Domain of a Function. This is the set of all first coordinates in the set of
ordered pairs of a function. In the function f : X  Y , the domain is set X .

Codomain of a Function. This is the set of all elements from which the
elements of the domain are paired. In the function f : X  Y , the codomain is set Y .

Range of a Function. This is the set of all second coordinates in the set of
ordered pairs of a function. It is the subset of the codomain whose elements have
pairs in the domain.

Image refers to the specific element in the codomain with which an element in
the domain is paired. This element will be also termed as output.

Pre-image refers to the specific element in the domain with which an element
in the codomain is paired. This element will be also termed as input.

Example 2.4.4
Y
Consider the function, g : X  Y , X
which is illustrated in the diagram at the 1 31
right side. Identify the name of the 0
function, its domain, codomain, and 1 2
range. Also, identify the image of 1 and 4 2
3 3 12
and the pre-image of 9 and 1.
4 6
5 65
Function name: g 9
Domain: 1, 2,3, 4,5 11

Codomain: 1, 2,3,9,11,31, 65,126

Range: 1, 2,3,9, 65
The image of 1 is 2. Likewise, the image of 4 is 65.
The pre-image of 9 is 2 while that of 1 is 0.

Page 21
 Exercise 2.4.1
Definition of Functions, Notations and Terminology

Name:___________________________ Score:_______
Course and Year:__________________ Date:________

A. Write F if the following represents a function, otherwise write MR if it just a mere

relation.
1. {(2,3), (3,4), (5,1), (6,2), (2,4)} 1.
2. {(2,3), (3,4), (5,1), (6,2), (7,3)} 2.
3. {(2,3), (3,4), (5,1), (6,2), (3,3) 3.
4. {(2,3), (3,4), (5,1), (6,2), (3,3)} 4.
5. {(10,12), (5,3), (15, 10), (5,6), (1,0)} 5.
6. {(1,1), (2,1), (3,1), (4,1), (5,1)} 6.
7. 8. 9. 10.
7.

8.

9.

10.
11. 12.
X 0 1 3 5 3 9 X -2 -1 0 1 2 3 11.
Y 8 9 10 6 10 7 Y 5 5 5 5 5 5
12.
13. 14. 15. 16.
13.

14.

15.

16.
17. 18. 19. 20.
17.
1 𝛼 1 𝛼 1 𝛼 1 𝛼
18.
2 𝛽 2 𝛽 2 𝛽 2 𝛽
3 𝛾 3 𝛾 3 𝛾 3 𝛾
𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 19.
4 4 4 4
𝜙 𝜙 5 𝜙 5 𝜙 20.

B. Given the relation A = {(5,2), (7,4), (9,10), (x, 5)}.

1. Which of the following values for x will make relation A a function? 7,9 or 4?
2. Identify the domain and range of A. Also, identify the image of 7 and the pre-image of
10.
Domain: ___________ Range: ___________ Image of 7: ___ Pre-image of 10: ___
Page 22
Evaluating Functions

Evaluating a function means determining the corresponding image (output) of

a given pre-image (input). It simply means finding the y-value for a given x-value of
the function.

f  x   3x  5

output
function input
name
Examples 2.4.5

Given the function f  x =2x+5 , evaluate f  3  .

Solution

This problem is like finding the y-value when the x-value is 3.

f  x  2x  5
f  3  2  3  5
 65
 11
The image of 3 is 11. If these values are written as an ordered pair, then they
appear as  3,11 .

Examples 2.4.6

Let h(m)  3m3  m2  m  2 , find h(2) .

Solution
h(m)  3m3  m 2  m  2
h  2   3  2    2    2   2
3 2

 3  8    4    2   2
 24  4  2  2
 32

Page 23
The Algebra of Functions

Given two functions, f  x  and g  x  , we use shorthand notation to indicate

the operations of adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing the formulas of these
functions. These operations, known as algebra of functions, are described below.

Addition  f  g  x   f  x   g  x 
Subtraction  f  g  x   f  x   g  x 
Multiplication  f g  x   f  x  g  x 
f  f  x
Division    x  , g  x  0
g g  x

Examples 2.4.6

Find the sum, difference, product and quotient of the following functions:
f  x   x2 1 g  x  x 1
Solution

Sum Difference
 f  g  x   f  x   g  x   f  g  x   f  x   g  x 
 
 x 2  1   x  1  
 x 2  1   x  1
x x 2
 x x22

Product Quotient
 f g  x   f  x  g  x   f  f  x
   x 
 
 x 2  1  x  1 g g  x

 x3  x 2  x  1 x2 1

x 1


 x  1 x  1
x 1
 x 1

Page 24
Composition of Functions

The composition of two functions is such that one function serves as the pre-
image of the other. That is, given two functions f  x  and g  x  , their compositions
are as follows

f g  x   f  g  x   and g f  x   g  f  x   .

