Airport Development Reference Maneal For

Airport Development
Reference Maneal
[ Effective March 2014
AIRPORTS COUNCIL
Forecasting and Planning sections
INTERNATIONAL produced in collaboration with ACI Edition
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Airport Development Reference Manual

Material No.: 9044-10
ISBN 978-92-9252-226-1
© 2014 International Air Transport Association. All rights reserved.
Montreal— Geneva
IA TA
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements............................................................................................................................................ vi
Section 1—Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 lATA-Who We Are; What We D o....................................................................................................... 1
1.2 lATA's Airport Activities........................................................................................................................ 1
1.2.1 Airport Consultative Committees (ACCs).............................................................................. 2
1.2.2 IATA Consulting Services for Airports.....................................................................................2
1.2.3 International Industry Working Group....................................................................................3
1.3 Other IATA Airport Activities................................................................................................................4
1.4 Airports Council International (ACI) Collaboration............................................................................. 4
1.4.1 Introduction to Airports Council International (ACI)............................................................... 4
1.5 Purpose of the Airport Development Reference Manual....................................................................5
1.6 How to Use the ADRM ........................................................................................................................6
1.7 ADRM: New Format............................................................................................................................ 7
Section 2—Forecasting....................................................................................................................................... 9
2.1 Introduction and Definition................................................................................................................ 10
2.2 Economic Base for Air Travel............................................................................................................ 12
2.2.1 Airport Catchment Area......................................................................................................... 12
2.2.2 Socioeconomic Base............................................................................................................ 13
2.2.3 Transfer Traffic..................................................................................................................... 14
2.2.4 Airline Yields......................................................................................................................... 14
2.2.5 Tourism................................................................................................................................ 15
2.2.6 Trade.................................................................................................................................... 17
2.2.7 Intermodal Transportation.................................................................................................... 17
2.2.8 Economic Base Data Analysis.............................................................................................17
2.3 Historical Aviation Activity................................................................................................................. 18
2.3.1 Data Collection...................................................................................................................... 19
2.3.2 Airport Role.......................................................................................................................... 23
2.3.3 Historical Passenger Volumes.............................................................................................23
2.3.4 Top Domestic and International Destinations..................................................................... 23
2.3.5 Historical Market Share by Airline....................................................................................... 24
2.3.6 Historical Air Cargo Tonnage...............................................................................................24
2.3.7 Historical Movements by Segment...................................................................................... 25
2.3.8 Forecast Impact Factors.......................................................................................................25
2.4 Competitive Analysis......................................................................................................................... 26
10TH EDITION, MARCH 2014

IA TA Airport Development Reference Manual
2.5 Review of Existing Forecasts............................................................................................................26

2.6 Common Forecasting Techniques....................................................................................................26
2.6.1 Trend/Time Series................................................................................................................27
2.6.2 Consensus Forecasts...........................................................................................................27
2.6.3 Market Share Forecasts.......................................................................................................28
2.6.4 Econometric/Regression Model...........................................................................................29
2.7 Passenger Activity Forecast.............................................................................................................. 32
2.7.1 Passenger Activity Segments..............................................................................................32
2.7.2 Passenger Activity Benchmarking........................................................................................33
2.7.3 Passenger Activity Alternative Scenarios............................................................................ 34
2.8 Baggage Forecast............................................................................................................................. 34
2.9 Air Cargo Activity Forecast................................................................................................................ 35
2.9.1 Air Cargo Supply and Demand............................................................................................36
2.9.2 Cargo Data Analysis............................................................................................................. 37
2.9.3 Cargo Market Forecast Benchmarking............................................................................... 38
2.9.4 Cargo Activity Forecast........................................................................................................39
2.10 Air Transport Movement Forecast.....................................................................................................40
2.10.1 ATM Segments..................................................................................................................... 40
2.10.2 Passenger ATMs..................................................................................................................41
2.10.3 Freighter ATM Forecast.......................................................................................................44
2.10.4 General Aviation ATM Forecast..........................................................................................45
2.10.5 Military/Government ATM Forecast..................................................................................... 47
2.10.6 Total ATM Forecast..............................................................................................................47
2.11 Peak Period Forecast........................................................................................................................47
2.11.1 Peak Period Traffic Measure................................................................................................48
2.11.2 Incorporating Directionality into Peak Hour Analysis......................................................... 49
2.11.3 Peak Period Forecasts.........................................................................................................49
2.11.4 Conclusions Regarding Peak PeriodAnalysis......................................................................50
Section 3—Planning......................................................................................................................................... 52
3.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 52
3.2 Master Planning................................................................................................................................ 52
3.2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 53
3.2.2 Consultation......................................................................................................................... 57
3.2.3 The Master Planning Process..............................................................................................62
3.2.4 Preplanning.......................................................................................................................... 65
3.2.5 Traffic Forecasts...................................................................................................................69
3.2.6 Data Collection, Site Evaluation andFacility Potential.........................................................70
3.2.7 Requirements Analysis.........................................................................................................76
3.2.8 Development of Options.......................................................................................................92
IV 10TH EDITION, MARCH 2014

Table of Contents
3.2.9 Environmental Responsibility............................................................................................. 107

3.2.10 Land Use Planning............................................................................................................. 117
3.2.11 Outline Development Plan.................................................................................................. 124
3.2.12 Financial Assessment........................................................................................................ 128
3.2.13 Reporting/Deliverables....................................................................................................... 128
3.2.14 Master Planning on a Greenfield Site................................................................................133
3.2.15 References......................................................................................................................... 146
3.3 Airside Infrastructure......................................................................................................................146
3.4 Passenger Terminal........................................................................................................................ 146
3.4.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 146
3.4.2 Terminal Design Considerations........................................................................................ 147
3.4.3 Terminal Planning Concepts.............................................................................................. 164
3.4.4 Terminal Capacity and Level of Service............................................................................183
3.4.5 Level of Service Concept and Planning Guidelines...........................................................191
3.4.6 Demanc-Capacity Assessment......................................................................................... 195
3.4.7 The “Optimum” Solution and Balanced Capacity...............................................................199
3.4.8 Passenger Process............................................................................................................ 200
3.4.9 Segregation and Security Requirements in Airport Terminals.......................................... 204
3.4.10 Vertical and Horizontal Circulation.....................................................................................206
3.4.11 Departures.......................................................................................................................... 208
3.4.12 Transfers............................................................................................................................ 270
3.4.13 Arrivals............................................................................................................................... 273
3.4.14 Commercial and Retail Opportunities................................................................................303
3.4.15 Access :o Air Travel for Persons with Reduced Mobility.................................................. 311
3.4.16 Toilet Provisions................................................................................................................. 319
3.4.17 Passenger Wayfinding and Signage..................................................................................322
3.4.18 Landside Access Systems and Forecourts........................................................................326
3.5 Cargo Terminal................................................................................................................................ 334
3.6 Airport Support Elements................................................................................................................ 334
3.7 Surface Access Systems................................................................................................................ 334
G lossary........................................................................................................................................................... 335
A cronym s.........................................................................................................................................................342
10TH EDITION, MARCH 2014 V

Acknowledgements
IATA and ACI gratefully acknowledge the technical assistance and input provided by IATA Members, ACI
Members and the organizations and individuals listed below.
IATA Members Document Review Panel:

• Mr. Alessandro D'Amico Air Canada
• Mr. Tony Edwards British Airways
• Mr. Hans Smeets KLM
• Mr. Allan Young Virgin Atlantic
ACI Members Document Review Panel:

• ACI World Facilitation and Services Standing Committee
Content Contributions:
Forecasting Section
• Mr. Russell Blanck Landrum & Brown
• Mr. Dilwyn Gruffydd Landrum & Brown
• Mr. Mark Heusinkveld Landrum & Brown
Master Planning Chapter
• Mr. Gordon Hamilton SNC Lavalin
Passenger Terminal Chapter
• Ms. Nathalie Martel AECOM
• Ms. Marion White HOK
• Ms. Nicola Morton HOK
• Mr. Jeffry Fucigna HOK
• Mr. Alan Lamond Pascall+Watson
• Mr. Hendrik Orsinger Pascall+Watson
• Mr. Martin Leprohon Airbiz
IATA and ACI also wish to thank the following individuals, through the Airport Consultants 1
their document reviews.
ACC Members Document Review Panel:

ACC Review Team Leaders
• Mr. Steve Riano Bechtel Corporation [Review Team Leader]
• Mr. TJ Schulz Airport Consultants Council [Staff Liaison]
Forecasting Section
• Mr. Steve Riano Bechtel Corporation
• Dr. Michel Thomet Bechtel Corporation
• Mr. Ian Kincaid InterVISTAS Group
VI 10TH EDITION, MARCH 2014

I ATA Acknowledgements
Master Planning Chapter

• Dr. Alexander Ising AviAlliance GmbH
• Mr. Paul Puckli CHA Consulting, Inc.
• Mr. Mike Arnold ESA Airports
• Mr. Doug Goldberg Landrum & Brown
• Mr. John van Woensel Parsons Brinckerhoff
Passenger Terminal Chapter
• Mr. Andy Griffiths Bechtel Corporation
• Mr. Pat Askew Gensler
• Mr. Keith Thompson Gensler
• Mr. Bruce Anderson Landrum & Brown
• Mr. Mark Lang Lang & Associates, LLC
• Mr. Stephen Harrill RS&H
If you would like to contribute to the update of the Airport Development Reference Manual, please submit your
request to adrm@iata.org.
10TH EDITION, MARCH 2014 VII

Introduction— lATA's Airport Activities
Section 1-Introduction
1.1 lATA-Who We Are; What We Do
International air transport is one of the most dynamic and fast-changing industries in the world. The
International Air Transport Association (IATA) is the industry's responsive and forward-looking trade
association. IATA operates at the highest level of global professional standards.
Founded in 1945, IATA brings together approximately 240 airlines, including the world's largest. Flights by
these airlines comprise more than 84 per cent of all international scheduled air traffic.
IATA airlines recognize that cooperation helps them meet the needs of a rapidly changing aviation industry.
This cooperation allows airlines to offer a seamless service at the highest possible levels of quality to
passengers and cargo shippers. Much of this cooperation is expressed through IATA, whose mission is to
“represent, lead and serve the airline industry”.
IATA helps to ensure that its members' aircraft can operate safely, securely, efficiently and economically
under clearly defined and understood rules. Continual efforts by IATA ensure that people, freight and mail can
move around the intricate global airline network as safely, simply and cost-effectively as possible.
IATA proactively supports joint industry action essential for the sustainable development of the air transport
system. lATA's role is to identify issues, help establish industry positions and communicate these to
governments and other relevant authorities.
1.2 lATA's Airport Activities

