CHAPTER 2

Set, Whole Numbers, and Numeration

2.1. Sets as a Basis for Whole Numbers

A set is a collection of objects, called the elements or members of the set.
Three common ways to define sets:
(1) A verbal description.
“The set of all sophomore female students in this class”
This is a clear criterion for judging set membership.
(2) Listing (within braces):
{orange, pink, green}
(3) Set-builder notation:
{x|x is an even whole number} = {2, 4, 6, 8, . . . }
Note.
(1) If S = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10},
4 2 S (4 is an element of S) and
72
/ S (7 is not an element of S).
(2) ; (preferably) or { } denotes the empty set (or null set), the set with no
members.

11
12 2. SET, WHOLE NUMBERS, AND NUMERATION

Two sets A and B are equal (A = B) if they have precisely the same elements.
Note.
(1) We write A 6= B if A and B are not equal.
(2) Elements are usually listed only once in a set, so
{a, a, b, c} = {a, b, c}.
(3) The order of listing is immaterial, so
{a, b, c} = {c, a, b}.
(4) {;} 6= ; (or {{ }} 6= { }). Why?
Definition. A 1–1 correspondence between two sets A and B is a pairing of
the elements of A with the elements of B so that each element of A corresponds
with exactly one element of B, and vice-versa. We write A ⇠ B and say A
and B are equivalent or matching sets.
Example.

Definition.
(1) Set A is a subset of set B, written A ✓ B, if and only if every element of
A is also an element of B.
Example.
{1, 2, 4} ✓ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, but {1, 2, 3} 6✓ {1, 2, 4}
Note. For every set A, A ✓ A and ; ✓ A (Why?)
(2) Set A is a proper subset of set B, written A ⇢ B, if A ✓ B and A 6= B
(i.e., B has an element not in A).
Example.
{1, 2, 4} ⇢ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, but {1, 2, 3} 6⇢ {1, 2, 3}
 2.1. SETS AS A BASIS FOR WHOLE NUMBERS 13

Note. A = B if and only if A ✓ B and B ✓ A.

Definition. A set is finite if it is empty or can be put in 1–1 correspondence

with a set of the form {1, 2, 3, . . . , n} where n is a counting number.
A set is infinite if it is not finite.
Note. A set is infinite if and only if it is equivalent to a proper subset of
itself.
Example.
{1, 2, 3, 4, . . . }
llll
{2, 4, 6, 8, . . . }
What are some implications here?
Is every infinite set equivalent to the set of counting numbers?
Venn diagrams are used to show relationships between sets. We use a rectangle
called the universal set U to represent all elements considered in a discussion
or context and circles for other sets.

A⇢B
This is a proper subset since x 2
/ A.
14 2. SET, WHOLE NUMBERS, AND NUMERATION

Two sets are disjoint if they have no elements in common.

Operations on sets:
(1) The union of two sets A and B, denoted A [ B, is the set containing all
elements belonging to A or to B (or to both).

A[B
(2) The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted A \ B, is the set of all
elements common to both A and B.

A\B
 2.1. SETS AS A BASIS FOR WHOLE NUMBERS 15

(3) The complement of a set A, denoted A, is the set of all elements in the
universe U not in A.

A
(4) The set di↵erence (or relative complement) of set B from set A, denoted
A B, is the set of all elements of A that are not in B.

A B
(5) The Cartesian product of set A with set B, denoted A ⇥ B and read “A
cross B,” is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) where a 2 A and b 2 B.
Note.
A [ B = {x|x 2 A or x 2 B}
A \ B = {x|x 2 A and x 2 B}
A = {x|x 2 U and x 2
/ A}
A B = {x|x 2 A and x 2
/ B}
A ⇥ B = {(a, b)|x 2 A and x 2 B}
16 2. SET, WHOLE NUMBERS, AND NUMERATION

Problem (Page 56 # 25).

Let A = {50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80}, B = {50, 60, 70, 80}, C = {60, 70, 80},
D = {55, 65}.
(a) A [ (B \ C) =
A [ {60, 70, 80} =
A
(b) (A [ B) \ C =
A\C =
C
(c)(A \ C) [ (C \ D) =
C [;=
C
(d)(A \ C) \ (C [ D) =
C [ {55, 60, 65, 70, 80} =
C
(e)(B C) \ A =
{50} \ A =
{50}
{50}
(f)(A D) \ (B C) =
{50, 60, 70, 75, 80} \ {50} =
{50}
 2.1. SETS AS A BASIS FOR WHOLE NUMBERS 17

Problem (Page 56 # 39). A university professor asked his class of 42

students when they had studied for his class the previous weekend. Their
responses were as follows:
9 had studied on Friday
18 had studied on Saturday
30 had studied on Sunday
3 had studied on both Friday and Saturday
10 had studied on both Saturday and Sunday
6 had studied on both Friday and Sunday
2 had studied on Friday, Satuday, and Sunday
Assuming that all 42 students responded and answered honestly, answer the
following questions.
(a) How many students studied on Sunday but not on either Friday or Saturday?
(b) How many students did all of their studying one one day?
(c) How many of the students did not study at all for this class last weekend?
Strategy 7 – Draw a diagram.
Here we use a Venn diagram (A = Friday, B = Saturday, C = Sunday).
2 had studied on Friday, Satuday, and Sunday

2
18 2. SET, WHOLE NUMBERS, AND NUMERATION

3 had studied on both Friday and Saturday

10 had studied on both Saturday and Sunday
6 had studied on both Friday and Sunday