In the first composition, the function g  x  serves as the pre-image of the

function f  x  . In the second composition, the function f  x  serves as the pre-
image of the function g  x  . Take note that the function written at the right most side
serves as the pre-image of the function preceding it.

Examples 2.4.7

Given the following two functions:

f  x   x2 1 g  x  x 1 ,

find f g  x  and g f  x  .

Solutions

f g  x   f  g  x   g f  x   g  f  x  
 f  x  1 
 g x2 1 
  x  1  1  
2
 x2  1  1

 x  2x 1 1
2
  x2
 x2  2x

Practice Exercises

Given the following functions: f  x   x 2  x g  x  x  4 h  x   x , find

1. h f  x 
2. h f  5 

Page 25
3.  g f  x 
4.  g f  1
5.  g h  x 
6.  g h   12 
7.  g g  x 
8.  h h  x 
9.  g h f  x 
10.  f h g  x 

Page 26
 Exercise 2.4.2
Function Evaluation and Algebra of Functions

Name:___________________________ Score:_______
Course and Year:__________________ Date:________

A. Perform the task in each item for the given functions below.

f  x  3 g  x   x2  x  2 h  x   x3  1
1.  h  f  x  2.  h  f  5

3. ( g  f )( x) 4. ( g  f )(1)

5.  g  h  x  6.  g  h   12 

7. ( g  g )( x) 8.  f  f  x 

9.  g  h  f  x  10.  g  h  f  0 

11.  g h f  x  12.  f h g  x 

Page 27
Types of Functions

One - to - One (Injective). A function f is said to be one-to-one, if and only if

whenever f  x   f  y  , x  y .

This means that each element of the range has a unique pre-image.
Example 2.4.8

1 2 1 2
3 4 3 4
5 6 5 6
7 8 7 8
10 10
a one-to-one function not one-to-one
Both of the above diagrams illustrate a function but only one of them is one-
to-one. The diagram at the right side is not one-to-one because one element of the
range (4) has two pre-images (5 and 7). That is, f  5  f  7  but 5  7 .

Example 2.4.9

Consider the two functions on the set of natural numbers ( ), and on the set
of integers ( ) respectively.

1. f :  defined by f  x   x 2
2. f :  defined by f  x   x 2
The two functions above are not the same. Only the first function is one-to-
one. For in the second function, we can identify an element from the range that has
more than one pre-image (e.g. f 1  f  1  1 ).

Onto (surjective). A function f from a set A to a set B is onto, if and only if

for every element y in B , there is an element x in A such that f  x   y ; that
is, f is onto if and only if f  A  B , or if the range is exactly the codomain.

Example 2.4.10
1 2 1 2
3 4 3 4
5 6 5 6
7 8 7 8

an onto function not onto 10

Page 28
 The function at the right side is not onto since there is an element (10) of the
codomain that has no pre-image.

Example 2.4.11

The function f  x   x 2 from the set of natural numbers to the set of non-
negative even numbers E is an onto function. However, f  x   2 x from the set of
natural numbers to is not onto because the odd numbers in the codomain do
not have pre-images in the domain.
Bijection. A function is called a bijection, if it is both onto and one-to-one.
Example 2.4.12

The function f  x   2 x from the set of natural numbers to the set of non-
negative even numbers E is one-to-one and onto. Thus, it is a bijection.
Inverse of a Function

The inverse of a function could be thought of another function that undoes its
x
action. For example, the inverse of f ( x)  2 x is f ( x) 
1
.
2
X Y X’ X

0 0 0
1 2 1
2 4 2
6 3
3

Definition of Inverse

Let f be a bijection from A to B . Then the function g is called the inverse

function of f , denoted by f 1 , if for every element y in B , g  y   x , where
f  x   y.

The “- ” in f 1 ( x) should not be interpreted as exponent because it is only a

notation for the inverse of f ( x) . Take note that a function has an inverse (or
invertible) if it is a bijection.

Page 29
General Procedure for Finding the Inverse of a Function

(1) Interchange the Variables. We do this so as to find the function that goes
the reverse way, by mapping the old range onto the old domain.

(2) Solve for y. The rest is simply solving for the new y and then changing it to
f 1 ( x) .

Examples 2.4.12

Find the inverse of the function f ( x)  2 x  5 .