The Airports and Fuel (AF) section of lATA's Airports, Passenger, Cargo and Security (APCS) division aims to
influence airport planning and development projects worldwide to ensure that the needs of the airports'
primary business partners, the airline community, are recognized and incorporated into the planning, design
and development of airports. These needs are expressed in terms of appropriateness, efficiency and cost-
effectiveness. The revised IATA Airport Development Reference Manual (ADRM) provides guidelines and
recommendations that enhance airport planning and design. Where major airport capital programs are being
planned or are underway, IATA supports the aviation industry by convening Airport Consultative Committees
(ACCs). The purpose of ACCs is to help gather airline requirements and recommendations and to centralize
this input for the benefit of airport operators and owners. IATA also provides specialized commercial airport
consultancy services worldwide.
10TH EDITION, MARCH 2014 1

IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
1.2.1 Airport Consultative Committees (ACCs)
Consultation with airport authorities via the Airport Consultative Committee (ACC) mechanism brings together
the airlines' airport planning expertise, the IATA secretariat and airport authorities worldwide. ACCs serve as a
focal point for consultation concerning the planning, delivery and cost-effectiveness of airport expansions, the
development of new airports or enhancements to the airport experience for both passengers and staff.
The airports selected for such intervention are determined by Regional Airport Steering Groups (RASGs) and
by the IATA World Airport Group (WAG).
For more information, click on WAG & RASGs.
1.2.2 IATA Consulting Services for Airports
IATA offers a wide range of consulting services to assist airports in their successful development. Airport
development is cyclical, with very different needs at each step of the cycle. IATA Consulting addresses the
specific challenges associated with each step, assisting airport operators, airport shareholders and/or
regulatory bodies successfully deliver their project.
Exhibit 1.2.2: Consulting services for each stage of the airport lifecycle
Airport Development
Capacity/demand analyi
Master plan review and
Airport land-use plan
Terminal concepts
Commercial concepts
Transactions
Buyer Due Diligence
Vendor Due Diligence
Privatization program
for governments
Airport charges regulato Operational performance KPI
n Commercial performance KPI
Source: IATA Consulting
2 10TH EDITION, MARCH 2014

Introduction— lATA's Airport Activities
1.2.2.1 Planning and Construction Phase
In the planning and construction phase, IATA Consulting offers airport development solutions to facilitate the
planning and design of airport infrastructure. The primary element of this phase is the definition of the airport
master plan. It is important to note that IATA Consulting does not take part in construction projects and will
not supervise any construction work.
1.2.2.2 Commercialization Phase
In the next phase of the airport lifecycle, the commercialization phase, IATA Consulting offers a complete
portfolio of business development solutions. Among the most popular are air services and airport commercial
revenues.
1.2.2.3 Optimization Phase
When airports are in the optimization phase, IATA Consulting provides solutions to monitor and improve
operations, performance and level of service. Demand and capacity analysis studies are key solutions in this
phase.
1.2.2.4 Change in Ownership Phase
Eventually, for those airports that may experience a change in ownership, IATA Consulting offers solutions for
privatization. Airport due diligence is the most popular service for both vendors and buyers. Included in this
privatization support offering is the design of the regulatory regime applicable to the new owners and the
environment.
For more information, please contact us at consulting@iata.org.
1.2.3 International Industry Working Group
The IIWG brings together IATA, Airports Council International (ACI) and the International Coordinating Council
of Aerospace Industries Associations (ICCAIA). The IIWG was founded in 1970 and its main goal is to review
airport/aircraft compatibility issues in order to improve the development of the air transport system.
For more information, click on IIWG.

1.3 Other IATA Airport Activities

In addition to its airport planning and development activities, lATA's APCS division participates actively in
many other airport-related areas such as charges and tariffs, fuel, taxation, ground handling, security,
passenger experience and cargo services. Special working groups constituted from various committees may
also be formed on an ad hoc basis to address specific industry issues (i.e., introduction of the A380-800).
1.4 Airports Council International (ACI) Collaboration

The new edition of the ADRM is being released in joint collaboration with our colleagues at ACI. The interests
of airlines and airports are very closely linked. The success of one group contributes to the success of the
other. As such, airlines and airports are very close business partners.
A close and collaborative working relationship with ACI ensures that the ADRM meets the needs of the
aviation community as a whole. Intrinsically, best practice airport planning, including the affordability of major
airport developments, is beneficial for airline customers and passengers.
1.4.1 Introduction to Airports Council International (ACI)
Airports Council International (ACI), the only worldwide association of airports, has 573 member airport
authorities that operate over 1,751 airports in 174 countries. It advances the collective interests of, and acts
as the voice of, the world's airports and the communities they serve.
ACI's mission is to promote professional excellence in airport management and operations. This mandate is
carried out through the organization's multiple training opportunities, its customer service benchmarking
program as well as a wide range of conferences, industry statistical products and best practice publications.
ACI’s main objectives and roles are to:
• Maximize the contributions of airports to maintaining and developing a safe, secure, environmentally
compatible and efficient air transport system.
• Achieve cooperation among all segments of the aviation industry and their stakeholders, including
governments and international organizations.
• Influence international and national legislation, rules, policies, standards and practices based on
established policies representing airports' interests and priorities.
• Advance the development of the aviation system by enhancing public awareness of the economic and
social importance of airport development.
• Maximize cooperation and mutual assistance between airports.
• Provide members with industry knowledge, advice and assistance, as well as foster professional
excellence in airport management and operations.
• Build ACI's worldwide organizational capacity and resources to serve all members effectively and
efficiently.

IA TA Introduction— Purpose of the Airport Development Reference Manual
ACI pursues airports' interests in discussions with international organizations. The most important relationship
is with the International Civi Aviation Organization (ICAO), where international standards for air transport are
debated and developed.
ACI has five regional offices that play a very important role in the relationship with ACI members and the
spread of best practices. The five regional offices are:
• ACI Africa in Casablanca (Morocco)
• ACI Asia-Pacific in Hong-Kong (China)
• ACI Europe in Brussels (Belgium)
• ACI Latin America-Caribbean in Panama City (Panama)

• ACI North America in Washington, DC (USA)
ACI has six standing committees (Airport IT; Economics; Environment; Facilitation and Services; Safety and
Technical; and Security) mandated by the ACI Governing Board to provide guidance and council, as well as
help shape current policy issues for Governing Board endorsement in their areas of expertise. They are also
required to assist the Governing Board, Executive Committee and Secretariat, as appropriate.
1.5 Purpose of the Airport Development Reference Manual

The IATA Airport Development Reference Manual (ADRM) is recognized as one of the aviation industry's
most important guides for airlines, airports, government authorities, architects, engineers and planning
consultants engaged in planning new airports or extending existing airport infrastructure. The ADRM brings
together aviation industry best practices with respect to the development of world-class airports through better
comprehension, briefing and design. Its content represents the consolidated recommendations of world-
renowned industry specialists and organizations seeking to promote the development of sustainable world-
class airport facilities.
The previous edition of the ADRM (9th Edition published in 2004) was published in traditional bound paper
format. The traditional format has some obvious constraints; most notably the difficulty of responding quickly
to what is an inherently dynamic, fast-changing industry as well as the editorial need to limit the published
material to manageable proportions. The latest edition adopts a different approach that allows for more
regular updates and linkages to a vast array of material contained in other relevant articles and publications
prepared and monitored by recognized industry specialists, authorities and organizational partners.
In order to take full advantage of the opportunities offered by this new approach, the structure of the new
manual has been completely revised and reformatted. Material contained in earlier editions that continues to
be relevant has been revamped and expanded to address the quickly evolving nature of the aviation industry.
One of the key aspects of the new manual is the ability to offer a comprehensive overview of the many
complex topics that are involved in any airport project, especially at large international airports. However, the
complexity associated with all airport developments means that the information contained within this manual
must be carefully considered. As with any complex concept, there are many variables that are subject to
different interpretations and can lead to significantly different conclusions.

Recommendation: Required Expertise

It is recommended that all commissioning airlines, airports and government authorities select experienced
professionals to assist them.
1.6 How to Use the ADRM

The ADRM should be used by airport planners worldwide as a complementary source of best practice airport
design guidance. Other key ICAO references include Annex 14 (in particular for airfield and apron design), the
Airport Planning Manual (Doc 9184), the Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), and the Airport Services
Manual (Doc 9137).
IATA recognizes that international standards will vary from region to region around the world. While the
ADRM should be the initial source of design guidance for airport development, the airport design professional
should always seek to clarify national standards and decide appropriately on any potentially conflicting
requirements. Professional engineering and architectural guidance should be used to assess and resolve
differences between the ADRM and national standards.
The ADRM should be used in conjunction with relevant international and national legislation, regulations and
standards. Examples include, but are not limited to:
• International and national government aviation and security authorities:
o International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
o European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC)
o Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)-\Jri\ted States of America
o Transportation Security Administration (TSA)-United States of America
o Department for Transport (DfT)-\Jnited Kingdom
o Transport Canada
o Canadian A ir Transport Security Authority (CATSA)
• National and international legislation defining design and engineering standards published by:
o American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
o British Standards Institute (BSI)

o International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
• Best practice engineering and architectural standards and codes of best practices:
Architectural:
o American Institute o f Architects (A!A)
o Royal Institute o f British Architects (RIBA)
o Royal Architectural Institute o f Canada (RAIC)

Introduction—ADRM: New Format
Engineering:
o Institution o f Civil Engineers (ICE)
o Institution o f Structural Engineers (IStructE)
o Institution o f Mechanical Engineers (IMechE)
Building Services:
o The Chartered Institute o f Building Services Engineers (CIBSE)