1 4
2

9 had studied on Friday

18 had studied on Saturday
30 had studied on Sunday

2 2

1 4
2
7 16
8

(a) How many students studied on Sunday but not on either Friday or Saturday?
16
(b) How many students did all of their studying one one day?
25
(c) How many of the students did not study at all for this class last weekend?
2
 2.2. WHOLE NUMBERS AND NUMERATION 19

2.2. Whole numbers and numeration

A number is an idea or abstraction that represents a quantity.
A numeral is the symbol used to represent a number.
There are three common uses of numbers:
(1) A cardinal number describes how many elements are in a finite set.
W = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }
is the set of whole numbers.
(2) The ordinal numbers deal with ordering: first, second, third, etc.
There are three ways of ordering whole numbers:
(a) the usual counting chant:
3<6
since 3 comes before 6 in the chant.
(b) using 1-1 correspondence:
We let n(A) represent the number of elements in a set A and n(B)
represent the number of elements in a set B.
Let a = n(A) and b = n(B). Then a < b or b > a if A is equivalent to
a proper subset of B.
Example.
20 2. SET, WHOLE NUMBERS, AND NUMERATION

(c) using the whole number line.

4<8
since 4 is to the left of 8 on the whole number line.
(3) Identification numbers are used to name things, such as telephone numbers,
social security numbers, and CBU 899 numbers.
Numeration systems use various numerals to represent numbers.
(1) The tally numeration system uses single strokes for numbers and can be
improved by grouping.
For 37:
or
We see that grouping helps considerably. What are some advantages and
disadvantages of this system?
(2) The Egyption numeration system uses the following numerals:

This is an additive system since the values of the individual numerals are added
together to form numbers.

Note. The order in which the numerals are written for a number is imma-
terial.
 2.2. WHOLE NUMBERS AND NUMERATION 21

(3) The Roman numeration system uses the following basic numerals:

It is a positional system in that the position of a numeral a↵ects the value being
represented. For example, IX is di↵erent from XI. It is also a subtractive system
in that a lower numeral to the left of a numeral means subtraction rather than
addition: IV means 5-1 or 4. Here are some common pairings:

Finally, this is also a multiplicative system in that XV means 15 ⇥ 1000 or

15,000.
Example.
VMCMXLXIV means
V M CM XL IV =
5000 + 1000 + 900 + 40 + 4 = 6944.
22 2. SET, WHOLE NUMBERS, AND NUMERATION

(4) The Babylonian numeration system uses the following two symbols:

This system uses place value, where symbols represent di↵erent values depend-
ing on the place in which they were written. Place value is based on 60. But
consider the following:

Does this represent 60 + 14 = 74 or 3600 + 0(60) + 14 = 3614? To help in cases

like this, the placeholder

was introduced to indicate a vacant place. (What number seems to be missing

in this and all previous systems?) With this new symbol,

means 60 + 14 = 74, while

means 3600 + 0(60) + 14 = 3614.

 2.2. WHOLE NUMBERS AND NUMERATION 23

(5) The Mayan numeration system was a vertical place value system and had
a symbol for zero. The three symbols used are

Here are some sample simple numbers:

This last number is di↵erent in that it occupies two levels, the zero for ones and
the dot for one twenty. Remember, this is a vertical system. This system also
had a varying base:

(1 ⇥ 7200) + (6 ⇥ 360) + (0 ⇥ 20) + (3 ⇥ 1) = 7200 + 2160 + 0 + 3 = 9363

Express the following in our numeration system:
24 2. SET, WHOLE NUMBERS, AND NUMERATION

The answers in our numeration system:

The following table summarizes the attributes of the numeration systems we

have studied:

2.3. The Hindu-Arabic System

This is our system.
Features:
(1) 10 symbols can be used to represent all whole numbers —
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
(1A) Suppose we only used 5 symbols — 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
(2) Grouping by 10’s – ours is a base 10 system.
(a) Bundles of sticks model – each group of 10 sticks is bundled with a rubber
band.
 2.3. THE HINDU-ARABIC SYSTEM 25

Ten bundles of ten are bundled to make 100, etc.

(b) Base ten pieces:

3427 – 3 blocks, 4 flats, 2 longs, 7 units.

3427 = 3(1000) + 4(100) + 2(10) + 7(1).
(2A) Grouping by fives – base 5.

Write this as 32five or 325 and read as “three two base 5.” Some block repre-
sentations of base five numbers follow.
26 2. SET, WHOLE NUMBERS, AND NUMERATION

The first 10 base five numerals follow:

Adding 15 to a numeral follows in the block model.

(3) We have place value, which implies the system is positional.

(3A) The same for base five.
(4) The system is additive and multiplicative. A numerals’s expanded form or
expanded notation expresses a numeral as the sum of its digits times their
respective place values.
75, 234 = 7(10, 000) + 5(1000) + 2(100) + 3(10) + 4(1)
(4A) The same for base 5.
23, 2345 = 2(10, 0005) + 3(10005) + 2(1005) + 3(105) + 4(15)
= 2(625) + 3(125) + 2(25) + 3(5) + 4(1) = 1694.
This serves as an example of converting base five to base ten.
 2.3. THE HINDU-ARABIC SYSTEM 27

Example (Converting from base ten to base five). Convert 7326 to base
five.
50 = 1, 51 = 5, 52 = 25, 53 = 125, 54 = 625, 55 = 3125, 56 = 15625, . . .

7326 = 2133015
Example. Convert 7326 to base 7
70 = 1, 71 = 7, 72 = 49, 73 = 343, 74 = 2401, 75 = 16807, . . .

7326 = 302347
Each Hindu-Arabic numeral has an associated name.

Note. The word “and” does not appear in any name.