Solution

f ( x)  2 x  5
y  2x  5 change f ( x) to y
x  2y 5 interchange x and y
x  5  2y solve for y
x5
y
2
x5
f 1 ( x)  change y to the inverse notation f 1 ( x)
2

Practice Exercise

Find the inverse of the following.

1. y  3x
x5
2. y 
2
3. y  x

Page 30
 Exercise 2.4.3
Types of Functions and its Inverse

Name:___________________________ Score:_______
Course and Year:__________________ Date:________

A. Identify the type of each given function. Write 1-1 if one-to-one, O if onto, B if
bijection, and N if neither one-to-one nor onto.

Function Answer
1. 2.
1 𝛼 1 𝛼
1
2 𝛽
1 1
2 𝛽
1 1.
3
1 𝛾
1 3
1 𝛾
1
4
1 𝜃
1 4
1 𝜃
1
5
1 𝜙
1 1 𝜙
1
1 1 1 1
2.
3. 4.
1 𝛼 1 𝛼
1
2 𝛽
1 1
2 𝛽
1 3.
3 𝛾
1 3
1 𝛾
1
1
4 1 4
1 𝜃
1
1
5
1 𝜙
1 5
1 𝜙
1
1 1 1 1 4.
5. 6.
1 𝛼 1
1
2 𝛽
1 1
2 5.
3 𝛾
1 3
1 𝛾
1
4
1 𝜃
1 4
1 1
5
1 𝜙
1 5
1
1 1 1 6.
7. f :  defined by f  x   x3 7.
8. f :  defined by f  x   2 x
8.
9. f :  defined by f  x   x  x
3
9.
10. f :  defined by f  x   2 x  8 10.

B. Find the inverse of all invertible functions from items 7 – 10 in A above.

Page 31
 Lesson 2.5
ELEMENTARY LOGIC

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students are expected to be able to
1. Define a proposition in their own words;
2. Differentiate a proposition from not a proposition;
3. Enumerate, define, and describe the logical operators;
4. Symbolize compound statements;
5. Construct the truth table of a compound proposition;
Logic

Etymology. Logic comes from the classical Greek “logos,” meaning “word,
thought, idea, argument, account, reason or principle.” It is the study of the principles
and criteria of valid inference and demonstration.

Definition. It is the study of the methods and principles used to distinguish

valid from invalid reasoning. It is a science that aims to develop the reasoning
power of man. It is also the science of correct thinking.

Division of Logic

Traditional Logic. This is another name for Aristotelian logic. This may be
described as syllogistic logic, logic of classes, or logic of terms. It’s the logic of
statements that can be represented in terms of classes of things, and relationships
between those classes.

Propositional Logic. This is another name for Liebnizian logic. This is may be
described as modern logic, logic of statements, logic of proposition, or logic of
sentences. Specifically, propositional logic studies the ways of joining and/or
modifying the entire propositions to form more complex propositions.

Propositional Logic

Proposition. A declarative statement which is either true or false but not both.

Example 2.5.1

Consider the following statements:

1. My name is Juan De La Cruz.
2. I am a person under investigation.
3. Please erase the blackboard.
4. I was surprised!
5. x-2=4.

Page 32
 The first two sentences are propositions because they may either be true or
false. On the other hand, the rest of the sentences are not propositions because
their truth values cannot be determined. Further, the last statement is called an open
sentence since it involves a variable. An open sentence may only become a
proposition when an element of a set under consideration is substituted to the
variable.

Practice Exercise

Identify the sentences that are considered propositions. Then tell if they are
true or false.
1. Today is Monday.
2. This book is expensive.
3. If a number is smaller than 0 then it is positive.
4. Fire your gun Man, fire!
5. La Trinidad is one of the 13 Municipalities of Benguet.
6. The earth is spherical in shape.
7. 2 -7 = -5.
8. 9+ 3 > 7 + 3.
9. He is the president of Benguet State University
10. Rosal is the national Philippine flower.
11. 15 – 3 = 10.
12. 8 > 6 + 2.
13. x + 6 = 10.
14. Blow your horns!
15. What makes you busy?
16. You should relax and move forward.
17. Tomorrow is a holiday.

Propositional Variable

Propositional variables are arbitrary propositions represented by uppercase

letters. They serve as the building blocks from which new propositions are formed.
These variables assume two truth values, true (1) or false (0).

Connectives/Logical Operators

Operators are used to construct compound propositions by joining two or

more simple propositions. Here are the five connectives that we may use.