Fire Mitigation Engineering:
o Institution o f Fire Engineers
There are many instances around the world where even competent professionals have misunderstood or
misinterpreted the range of complex data provided in the ADRM due to the lack of specific experience with
airport design projects and have consequently delivered wholly inappropriate solutions. Therefore, as stated
above, it is recommended that all commissioning airlines, airports and government authorities select
experienced professionals to assist them. ACI and IATA are able to assist with Requests for Proposals
(RFPs) and assist with evaluations and/or recommendations where deemed appropriate.
1.7 ADRM: New Format

The revised format allows the new ADRM to adopt a flexible structure that can be adjusted as and when
required. The ADRM currently has two primary sections:
• Forecasting
• Planning
A third section, Economics/Finance, is under consideration. This new edition of the ADRM is provided in an
electronic format that will facilitate ongoing updates and additions. Sub-sections are referred to as chapters. In
the first release of the 10th edition, the chapters focus on:
• Forecasting
o Economic Base for A ir Travel
o Historical Aviation A ctivity

o Competitive Analysis
o Review o f Existing Forecasts
o Common Forecasting Techniques
o Passenger Activity Forecast
o Baggage Forecast
o A ir Cargo A ctivity Forecast

ia t a
,n|
OJkSU Airport Development Reference Manual
o A ir Transport Movement Forecast
o Peak Period Forecasts

• Planning
o Master Planning
o Passenger Terminal (including Levels o f Service and Capacity Calculations)
The initial release will be followed by a roll out of additional Planning topics that will include:
• Airside Infrastructure
o Runways, Taxiways, Aprons/Stands, Air & Ground Navigation and Air Navigation Aids
• Baggage Handling and Services
• Cargo Terminals
o Apron Areas, Terminals, Expedited and Express Facilities, Mail, Perishable Handling, Access,
Security
• Surface Access Systems
• Support Facilities
o Administration, Aircraft Maintenance, Aircrew Briefing and Reporting, Aviation Fuel, Consolidated Car
Hire Facilities, Crisis Management Centres, Flight Catering, General Aviation, Ground Service
Equipment Storage/Maintenance, Hotels, Airport Maintenance, Meteorological Services, Rescue and
Fire Services, Security, Utilities
Any comments or questions about the ADRM should be addressed by email to adrm@iata.org.

Forecasting
Section 2-Forecasting
Vision
Airport forecasts should produce:
• A set of professional long-term traffic forecasts that drive the long-term development of airports; and
• Airport traffic forecasts that encompass both market demand and airline capacity, addressing two
fundamental questions:
o What will be the future air travel demand for a given airport?
o How will this demand be served by airlines at this airport?
Policy
Airport forecasts should consider that:
• Each airport requires a specific forecasting approach to be defined depending on multiple factors,
such as:
o Airport size;
o Relationship between capacity and demand;
o Airport traffic dynamic; and
o Anticipated changes in the nature of the demand.
• Econometric models are well suited in most circumstances, however they may not be sufficient to capture
non economic factors like the interaction between market demand and airline capacity.
• Airport forecasts are not simple recipes. A robust forecast relies on:
o Traceable and transparent assumptions;
o Explicit models and equations; and,
o A comprehensive review of economic and non economic changes in the airport business
environment. Typical long-term changes to be considered include airline strategies, airport
competition, modal competition and regulation.
• Annual traffic forecasts are used to determine the scale and timing of facility expansion buy means of an
Airport Master Plan. Forecasts should generate a range of data that can be used by planners to
determine floor area, building footprint and plot sizes.
• Peak hour passenger forecasts are appropriate for sizing individual facility subsystems (e.g., immigration,
check-in, and baggage claim.
• Forecasting air traffic movements (ATM) is important to determine runway and airside capacity
requirements).

2.1 Introduction and Definition

Forecasts of future levels of aviation activity form the basis for effective decisions in airport infrastructure
planning. Forecasts should provide a plausible and robust guide to future activity levels based upon the latest
available data. Forecasts should:
• Use appropriate forecasting techniques;
• Be supported by information in the study; and
• Provide an adequate justification for airport planning and development.
Any activity that could potentially create a facility need should be included in the forecast.
The level of effort required to produce a planning forecast will vary significantly from airport to airport and
project to project. The use of elaborate forecasting tools and techniques may be warranted in the case of
large airports and more complex projects. An existing forecast may be all that is required for simpler projects.
Stakeholders should agree on the appropriate level of forecasting effort required in the pre-planning and
scoping phase of the study.
Aviation activity forecasts used for airport infrastructure planning are typically developed for a 20- to 30-year
time horizon due to the capital intensive nature of airport infrastructure projects and their life cycle. Forecasts
are usually presented in five-year increments. Annual forecasts may be desirable for the first five-year period.
Aviation forecasts provide the basis for:

• Determining the airport's role in the aviation system;
• Determining the improvements to the airfield, terminal facilities, apron areas, landside access, car rental,
and parking facilities needed to accommodate growth in demand;
• Estimating the potential environmental effects, such as noise and air quality, of the airport's operation on
the surrounding community
• Assessing market risk; and
• Evaluating the financial feasibility of alternative airport development proposals.
This section provides an overview of the information required and approach to developing airport forecasts for
passenger volumes, air cargo tonnage, and air transport movements (ATMs). The section is organized into
the following key chapters:
• Chapter 2.2 Economic Base for A ir Travel provides a summary of the key socioeconomic indicators
that drive the underlying or latent demand for air travel.
• Chapter 2.3 Historical Aviation A ctivity provides an overview of the types of aviation activity data and
their sources. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a context for how air carriers have added supply in
response to the latent demand for air travel (passenger demand) and the need to ship goods (air cargo
demand).
• Chapter 2.4 Competitive Analysis describes the competitive position of the subject airport including
strengths and weaknesses that may affect future aviation activity volumes.

IA TA Forecasting— Introduction and Definition
• Chapter 2.5 Review of Existing Forecasts evaluates the previous forecasting efforts in order to
understand available data, assumptions, and methodologies.
• Chapter 2.6 Common Forecasting Techniques provides a narrative summary of aviation forecasting
methodologies used to develop aviation forecasts, including time series, econometric/regression, market
share, and consensus techniques.
• Chapter 2.7 Passenger Activity Forecast discusses the key segments of passenger traffic: domestic
versus international, Origin and Destination (O&D) versus transfer, and segmentation.
• Chapter 2.8 Baggage Forecast provides guidance on how to derive baggage forecasts from the
passenger forecasts using bags-per-passenger ratios.
• Chapter 2.9 A ir Cargo A ctivity Forecast discusses the primary demand and supply factors, impact
factors, and key activity segments (e.g., belly versus freighter, import, export, and transfer) that should be
considered when developing an air cargo forecast.
• Chapter 2.10 A ir Transport Movement (ATM) Forecast summarizes how to develop ATM forecasts for
key segments of activity (i.e., passenger, cargo, general aviation, and military) and provides guidance on
how to develop aircraft *leet mix forecasts.
• Chapter 2.11 Peak Period Forecast provides an overview of methodologies employed to convert annual
forecasts into peak hour equivalents. The chapter also discusses the importance of understanding peak
hour flows by direction and the development of day flight schedules.
This chapter significantly expands on the previous version of the ADRM by providing more guidance and
concrete examples. While most of the metrics used in the ADRM edition 9 remain the same, it is anticipated
that further updates to recommended practices may be made as feedback is collected from the airlines and
ADRM users.
The approach described in the following chapters provides guidance on how to develop forecasts of market-
driven aviation demand for air service. These forecasts are considered “unconstrained”. In other words, for
the purposes of estimating demand, the approach assumes facilities will be provided to meet the forecast
demand. However, when there are financial, capacity or regulatory constraints, these specific cases should be
applied to the outcome of the unconstrained passenger or ATM demand forecast.
Several other reference publications provide guidelines on airport traffic forecasting. The main ones are:
• UK Aviation Forecasts, DfT (2013)
• Airport Traffic Forecasting Manual, ACI (2011)

• Airport Aviation Activity Forecasting, ACRP (2007)
• Manual on Air Traffic Forecasting, doc 8991, ICAO (2006)

• Advisory Circular on Airport Master Plans, FAA (2005)
• Forecasting Aviation Activity by Airport, FAA (2001)

2.2 Economic Base for Air Travel

The intrinsic links between the level of aviation activity and economic growth are well documented. Simply
put, growth in population, income, and business activity typically lead to increased demand for air travel and
the shipment of goods by air. An individual's demand for air travel is often referred to as “underlying demand”
or “latent demand” in that it cannot be realized without the presence of air service at a price that results in a
decision to fly.
Consequently, one of the first steps in developing an aviation activity forecast is to collect data relating to the
business, economic, trade, and tourism characteristics of the regions served by the subject airport. These
help to explain the economic basis for air travel at the airport. In most cases, economy and tourism are the
primary drivers of air passenger traffic while economy and trade are the main stimulus for air cargo traffic.
These variables identify historical and/or future trends that can potentially stimulate growth at the airport. Air
passenger demand depends on the combination of trends in the:
• Airline industry;
• National and international economies (especially at major transfer hubs); and
• Socioeconomic conditions within the airport catchment area.
2.2.1 Airport Catchment Area
The airport catchment area is the geographic region where the majority of originating passengers (or goods
for cargo) begin their journey prior to arriving at the subject airport. When developing an economic base, it s
essential to determine the catchment area of the airport. Understanding the region where passengers
originate prior to arriving at the airport will help determine what economic data best describes the underlying
market potential. Catchment areas range in size depending on the airport, its accessibility and its surrounding
environment. The passenger and cargo catchment areas of a given airport are often different. Cargo activities
tend to be more concentrated in the vicinity of the airport, but cargo payloads are often transported over long
distances to reach the airport.
Although it can be time consuming and costly, a passenger survey is the best method of identifying the
catchment area for an airport by determining where a local passenger's trip originated from. Catchment area
passenger surveys most commonly ask passengers if they are:
• A resident or visitor to the region;
• Where they came from prior to arriving at the airport;
• Mode of transportation io the airport;

• Reason for travel; and
• Length of stay.
Alternatively, specialized databases (such as PaxIS/AirportlS) provide information on where a ticket was
issued. This gives a high-level indication of the origin of a passenger's trip.