Conjunction. The proposition P  Q , read as " P and Q " is called the

conjunction of the simple propositions P and Q . This statement is true when both
P and Q are true, otherwise false. Moreover, P and Q are called conjuncts.

Aside from “and,” the following words indicate a conjunction of propositions:

but, however, moreover, nevertheless, whereas, while, despite, yet, furthermore,
more so, although, nonetheless.
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 Disjunction. The proposition P  Q , read as "P or Q " is called the disjunction
of P and Q . This statement is false when both P and Q are false, otherwise it is true.
Moreover, P and Q are called disjuncts.

Aside from “or,” the following words indicate a disjunction of propositions:

either-or, neither-nor, unless, or else.

Implication/Conditional. The proposition P  Q , read as “ P implies Q ” or “If

P , then Q ” is called an implication. P is called the antecedent while Q the
consequent. This proposition is false only when P is true and Q is false; otherwise,
it is true. It is important to note that the causal relationship between the antecedent
and the consequent is not a requirement for the implication to be true or false.

Aside from “if-then,” the following words indicate an implication between

propositions: implies that, entails that, granted that, on the condition that, given that,
is sufficient for, is necessary for.

Some related implications from P  Q .

Converse QP
Contra-positive Q  P
Inverse P  Q
Practice Exercise

Write the converse, contra-positive, and inverse of the proposition below.

If you are a Mathematics major, then you must be hardworking.
Converse: ______________________________________________
Contra-positive: __________________________________________
Inverse: ________________________________________________

Bi-conditional. The proposition P  Q , read as “ P if and only if Q ” is called

a bi-conditional. This proposition is true when P and Q have the same truth values.
The phrase “if and only if” is often abbreviated as “iff.”

Quality of a Proposition

Refers to whether a sentence is negative or affirmative.

Quality Symbol Expressions

Negative  No, not, never, it is false that, it is not the
case that, it is true that, nowhere, no
one, not in the least, in no wise, no
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 means
Affirmative none none
Symbolizing Propositions

A simple proposition is usually symbolized by assigning it a capital letter of

the English alphabet. If a statement is composed of more than one simple
proposition (compound statement), then each of these simple propositions is
symbolized by a unique letter and joined together by logical operators.

Example 2.5.2

Let T, C, and W be the following sentences respectively.

Today is Tuesday.
My class ends at 12.
Today is Wednesday.

Symbolic
Compound Sentence
Representation
Today is Tuesday and my class ends at 12. T C
Today is Tuesday or Wednesday. T W
If today is Tuesday, then my class ends at 12. T C
My class ends today if and only if today is Tuesday. C T
It is not the case that if today is Wednesday, my class ends at 12.  W  C 
If today is Wednesday, then my class does not end at 12. W  C
It is not the case that today is not Tuesday.   T 

Truth Values and Truth Tables

A truth table facilitates the determination of the truth values of a compound

proposition under all circumstances. Also, it can be used to determine whether two
or more compound statements are equivalent. The truth table below shows the truth
values of a compound proposition with respect to the logical operator used.

Let P and Q be any proposition.

P Q PQ PQ P Q P Q P
1 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 1 1 1

Nature of Compound Propositions

Tautology. A compound proposition that is always true.

Contradiction . A compound proposition that is always false.

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 Contingency. A compound proposition that has a mixture of truth values of
true in some circumstances and false in other circumstances.
Example 2.5.3

Generate the truth table of each compound proposition and determine its
nature.

A.  N   S  S    N
N S N S S  S N   S  S   N   S  S    N
1 1 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
Hence  N   S  S    N is a tautology.

B.  K  J   J
K J K  J  K  J   J
1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0
0 0 0 1
Hence ( ) is a contingency.

C. R      R 
 R R    R R     R
1 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
Therefore, R      R  is a contradiction.

Practice Exercise

Identify the nature of the following propositions.

1.   A  A 
2.   A  A 
3.  A  B    A  B 
4. A  A  B  B
5. A  B  B  A
6. A  B  B  A
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 7. A  B  C  D
8. A  B  C  D
Equivalence

Two propositions are logically equivalent if their truth tables have the same
truth values.

Example 2.5.4

Determine whether or not the two propositions are equivalent.

P   Q  R 
Q   P  R
P Q R P QR P   Q  R  P R Q   P  R
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1

Hence, the two propositions are logically equivalent

Practice Exercises

1. Determine whether this proposition is a tautology, a contradiction, or a

contingency.
 P  Q   Q  R    P  R 
2. Determine whether these two propositions are equivalent.
 P  Q  R 
 P  Q   R

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 Exercise 2.5
Elementary Logic
Name:___________________________ Score:_______
Course and Year:__________________ Date:________

A. State which of the following sentences are propositions. For a proposition, write
P on the blank after each sentence and NP for not a proposition.