IA TA Forecasting— Economic Base for Air Travel
Catchment areas also depend on competing airports as well as the geographic and economic characteristics
of the surrounding region. It should be noted that it is common to find overlapping airport catchment areas,
particularly in large metro areas served by multiple airports.
In overlapping catchment areas with more than one choice of airport, passengers typically decide to use a
specific airport based on:
• Price;
• Nonstop service;
• Frequency of flights;
• Destinations served; and

• Proximity to their point of origin or destination.
All other variables being equal, theory dictates that passengers will tend to choose the closest airport. In
reality, homogeneity in airport choice rarely occurs. As a result, it is important to not assess the subject airport
in isolation, but to understand the catchment area dynamics of the region as a whole.
It should also be noted that catchment areas are dynamic and change over time, particularly in multi-airport
regions. Examples of factors that could cause a catchment area to shift are:
• A new model airline initiates service at the subject airport causing a higher proportion of traffic to be
captured from a neighboring airport due to attractive low fares that outweigh the increased ground travel
time;
• A new or expanded highway results in shorter travel times to a competing airport; and
• Urban sprawl puts an increasing proportion of a metropolitan area's population in proximity to the subject
airport.
2.2.2 Socioeconomic Base
Once the catchment area has been determined, the next step is to collect relevant historical and forecast
socioeconomic indicators.
Socioeconomic historical trends and forecasts are key indicators of air service activity. Examples include:
• Population;
• Employment;
• Per capita personal income (PCPI);
• Trade; and
• Gross domestic product/gross regional product (GDP/GRP).
Growth in population and employment are important indicators of the overall health of the local economy.
Population and employment changes tend to be closely correlated as people migrate in and out of areas

largely depending on their ability to find work in the local economy. Income statistics such as PCPI and
GDP/GRP are broad indicators of the relative earning power and wealth of the region. Thus, inferences can
be made relative to a resident's ability to purchase air travel. PCPI is calculated by dividing total income by
total population. Trade and GDP/GRP are important determinants of air cargo activity.
When working with socioeconomic variables over time, all currency values should be converted to constant
units to eliminate any distortions resulting from inflation. The specification of the currency units (US$, Euro or
local units) is also critical and should be made consistently.
Sources for socioeconomic data and statistics include:
• Woods & Poole;

• The World Bank;
• The International Monetary Fund;
• IHS Global Insight;

• Moody's economy.com;
• The Economist Intelligence Unit;
• Consensus Economics; and
• Government agencies.
When choosing a source for socioeconomic data, it is important to check its coverage, both in terms of scope
and time range (historical and forecast). When organizing the socioeconomic data to serve as input to various
projections, historical and forecast data should be arranged in compatible formats.
2.2.3 Transfer Traffic
Unlike origin/destination traffic, transfer traffic has little relevance to the catchment area and its dynamic. The
factors that influence the number of transfer passengers at an airport will differ from those affecting the
number of originating/terminating passengers. Therefore, airport forecasters will often analyze and forecast
these traffic segments separately. Forecasts of transfer passengers at an airport are particularly sensitive to
the strategies, networks and service densities of the carriers at the airport.
2.2.4 Airline Yields
Understanding the cost of air travel and its associated affects is the next step in developing an economic
base. Airline passenger yields are the aviation industry's measure for average ticket prices. Yield is defined as
the average revenue an airline obtains from carrying a passenger one mile or one kilometer. It reflects fare,
length of haul, level of competition, carrier costs, and other factors. Yield is a commonly accepted measure of
the price of air travel, but excludes airport taxes and charges.

IA TA Forecasting— Economic Base for Air Travel
If prices decline, passengers can better afford to fly and traffic typically increases. Indeed, potential travelers
make air travel decisions based primarily on the following three factors:
1. Availability of air service;
2. Price; and
3. Distance of an airport from point of trip origin/destination.
Competitive prices will often cause travelers to select airports that are not necessarily the closest to where
their trip begins or ends. Yields have a direct impact on the associated level of air travel demand. When data
is available, understanding historical yield trends and making inferences regarding their future direction is an
important component in the forecasting process.
Similarly, businesses looking to ship goods will examine the cost of shipping by air versus other transportation
modes (i.e., truck, rail, sea) balanced against the required timeframe for shipment delivery. Air freight is
typically the most expensive form of transportation, but also the most time efficient. Therefore, it will generally
be used for high-value commodities (per unit weight) or time-sensitive goods such as fruits or fashion apparel.
Forecast analysts must understand how the cost of shipping air freight affects air cargo volumes at the subject
airport versus other airports and other modes of transportation. It is important to note, however, that the
availability of data makes understanding air cargo shipping costs difficult to evaluate.
As with socioeconomic data, when working with historical yield and average air fares, all currency values
should be converted to constant units to eliminate any distortions resulting from inflation. Historical yield
values should be arranged in the same format as the other socioeconomic variables in order to be compatible
with various projection techniques.
2.2.5 Tourism
Airports play a critical role in facilitating tourism. Collecting statistics about tourism trends in the airport
catchment area is an important part of the forecasting process. Tourism indicators include:
• Number of visitors to the region;
• Nationality or world region of origin of foreign visitors;
• Number of hotel room nights and average duration of stay; and
• Seasonality of visitor travel.
2.2.5.1 Number of Visitors
Quantifying changes in the number of visitors to a region provides an indication of how attractive the airport
catchment area is as a place to visit. Attractions that often bring visitors to a region include:
• Theme parks;
• National/state parks;
• Beaches;

• Prevailing climate;
• Historic/heritage sites;
• Convention centers;
• Museums;
• Religious sites;
• Professional sports;
• Concert venues;
• College campuses, and more.
Visitors to airports also drive facility requirements such as nonresident Customs and Border Protection (CBP),
car rentals, hotels, restaurants, retail outlets, etc.
2.2.5.2 Nationality/World Region of Foreign Visitors
When an airport is knowledgeable about the nationality or home region of foreign visitors, the airport will have
a better understanding of how the world economic climate may affect the airport's traffic volumes. Indeed,
these trends can be explicitly modeled in aviation forecasts if the visitor data is available by city, country or
world region. Moreover, the airport can also target emerging markets that have been historically less well
linked to the airport's surrounding catchment area.
2.2.5.3 Number of Hotel Room Nights and Average Duration of Stay
To support visitor travel and tourism, hotels and conference facilities are critical for any airport. Understanding
the number of hotel room nights and the average length of stay of passengers gives airports insight into the
economic impact of tourism on the region as well as the need for development of new facilities in the future.
2.2.5.4 Seasonality of Visitor Travel
The traffic demand patterns experienced by an airport are subject to seasonal variations that are monthly,
daily, and even hourly. All airports experience seasonal highs and lows in terms of their volume of activity.
Airports that cater to a high percentage of tourist traffic often exhibit more variability in their monthly traffic
volumes. For example, airports near popular ski venues are used more often in winter than in the summer
months. Understanding peaking patterns and seasonality characteristics is critical in the assessment of the
ability of existing facilities to accommodate forecast increases in passenger and aircraft activity. The objective
of these forecasts is to size facilities so they are neither underutilized nor overcrowded too often.

IATA Forecasting— Economic Base for Air Travel
2.2.6 Trade
Air cargo plays a critical role in the world economy by facilitating trade, especially international trade. As
previously mentioned, air cargo tends to be oriented toward high-value or time-sensitive goods. Indeed, air
cargo is estimated to account for less than 10 percent of the world's freight volume, but over a third of the
value of goods exchanged worldwide.
The forecast analyst should seek to understand historical trade patterns, estimate future growth in trade, and
evaluate the implications of trade growth for air cargo volumes at the subject airport.
2.2.7 Intermodal Transportation
Intermodal transportation involves the use of two or more modes of transport within a given trip, whether it is
for individuals or freight. The Air Transport Action Group (ATAG) considers intermodal transportation for
passengers to be a combination of:
• Access to airports: local transport services between the airport and the neighboring city (e.g., commuter
train, metro, bus or even boat);
• Complementary feeder services between the airport and various destinations in the surrounding region
(mainly provided by train, high-speed rail, bus, or ferry);
• Competing services between major city centers of neighboring regions (i.e., a passenger uses air
transport for one leg of the trip and rail or bus for a second leg); and
• Alternative services that fully replace airline feeder services to airports (in general, for trips of less than
three hours).
It is clear that other modes of transport have the potential to affect air traffic volumes at the subject airport in
both complementary and competitive manners. It is incumbent on the forecast analyst to quantitatively or
qualitatively evaluate whether or not changes in the ground transportation infrastructure and/or multimodal
offerings are likely to impact air traffic volumes at the subject airport.
2.2.8 Economic Base Data Analysis
The final step in developing the economic base is analyzing the key data collected. The forecast analyst
should:
• Tabulate the key socioeconomic and demographic data in a format compatible with forecast models so
they can serve as inputs to various projection techniques;
• Create compound annual growth rates for each economic category in order to summarize trends over tne
historical period; and
• Document socioeconomic and regional demographic data in a narrative assessment to better explain how
these variables affect airport activity.

IA TA O IL
,n| Airport Development Reference Manual
This collection and analysis of socioeconomic and demographic data will be key when developing models for
the aviation forecast.
2.3 Historical Aviation Activity

The past is not always a perfect predictor of the future; however, an analysis of historical data provides the
opportunity to understand factors that may have caused traffic to increase or decrease and how those factors
may change in the future. Understanding the historical relationships between the economy (demand) and
aviation activity (supply) at the subject airport will help form the building blocks of the forecast.
The objective of this chapter is to discuss the updating and compiling of historical data for passengers, air
cargo, and aircraft movements. Passenger activity data should include all segments:
• Domestic;
• International;
• Origin and Destination (O&D);
• Transfer (connecting); and
• Transit.
Air cargo data should include all volumes for:
• Import;
• Export; and
• Transfer.
Aircraft movement data should include:
• Domestic and international commercial passenger movements;
• Cargo;
• Air taxi;
• General aviation;
• Military/government; and
• Total movements.
As discussed in the previous chapter, when evaluating historical activity, the analysis should include an
evaluation of the importance of the airport's role in the region as well as an overview of current domestic and
international air service offered at the subject airport. The analysis should also include an evaluation of the
competing air service offered at other airports serving the same catchment area.

IATA Forecasting— Historical Aviation Activity
2.3.1 Data Collection
The data sources available from which to develop the historical time series will vary depending on the subject
airport. Recommended sources for historical aviation activity data include, but are not limited to:
• Airport records;
• Airline schedules (such as the Official Airline Guide or SRS Analyzer);
• Airline data/information;
• Airports Council International publications;
• ICAO publications;
• Civil Aviation Authority and government reports;
• Surveys, such as:
o U.S. DOT Schedule T-100;
o U.S. DOT Air Passenger Origin-Destination Survey; and
o FAA ATADS;
• IATA PaxIS/AirportlS;
• CargolS; and
• MIDT.
The importance of these data sources are described below.
2.3.1.1 Airport Records
The first place to look when collecting data of historical aviation activity is the airport itself. Airport data is
considered the most accurate source for historical aviation activity. It is assumed that the airport has access
to historical activity statistics as well as previous forecasts that can be easily provided to the forecaster.
Additionally, any future air service initiatives being implemented or considered should have been discussed
with the airport.
Not all airports will have the same level of detail available. At minimum, the forecast analyst should gather
historical activity data for monthly and annual enplanements by carrier as well as aircraft movements and total
cargo tonnage. The following is the suggested list of items that should be requested from the airport (and/or
the Air Navigation Service Provider) when conducting an aviation forecast:
• Total passengers (annual: 20 years): domestic, international, transit and transfer, and total; by world
region and by direction (resident/visitor), if available;
• Passengers by carrier (monthly: five years): domestic, international, transit and transfer, and total;
• Total air cargo tonnage (annual: 20 years): domestic, international, O&D, transshipment, and total;
• A ir cargo tonnage by carrier (monthly: five years): domestic, international, and total; import, export, and
transshipment; passenger belly and freighter;

I ATA Airport Development Reference Manual
• Total aircraft movements (annual: 20 years): commercial passenger domestic, international, and total;
by aircraft type and/or category;
• Aircraft movements (monthly: five years): commercial passenger, cargo, general aviation,
military/government, and total;
• Based aircraft (annual: 10 years): by category;
• Radar data/ATC flight strips
o Daily flight activity for the peak month for the past three to five years; and
• Other forecast-related studies
o Recent aviation forecasts;

o Air service development studies;
o Air service marketing or strategy reports;
o Visitor counts by world region;
o Leakage studies;
o Economic impact studies;
o Passenger surveys;
o Prior master plan(s);
o Financial feasibility studies/bond documents; and
o Regional tourism/economic development studies.
2.3.1.2 Airline Schedules
There are a number of comprehensive global data sources for historical and planned airline schedules1. The
forward-looking flight schedules provide data up to 12 months in advance.
Airline schedules are valuable sources for understanding air service trends at an airport in terms of:
• Airline market share;
• Destinations served;
• Route frequency;
• Route competition;
• Aircraft fleet mix; and
• The profile of activity across the day.
It is important to note that airline schedules capture scheduled activity (i.e., what was planned to happen)
rather than what actually occurred. They do not take into account flight delays or cancelations.
1 SRS Analyzer, OAG, Innovata.

IA TA Forecasting— Historical Aviation Activity
While the majority of large commercial passenger airlines file schedules with the schedule aggregators, many
non scheduled and charter operators do not due to the ad hoc nature of their operations. Freighter activity is
also typically underrepresented in the airline schedules.
2.3.1.3 Airline Data/lnformation
Airlines are key stakeholders in airport development across the globe. As such, airline consultation is an
important element in aviation forecasting. Airlines can provide input on market potential and how they plan to
deploy aircraft in the market over the forecast period. Airline consultation is particularly important at transfer
hubs where a significant proportion of the airport passenger base is a function of the dominant airline's
strategy versus the economics of the local market.
2.3.1.4 Airports Council International
Airports Council International (ACI) publishes an annual world traffic report in which total passengers, total
cargo, and total movement statistics from member airports are reported and ranked in an internationally
comparable format. This report is particularly useful when benchmarking the subject airport to other airports of
interest.
2.3.1.5 Civil Aviation Authority/Government Publications
National Civil Aviation Authorities and National Transportation Departments often publish an array of statistics
and reports for the airlines and airports under their jurisdiction. Available information may overlap what can be
gathered from each airport, but it ensures a higher level of accuracy and consistency. The United States
Department of Transportation collects arguably the most detailed set of aviation activity statistics. It requires
all operating U.S. and foreign carriers to report passenger, cargo, and air traffic movements (ATMs) at the
aircraft and segment level on a monthly basis. Large U.S.-certificated air carriers conducting scheduled
domestic and international passenger operations are also required to complete a quarterly Origin &
Destination survey. This is a 10 percent sample of U.S. carrier tickets. The Origin & Destination survey allows
the forecast analyst to understand itinerary level passenger flows from the subject airport and the associated
fares paid. In countries where this level of detail is not available, the analyst can use the other data sources
listed in this sub-chapter.
ICAO also publishes passenger, cargo and ATM-related statistics by world region and sub-region.
2.3.1.6 PaxIS/AirportlS Data
Passenger Intelligence Services (PaxlS)/Airport Intelligence Services are products developed by lATA's
Business Intelligence Service. This program is a comprehensive airline passenger market intelligence
database that captures airline data through the IATA Billing and Settlement Plan (BSP). The IATA BSP is the
central point through which data and funds flow between travel agents and airlines. Instead of every agent

having an individual relationship with each airline, all of the information is consolidated through the BSP
database. The PaxIS/AirportlS database is able to provide detail on the:
• Location of ticket issuance;
• Point of origin/final dest nation airport;

• Connecting airports;
• Fare category;
• Average fare value;
• Month of ticket issuance/travel.
PaxIS/AirportlS also provide statistical estimates to cover:
• Direct sales;
• New model airlines (NMA);
• Charter flight operators;
• Under represented BSP markets; and
• Non-BSP markets, including the United States.
2.3.1.7 CargolS Data
Millions of air waybill (AWB) records feed into CargolS's database every month. They are sourced from
lATA's Cargo Accounts Settlement Systems (CASS) global freight billing systems. Airlines and freight
forwarders settle billions of dollars' worth of airfreight charges into CASS. Because CargolS reflects actual
transactions between carriers and their forwarders, the accuracy of that intelligence is indisputable.
CargolS provides information on more than 100,000 airport-to-airport lanes covering over 500 airlines and
15,000 agents.
2.3.1.8 MIDT Data
Marketing Information Data Transfer (MIDT) is a database that provides detailed information about the
worldwide booking activities of airlines and travel agencies. MIDT data is sourced from the Global Distribution
Systems (GDS). This database captures booking transactions from passenger name records to provide
detailed information about the worldwide booking activities of airlines and travel agencies. MIDT was designed
to provide airlines with competitive information to enable them to make well-informed decisions regarding
existing and new route opportunities. Data available through MIDT includes:
• Directionality;
• Booking itineraries on a monthly basis;
• Yield per kilometer; and
• Average fares.

2.3.2 Airport Role
The next step in developing the historical aviation activity is to define the airport's role, or primary uses. The
following factors need to be considered and examined when defining an airport's role:
• Historical passenger activity;
• Cargo;
• Fractional jet operators;
• General aviation; and
• Military.
During this exercise, other airports in the region should be considered and studied to have a better
understanding of their roles and competition within the catchment area. Defining airport roles provides insight
into the capabilities of the subject airport and other airports in the region.
2.3.3 Historical Passenger Volumes
As a first step in organizing the passenger forecast, time series should be developed to display historical
domestic and international passenger data. The purpose of this table is to determine trends over the historical
period to use as context for developing the passenger forecast. To the extent data is available and reliable,
the domestic and international passenger segments should be further disaggregated into historical originating
and transfer (connecting) passengers.
When analyzing historical passenger trends, it is essential to keep in mind that numerous factors may have
caused demand to fluctuate over the historical period including:
• Economic cycles such as expansions and recessions on the local, national and global levels;
• Fuel price spikes;
• Airline capacity changes resulting from new entrants, new business models, bankruptcies or cessation of
operations;
• Price changes for air travel and shipment; and
• Exogenous shocks (e.g., terrorist attacks, war, pandemics, and natural disasters).
It is incumbent on the forecast analyst to provide not only the data time series, but also to tell the story of why
demand and supply have changed over the historical period. This will provide context for the forecasts.
2.3.4 Top Domestic and International Destinations
As mentioned above, the purpose of the historical activity analysis is to build a context for the forecast. It
answers questions such as what markets are served from the airport and why. It is imperative to research the
airport's key domestic and international markets to have a better understanding of the current and future
direction of air service at the airport. This analysis also provides a geographic context for the forecast. The

mix and range of domestic and international markets will inform what types of aircraft are deployed over the
forecast period.
2.3.5 Historical Market Share by Airline
The analysis of historical market share by passenger airline and/or airline segment provides insight into the
recent history of the main carriers at the airport, including shifting shares between new model airline (NMA)
and legacy carrier segments. The allocation of traffic between NMA and legacy segments is an important
consideration from both a physical planning and financial feasibility perspective. NMAs typically exhibit higher
utilization, require fewer amenities, and place a significant emphasis on their costs (including airport costs).
2.3.6 Historical Air Cargo Tonnage
Air cargo is shipped in three ways:
1. In the cargo compartment, or belly, of passenger aircraft;
2. On all-cargo aircraft (freighters); and
3. In “combi” aircraft (where the main deck is shared between passengers and cargo).
Most passenger airlines accommodate air cargo as a by-product to the primary activity of carrying
passengers. They fill belly space in their aircraft that would otherwise be empty. The incremental cost of
carrying cargo in a passenger aircraft is negligible, and includes only ground handling expenses and a modest
increase in fuel consumption.
Road and sea substitution have become major components in the evolution of air cargo activity in the past
few years. At the continental level, trucks have nearly replaced regional air freight service due to cost savings
and increased efficiency. Truck services have expanded to provide transport of freight to gateway airports for
consolidation. A number of air carriers also transport cargo by truck to build their own volumes. Many air
cargo facilities are operating more and more as truck terminals, yet requirements to report truck-to-truck
tonnage are rare. At the intercontinental level, improved containerization has allowed sea shipments to
become more competitive in terms of transportation time and reliability. Technology advances in containerized
shipping and the increasing speed of ocean-going vessels have been eroding the time advantage of air
freight. Before the 2008 financial crisis, the tonnage carried by containerized ships grew at an average rate of
around eight percent (i.e.. twice the pace of air freight ton kilometers).
To determine historical trends for cargo tonnage at the subject airport, the forecast analyst should compile
historical cargo tonnage in a time series, displaying domestic and international cargo for belly and freighter
tonnage separately. It should be noted that cargo volumes are very different from passenger volumes when it
comes to directionality. Obviously, cargo does not require return flights. Many airports observe very
imbalanced import/export cargo flows reflecting the mono-directionality of cargo shipments and the nature of
the local economy.