1. Go yeah and multiply!

2. The Polar bear’s habitat is Arctic Ice.
3. There is a largest even number
4. What made you qualify for the program?
5. 13 is equal to the sum of five
and eight.
6. The sum of m and r is twelve.
7. You are incredible.
8. Attract the insect for nectar collection.
9. The Mamasapano encounter sacrificed 44 lives of SAF members.
10. Today, the Taal volcano erupted.
11. The entire Luzon is under extreme community quarantine.
12. Justice delayed is justice denied.
13. The year 2020 is a leap year.
14. A salamander is an amphibian.
15. Gauss said “Mathematics is the queen of all ciences.”
16. Do this in remembrance of him.
17. implify the complex and it’s over.
18. He who loves to teach must never cease to learn.
19. The corona virus is a new type of virus.
20. Baguio is the lone city of the province of Benguet.

B. Symbolize the following propositions.

1. If a person does not wear a face mask,then he is not allowed to ride
the jeepney.
2. The english alphabet has five vowels, furthermore, the letter m is a
vowel.
3. A locally stranted individual is allowed to return home only if he or
she has secured a health declaration form.
4. 8 – 2) 4 but 9 = 7 – 3
5. Macario stayed in Manila for two months because he got caught by
the lockdown.
6. Filomena decided to drop the subject and wait for the coming
semester.
7. The ABS-C N’s franchise renewal is denied.
8. The city of Baguio will remain under MGCQ if and only if there are
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 no new COVID19 cases.
9. If the mode of instruction is modular,then Verus will transfer to the
public school.
10. Today is CAR day.

C. Identify whether the following are true of false.

1. Rome is the capital of Italy or Rome is the capital of Spain.

2. Today is Monday or tomorrow is a holiday.
3. It is not the case that BSU is the only state university in Benguet and
BSU is a more than a decade.
4. “ angus” is the Philippine national fish or Rosal is the Philippine
national flower.
5. 2 is an even prime number.
6. The set of whole numbers includes zero whereas the set of integers
does not.
7. Manila is the capital of the Philippines or it is not the case that both
Quezon City and San Juan City are cities of Metro Manila.
8. Yellow is a primary color, but the color green is not.
9. If Baguio is the summer capital of the Philippines, then Benguet is the
vegetable capital of the country.
10. The number zero is neither positive nor negative or a counting
number.

D. Given the following simple propositions, symbolize the compounds statements.

M : Metro Manila’s COVID cases worsen.
P : The Philippines is on extremely enhanced community quarantine for two
weeks.
R : Rapid test kits are available.
N : The number of Persons Under Investigation (PUI) is increasing.
F : All front liners report to duty.

1. Metro Manila’s COVID cases worsen and rapid test kits are not
available.
2. It is not true that the number of persons under investigation (PUI) is
increasing, but not all front liners report to duty.
3. Either the number of persons under investigation (PUI) is
increasing, or all front liners report to duty.
4. It is not the case that if Metro Manila’s COVID cases worsen,
then not all front liners report to duty.
5. The Philippines is on extremely enhanced community quarantine
for two weeks, and if the number of persons under investigation
(PUI) is increasing, then all front liners report to duty.
6. If front liners report to duty, and if the number of persons under
investigation (PUI) is increasing, and Metro Manila’s COVID
cases worsen then Philippines is on extremely enhanced
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 community quarantine for two weeks.
7. The Philippines is on extremely enhanced community quarantine
for two weeks, if the number of a person under investigation (PUI)
is increasing.
8. Metro Manila’s COVID cases worsen is a sufficient condition for
the Philippines to implement an extremely enhanced community
quarantine for two weeks.
9. Metro Manila’s COVID-19 cases worsen, whereas if rapid test kits
are available, then it is not the case that the Philippines is on
extremely enhanced community quarantine for two weeks, or all
front liners report to duty.
10. If the Philippines is on extremely enhanced community quarantine,
then all front liners report to duty.

E. If A, B, and C are true statements and X, Y, and Z are false statements, identify
whether the following are true or false.

1. A B 6. X  Y   B  C

2. Y  C 7. B  C  C  B
3. B  X 8. X  Z   X  Z 
4. Z  X 9. A  B
5. B  C  Y  Z  10. X  Y   B  C

F. Identify the nature of the following statements, then identify which are equivalent.
1. R    P  R    P  Q  
2.  P   R  Q     P  R    P  Q 
3.  P   R  Q    R

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