2.3.7 Historical Movements by Segment
For purposes of developing the air transport movements (ATM) forecast, historical movements should be
classified into the following categories:
• Commercial passenger;
• All-cargo;
• General aviation;
• Military; and
• Total.
ATM forecasts will be developed separately for each segment; therefore, historical trends will need to be
analyzed in the same manner. A time series should be developed for historical ATM volumes in each
category.
2.3.8 Forecast Impact Factors
Factors that may affect aviation demand need to be addressed when developing the passenger, air cargo and
ATM forecasts. Forecast impact factors could include, but are not limited to:
• Economic cycles;
• New aircraft types;
• Fuel prices;
• Airline industry changes;
• Alliance initiatives;
• Airline costs;
• Addition/removal of airlines;
• Regulatory changes (e.g., air services agreements, travel policy, and trade policy); and
• Airport initiatives.
Other impact factors to consider include seasonal trends and special events that stimulate air travel. It is
recommended that all factors be considered and documented when analyzing historical trends and
fluctuations at the subject airport.
Defining historical and anticipated impact factors will improve the assumptions and accuracy of the aviation
forecast. A summary discussion should also be included to describe the trends and anticipated changes that
may affect the development of projections of aviation activity at the airport.

2.4 Competitive Analysis

It is beneficial to include a competitive analysis of the airport and its surrounding competition when developing
a forecast. A competitive analysis assesses the strengths and weaknesses of current and potential
competitors, including other modes of transportation. It may be necessary to carry out different competitive
analyses for each specific air traffic segment. For example:
• Origin/Destination passengers may choose between several airports serving the same catchment area.
Markets such as New York, Tokyo, London, Los Angeles, Shanghai, Chicago, and Washington D.C. have
multiple major airports within the same catchment area that passengers could select based on air service,
price and/or location;
• Connecting passengers may be offered multiple routings through competitive hubs;
• Short-haul passengers may travel by air, road or rail depending on their travel purpose, budget or
schedule; and
• Depending on cargo yields, the logistics chain and available cargo capacity, freight may be trucked for
hundreds or even thousands of kilometers before being loaded on an aircraft.
The purpose of this analysis is to display the competitive position of the subject airport versus other airports in
the catchment area. When developing a competitive analysis, consideration should also be given to the
potential advantages, disadvantages, and practical limitations from the point of view of airline passengers
using this airport.
An effective competitive analysis within a forecast document should provide a narrative overview with
supporting graphics describing the competitive market within the region and nationally.
2.5 Review of Existing Forecasts

Before developing models and assumptions for the passenger forecast, it may be valuable to review prior
forecasts developed for the airport. This is done in order to obtain an understanding of previous forecasting
efforts, available data, the assumptions made, and the methodology employed. In particular, comparing the
actual results with the forecast will show its predictive accuracy and validate the methodology used.
2.6 Common Forecasting Techniques

There are a number of approaches and techniques to develop aviation forecasts. The most common
techniques include:
• Time series/trend analysis;
• Consensus forecasts;
• Market share forecasts; and
• Econometric/regression models.

IA TA Forecasting— Common Forecasting Techniques
These techniques can be used to develop forecasts at the airport level, at the multi-airport level, or at the
regional level.
Each of these techniques has its own set of advantages and drawbacks, and they may be used independently
or in combination. The following sub chapters demonstrate appropriate forecasting techniques for various
uses.
2.6.1 Trend/Time Series
Time series analysis projects historical trends into the future using time as the independent variable. As time
series forecasts are “one variable” models, they require only the data for the variable to be forecast.
In general, time series data can be described by trends, seasonal effects and cyclical effects. The first step in
putting together a time series forecast is to analyze a time series of historical data for the specific market in
order to determine the growth trend. The easiest procedure for isolating the trend in a time series is to plot the
historical data in graphic form, on an x and y axis. The traffic data is plotted on the vertical (y) axis. Time, the
independent variable, is ploited on the horizontal (x) axis. Then a best-fit curve is obtained by minimizing the
sum of the errors squared. Different curves may be tried to find the best fit, such as linear or exponential. In
simple forecasts, it is possible to extend this line into the future to estimate future traffic. Growth rates,
positive or negative, can be calculated from the slope of the line.
The time series technique is useful for the following situations:
• When detailed data is not available;
• When the financial and technical resources required for a more rigorous forecast are not available;
• When the anticipated growth is expected to be relatively stable; and
• When the operating and economic environment is expected to be relatively stable.
Time series analysis is a relatively expedient forecasting technique and, as such, is commonly used.
However, one of the major limitations of a time series forecast is that there may be factors that can
reasonably be expected to affect aviation activity at the subject airport in the future that are not reflected in the
historical time series. For example, many aviation markets have historically been tightly controlled by
government policy and regulation, which has in turn limited growth in aviation activity. A future policy
loosening these restrictions could result in aviation activity growing at a faster rate than has been experienced
historically. A basic time series analysis is not able to reflect these changes in the underlying aviation
environment.
2.6.2 Consensus Forecasts
This approach involves applying aggregate aviation market growth rates developed by a third party (or third
parties) to the subject airports traffic base. This approach is often used when there is a lack of historical
information for the subject airport. It is also useful to provide a context or cross-check to validate a subject
airport's forecast that has been developed using more airport-specific techniques.

Governments, aviation authorities, non governmental organizations and aircraft manufactures publish their
own national and/or regional forecasts for aviation activity, including growth rates for a defined period of time.
While these forecasts are typically not developed at the airport level, they may provide a consensus outlook
for aviation activity as a whole for the region where the subject airport is located.
The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), for example, publishes an annual aerospace forecast that
contains forecasts for passengers, air cargo, and air traffic movements (ATMs) for the U.S. as a whole over a
twenty-year horizon. The growth rates promulgated in the annual forecasts are often used by planners,
particularly at small U.S. airoorts where general aviation is a higher percentage of the activity, to provide a
guide as to how activity might change at the subject airport.
Similarly, Airports Council International, Boeing and Airbus publish twenty year market outlooks for passenger
and cargo volumes by world region. The growth rates published in these forecasts can be used as a guide as
to how aviation demand may develop at the subject airport given its location and traffic mix.
It is important to be prudent when developing a forecast using the consensus forecast method. Industry
forecasts may be predicting higher growth than is reasonable for the subject airport. The forecast analyst
should adjust the industry growth rates accordingly when there is a disconnect between industry forecasts
and historical activity at the airport.
The Delphi Method is a specific type of consensus forecast whereby a panel of experts is requested to
provide their views on the future market growth through structured questionnaires. Several rounds of
questionnaires are sent out. Responses are aggregated and shared anonymously with the panel after each
round. The experts are invited to adjust their answers in subsequent rounds based on the answers from the
panel. The Delphi Method seeks to reach the “correct” response through consensus.
2.6.3 Market Share Forecasts
Market share forecasts project airport activity as a percentage of a larger aggregate forecast (i.e., national-,
state- or regional-level forecasts). This approach is used when the forecast for the larger market is more
readily available or easy to produce than for the airport itself. This includes the case of large metropolitan
areas with multiple airports.
The market share for a specific airport can be calculated by taking the historical dataset for a specific period
and dividing it by the amount of the total market over the same period. If the share of the subject airport has
exhibited relatively little variation over the historical period, extrapolating this share into the future is a
reasonable and relatively efficient way of developing a forecast for the subject airport. Equally, if the share
analysis indicates increasing or decreasing shares of the larger benchmark that are readily explainable, the
forecast analyst can estimate future changes in market share and apply these to the aggregate level forecast.
Forecast impact factors, industry trends, and market outlooks should be considered when developing the
market share forecast.

IATA Forecasting— Common Forecasting Techniques
2.6.4 Econometric/Regression Model
On a worldwide scale, demand for passenger air travel (or air cargo) is intrinsically linked to the performance
of the global economy. By comparison, exogenous shocks such as political turmoil, terrorist attacks, weather-
related disruptions (e.g., hurricanes, volcanic ash clouds), and pandemics (e.g., severe acute respiratory
syndrome, SARS) tend to have a shorter transitory impact on air travel demand. Air travel demand typically
increases during periods of economic expansion and declines during economic contractions. Due to the
strong correlation of air travel (or air cargo) demand with economic conditions, econometric or regression
modeling is one of the most robust and commonly applied aviation forecasting techniques.
The purpose of an econometric or regression model is to quantify the relationship between a single
dependent variable (e g , O&D domestic passenger traffic or international air cargo traffic) and one or more
independent variables (e.g., per capita income and air fares).
Econometric forecasting is used to demonstrate how predicted changes in the independent variables would
affect future traffic. The following steps are used when developing an econometric forecast:
1. Specify the independent variables for testing;
2. Collect data;
3. Select a statistical model;
4. Determine the model's ability to accurately predict historical values;
5. Evaluate combinations of independent variables in context of historical traffic patterns;
6. Use the model to derive forecast traffic values;
7. Evaluate the results in the context of historical traffic patterns;
8. Introduce adjustments to the forecasts to reflect anticipated changes in the airport environment (e.g.,
regulation, competition, airline strategies); and
9. Compare with benchmarks (i.e., Boeing, Airbus, FAA).
2.6.4.1 Specify Independent Variables
Prior to selecting a model, the forecaster must determine what combination of independent variables should
be considered in the forecast. The following is a list of potential independent variables that the forecaster may
consider:
• Population;
• Output (gross domestic or regional product);
• Personal income;
• Per capital personal income;
• Employment;
• Exchange rates;

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ia t a OJkSU Airport Development Reference Manual
• Tourism factors such as hotel rooms;
• Air fares/yield; and
• Exogenous shocks (e.g, terrorist attacks, weather-related events, transportation mode shift).
A few additional variables may be used for air cargo, including:
• Regional trade (imports and exports)
• Global trade
• Manufacturing activity
2.6.4.2 Collect Data
As discussed in Chapter 2.2 Economic Base for A ir Travel, economic data to be used as independent
variables must be collected. All data should be collected as a time series. Economic data sets, including
forecasts, can be obtained from a number of sources, such as:
• The International Monetary Fund;
• World Bank;
• Bureau of Labor Statistics;
• U.S. Census;
• Woods & Poole;
• National Bureau of Economic Research;
• Moody's economy.com;
• IHS Global Insight;
• Economist Intelligence Unit, and
• Consensus Economics.
It is preferable to obtain the historical and forecast data from the same source.
2.6.4.3 Select a Statistical Model
There are many kinds of econometric or regression models. Common types are expressed either in linear or
logistic format, as shown in the equations below:
Linear Regression Model: Y = a + b1X1+ b j( 2 + ••• + b j( k
Logistic Regression Model: Log(Y) = a + b^LogfXJ + + ... + bkLog(X,J

IA TA Forecasting— Common Forecasting Techniques
The forecast analyst may develop multiple models to forecast different segments of traffic (e.g., domestic
versus international, visitor versus resident, length of haul, or world region) in order to apply a targeted set of
independent variables.
2.6.4.4 Determine Model's Ability to Accurately Predict Historical Values
The fit of the equation is measured by the R2 statistic (called the coefficient of determination). The R2 statistic
ranges from 0 to 1, with 1 indicating a perfect fit.
The calculated predicted output of the regression model can be charted against the actual historical values for
the dependent variable to provide a visual of how well the model predicts actual traffic. There are also a
number of statistical outputs that the forecast analyst should check when developing an econometric model to
ensure its robustness:
• Directionality of the co efficient (e.g., yield is typically negative, reflecting a reduction in fares leading to
growth in passenger demand);
• Adjusted R2;
• T-statistics;
• P-Value;
• Multicollinearity;
• Autocorrelation (Durbin-Watson Test);
• Normality (Anderson-Darling Test);
• Presence of outliers;
• Homoscedasticity (Brown-Forsythe Test); and
• Violations of linearity.
2.6.4.5 Evaluate Combinations of Independent Variables in Context of Historical

Traffic Patterns
Econometric modeling is an iterative process and a variety of independent variables may need to be tested
and results reviewed before a model equation is settled upon. The goal is not necessarily to get the model
with the best statistical fit, but to provide a model that is defensible based on a logical set of input
assumptions (independent variables) and an overall understanding of the drivers of passenger demand at the
subject airport.
Specific models may be developed for different airport segments. For instance, it is often observed that
resident and visitor air traffic are driven by different variables.

2.6.4.6 Use Model to Derive Forecast Traffic Values
By entering the predicted values for the independent variables into the model (e.g., GDP and fare forecasts),
the forecaster will derive the forecasted passenger traffic.
2.6.4.7 Compare with Benchmark Forecasts
As a final step to ensure the forecasts are reasonable, benchmark or other existing forecasts can be used as
a comparison to confirm the projected growth is realistic.
2.6.4.8 Introduce Adjustments to the Forecasts to Reflect Anticipated Changes in

the Airport Environment
The airport forecaster should critically review the ability of the forecasting model to reflect anticipated changes
in the airport business environment. Regulation, airline strategies, airport competition and modal competition
are a few of the many changes that may affect the airport future traffic. For instance, open-skies
implementation or high-speed rail construction are likely not reflected in any forecasting model based on
historical observations.
Therefore, the airport forecaster will identify and characterize changes that are not factored in the baseline
traffic projections and study their potential impact in terms of traffic gain or loss compared to the baseline.
2.7 Passenger Activity Forecast

Once the methodology of the forecast is decided, the assumptions and key findings of the forecast model
should be described in narrative and tabular formats. For long-term forecasts, the forecaster should use the
most recent year reported as the base year and focus the report on planning level years, usually in five-year
increments until the end of the forecast period. For short-term forecasts (less than five years), a forecast
should be developed for each year.
2.7.1 Passenger Activity Segments
For planning purposes, the passenger activity forecast should emphasize the following segments:
• Domestic O&D;
• Domestic transfer;
• International O&D;
• International transfer; and
• Transit.

IA TA Forecasting— Passenger Activity Forecast
The sum of these categories results in the total passenger forecast for the subject airport.
Overlaps/dependencies between segments should be closely studied when summing up the traffic of each
individual segment. Typically, a strong growth of O&D demand may result in fewer seats for transfer
passengers. It is important to identify the domestic and international breakdown between originating and
transfer passengers to better evaluate the impact on the different terminal facilities at the airport (i.e., check
in, airport security, baggage claim, emigration and immigration, and customs).
The level of originating passengers, both domestic and international, reflects the attractiveness of the air
service region as a place to live and visit, and as a place to work and conduct business. The originating
passenger forecast is a critical input to assess future demand for terminal and landside facilities (i.e., ticketing,
baggage claim, automobile parking, and access roadways). The volume of connecting passengers reflects the
quality and quantity of air service offered by domestic hub airlines and international gateway carriers, and is
typically gauged by the frequency of departures and the number of destinations served.
When analyzing the results of the passenger activity forecast, the airport forecaster should incorporate:
• Compound annual growth rates over the forecast period;
• Market shares for each passenger activity segment;
• Comparisons to historical trends; and
• Overall validation of the forecast assumptions and results.
These factors will help explain the outcomes of the forecast and determine which passenger segments are
being affected the most over the forecast period.
2.7.2 Passenger Activity Benchmarking
When developing the passenger activity forecast, industry forecasts such as ones made by ACI, Boeing and
Airbus can be used as benchmarking tools. The current Boeing Current Market Outlook and Airbus Global
Market Forecast passenger growth rates can be reviewed to identify benchmark forecast growth rates. In
these forecasts, passenger and cargo tonnage growth is forecast by world region. These forecasts are
particularly helpful when determining reasonableness for growth of international traffic, keeping in mind that
they may be somewhat optimistic.
For airports in the U.S., the FAA Terminal Area Forecast (TAF) can be used as a benchmarking tool. The
FAA TAF provides projected growth by airport for air carrier, commuter, total enplanements and aircraft
movements by category.
For a near-term global benchmark, IATA develops an annual airline industry forecast that can be used to
analyze the latest passenger and freight traffic growth expectations for over 3,000 country pairs. This data
source includes individual assessments of global and regional economic conditions, detailed rankings, and
annual projections for the next five years. Available in this data are detailed passenger and freighter volumes
for international and domestic country pairs as well as aggregated values for region, sub-region, and country
levels.

2.7.3 Passenger Activity Alternative Scenarios
All forecasts are subject to uncertainty, especially long-term forecasts. Consequently, it is prudent to develop
alternative scenarios that define the likely upper and lower ranges of potential demand at the subject airport.
This approach brings flexibility to the planning process and allows stakeholders to assess a range of
outcomes for an infrastructure program should demand be realized sooner or later than anticipated.
Assumptions commonly used for optimistic scenarios include:
• Faster than anticipated economic growth;
• The airport captures increasing market share;

• An airline expands hub service, and
• Lower oil prices result in a decline in air fares stimulating traffic.
The inverse of these assumptions can be used for a low-end scenario. Scenarios that consider a material
change in the character of the traffic base at the subject airport, such as the transition from an O&D airport to
a transfer hub, should be developed in a manner that allows planners to evaluate the implications of shifts in
the individual market segments. Evolving aircraft types is another example of material change that requires
detailed attention as there may be implications on runway capacity requirements as well as the size and
number of parking stands.
Other approaches may be used to reflect uncertainty in airport demand forecasting. The simplest ones are
“what-if analysis” and “sensitivity analysis”. These approaches estimate the impact of a single event or
modified assumptions on the baseline traffic projection. More sophisticated methodologies can be used to
incorporate uncertainties. The main ones are:
• Prediction intervals;
• Distribution fitting and Monte Carlo simulation; and
• Extrapolation of empirical errors.
2.8 Baggage Forecast

Not all airports process the same amount of baggage per passenger. Checked baggage tends to increase
when passengers are traveling internationally or for longer periods of time. Leisure travelers tend to check
more bags than business travelers, even for trips of a similar duration. As a result, the air service and type of
passenger at the subject airport will have a large effect on total baggage per passenger. The baggage
forecast should be developed on a case-by-case basis dependent on the airport, its respective air service,
and the profile of the typical passenger. The amount of checked baggage has decreased over recent years
due to additional security requirements as well as fees on checked baggage. The amount of checked
baggage per passenger also tends to vary by world region based on cultural factors.
Average bags per passenger ratios are most often determined based on final destination. The baggage
forecast will be developed by multiplying the forecast passenger volumes by the forecast passenger bag
ratios for the various categories of passenger (i.e., international, domestic, transfer).

IA TA Forecasting— Air Cargo Activity Forecast
Like determining a catchment area for an airport, using a passenger survey is the best way to determine the
average bags per passenger at the airport. Common questions used on passenger surveys to determine
passenger bag ratios include: “How many bags did your party carry on?” and “How many bags did your party
check?”. The results of a passenger survey can be segmented by final destination and applied to all
passengers at the airport.
When a passenger survey is not available, other recommended options for determining average bags per
passenger are getting the information directly from the ground handlers or from a sample of airlines. Airport
planners can also use pre-determined bag ratios. These ratios are only suggested to be used for a first draft
of the baggage forecast when survey data or historical baggage information at the airport is not readily
available. Exhibit 2.8 displays the bag-to-passenger ratios to be used for high-level forecasting purposes.
Exhibit 2.8: Typical Bag-to-Passenger Ratios for High-Level Forecasting Purposes
Type of Passenger
Traffic Europe Asia/Africa USA Rest of World
International 1.0-1.5 Bags/Pax 2.0 Bags/Pax 2.0 Bags/Pax 1.5 Bags/Pax
Domestic 0.5-1.0 Bags/Pax 1.0-2.0 Bags/Pax 1.0 Bags/Pax 1.0 Bags/Pax
Transfer 1.0-1.5 Bags/Pax 1.0-2.0 Bags/Pax 1.0-2.0 Bags/Pax 1.0-1.5 Bags/Pax
Source: IATA
2.9 Air Cargo Activity Forecast

As discussed in the historical activity chapter, cargo traffic may by carried three ways:
1. On all-cargo aircraft (freighters)
2. In “combi" aircraft (in which the main deck is shared between cargo and passengers)
3. In the belly hold of passenger aircraft
It is essential to forecast cargo tonnage and cargo aircraft movements to determine the need for physical
cargo handling facilities as well as aircraft ramp space.
Like passenger forecasting, when developing a cargo activity forecast, underlying market forces must be
considered. Elements such as market assessments and economic theory as well the airport's physical
capabilities and limitations are items to consider during the cargo activity forecasting process. While historical
air cargo volumes play a key role in defining the economic relationships that will be used to predict future
growth, broader industry trends, economic analysis, and review of peer forecasts such as those published by
Boeing, Airbus, IATA, ICAO, and the FAA will also play a role in forecasting future activity.
The future levels of air cargo traffic and related activity for a particular airport will be affected by various
supply and demand elements over a specified forecast period. An air cargo activity forecast requires an
understanding of how these factors have determined activity levels in the past and how changes in those
factors may affect the future. The forecaster needs to be mindful of how supply and demand characteristics

produce an aggregate level of cargo and aircraft traffic. The following sub chapter will give insight into what
elements to consider when developing an air cargo activity forecast.
2.9.1 Air Cargo Supply and Demand
Air cargo markets combine cargo flow demand with the available air cargo service supply sector to create
airport activity levels. In simple terms, cargo flow demand for a particular airport is an aggregation of all the
various shipments that transit through that airport. Each shipment has a unique timing, origin and destination,
commodity type, packaging, size and service requirement (e.g., desired transit time or perishability). Air cargo
services (“supply”) encompass the available routing options for those shipments and should include
competing airports and modes of transportation.
Air cargo services include airport-to-airport transportation as well as supporting ground services (e.g.,
trucking, handling and storage), and can be compared in terms of cost, transit time and level of service. The
air cargo supply sector also includes on- and off-airport facilities and infrastructure (e.g., runways and access
roads). Not all cargo will terminate at the airport. Transshipment cargo will often need additional space for
warehousing and reprocessing. Cargo shipping methods at the airport will determine the need for facility
space, staffing, and what services are available at the airport.
The demand for air cargo services is driven by the highly diverse needs of shippers and consignees.
Examples include:
• The overnight delivery of a document;
• The transport of donor organs to hospitals; and
• The managed distribution of components and products for multi-national high-tech manufacturers.
Some key characteristics that determine air cargo demand are:

• Origin/destination;
• Commodity type and price;
• Desired level of service; and
• Overall shipment size.
Cargo demand for an airport is primarily determined by the location and volume of air commodity production,
consumption and/or distribution within that airport’s catchment area (or market vicinity). The demand for any
particular airport is also affected by the location, accessibility and competitiveness of alternative airports or
modes of transport. Economic growth, regional and world trade (imports and exports) and manufacturing
activity will be the main macro-level drivers for the air cargo demand.
Impact factors that have affected the air cargo industry over the past several decades include: road and sea
substitution, e-commerce, manufacturing changes, aircraft technology, and belly cargo capacity. The cargo
within the U.S. and outside of the U.S. segments differ dramatically in terms of the types of carriers, the
airport facilities required, the use of trucks, time sensitivity, and other factors. These factors are noteworthy
when developing an air cargo forecast.

IA TA Forecasting— Air Cargo Activity Forecast
2.9.1.1 U.S. Cargo Activity
Domestic cargo is dominated by integrators2 which carry 90 percent of the cargo shipped within the U.S.
Competition among the integrated carriers is driven by guaranteed overnight (or other time definite) delivery to
almost any location. Integrators operate with a very tight shipping window to their Midwest distribution hubs;
this creates a concentration of ground traffic within a region as trucks bring the packages to the airport at the
last possible minute. Large volumes of domestic freight also move in the bellies of passenger aircraft. The
goods are not typically as time sensitive and arrive at the cargo facilities in smaller concentrations, with much
greater frequency, and without well-defined shipping windows. New regulations for screening of all cargo to
be transported in passenger aircraft have resulted in very high rates of substitution of air cargo for truck
transport.
2.9.1.2 Cargo Activity Outside the U.S.
Cargo traffic within Europe (and to a lesser extent Asia) is mostly diverted by road with the exception of time-
sensitive shipments that are handled by integrators. Because of trade barriers and poor road conditions, Asia
lags Europe and the U.S. Intercontinental cargo traffic is dominated by freight forwarders, who effectively
function as booking links between manufacturers, shippers and logistics operations.
The freight forwarders and non integrated carriers control about 70 percent of international cargo. Typically, to
keep costs down, they book blocks of space with carriers in the belly of passenger aircraft. The other
30 percent of international air cargo is dominated by the integrators who accept shipments directly from
shippers, and occasionally, from forwarders. On international shipments, integrators may compete directly
with airline/forwarder alliances for business, but overnight delivery does not play as vital a role in international
shipping as it does in the domestic market.
Forwarders and shippers will also utilize freighters operated either independently or by the passenger carriers.
In certain instances, carriers may lease freighter aircraft from a company such as Atlas or Gemini, but the
numbers of such operations and their impact on airport handling requirements and infrastructure are not
typically significant.
One of the keys to successful international goods movement is clearance by the federal agencies. Easy and
timely access for inspection is vital. If the federal agencies do not have the staffing to accommodate timely
inspection and clearance, the best facilities and location in the world will not move international cargo
effectively.
2.9.2 Cargo Data Analysis
Similar to the development of the passenger activity forecast, the first step in developing a cargo forecast is
analyzing the trends in historical tonnage volumes for domestic and international cargo in a time series
2 Integrators are carriers that operate a trucking component as well as aircraft and offer point-to-point, as opposed to airport-to-airport
delivery. Integrators specialize in overnight express. Examples include FedEx, UPS, and DHL.

format. Historical data factors show how an airport's traffic has evolved and will serve as the starting point for
the development of comprehensive forecasts.
A review of recent trends identifies factors that influence cargo traffic volumes and which might do so again in
the future. It is suggested that ten years of historical data be obtained before making a five-year forecast. The
reason is that evaluating a longer historical time frame makes it easier to distinguish true trends from short
term aberrations. This will enhance the accuracy of the projected relationships between independent and
dependent variables. The historical analysis of aviation activity is one of the key factors in developing a set of
key assumptions underlying the forecast of air cargo.
Airport forecasters should start by determining the historical trends and activity levels associated with
dedicated freighter and belly traffic individually During this process, the forecasters consider the supply and
demand of cargo that affects the airport. Then they determine the forecast method to use by testing several
different models to get the most accurate results. Once several methods have been evaluated, they compare
the results with reliable market forecasts.
2.9.3 Cargo Market Forecast Benchmarking
Cargo activity forecast assumptions should consider broader industry trends, economic analysis, and review
of peer forecasts such as those published by the FAA, Boeing, and Airbus. A review of cargo industry trends,
regional market data, and historical shipping patterns will increase the reliability of the results of a cargo
activity forecast. Several cargo market outlooks can be used for benchmark analysis, including the FAA
Aerospace Forecast, Boeing Current Market Outlook and Airbus Global Market Forecast, as they are
reasonable industry forecasts.
2.9.3.1 FAA Aerospace Forecast
When developing a cargo activity forecast for airports in the U.S., the FAA Aerospace Forecast can be used
as a tool to look at the FAA's overall expected outlook for the air cargo industry as well as the FAA's projected
domestic and international growth in terms of revenue ton miles on a system-wide basis.
2.9.3.2 International Market Forecasts (Boeing/Airbus/Other)
For airports globally, industry manufacturer forecasts can be used as valuable benchmarking tools. At a
macro level, manufacturer forecasts such as those made by Boeing and Airbus are helpful in considering
international volume growth. However, they should only be applied as a means of comparison to airport-
specific forecasts, rather than used as a source for growth rates. The Boeing Current Market Outlook and the
Airbus Global Market Forecast can be consulted for their assumptions and freighter fleet growth projections.
These consensus forecast cargo growth rates and an outlook of future aircraft orders can be used as a metric
to better understand the potential growth of cargo operations in the future. Regional forecasts are also
included in the Boeing and Airbus forecasts, projecting cargo growth for specific areas of the world over the
forecast horizon. On a cautionary note, all industry manufacturer forecasts include an inherent bias towards
future aircraft demand.

IATA Forecasting— Air Cargo Activity Forecast
2.9.3.3 Additional Forecasts and Research
For a near-term global benchmark, IATA develops an annual cargo industry forecast that can be used to
analyze the latest freight traffic growth expectations for over 3,000 country pairs. This data source includes
individual assessments of global and regional economic conditions, detailed rankings, and annual projections
for the next five years. Also included are five-year forecasts for international cargo traffic by region, sub-
region, and country.
There are several other factors that affect the cargo industry, including:
• Changes in national air cargo security regulations, such as from the FAA and the Transportation Security
Administration (TSA);
• Shifts from air to other modes of shipping cargo;
• Implementation of trade agreements;
• Weight saving on electronics goods;
• Use of alternative all-cargo carriers (e.g., FedEx) by the U.S. Postal Service to transport mail; and
• Increased use of mail substitutes (e.g., email)3.
Throughout North America, truck substitution to reduce costs per shipment has the largest effect on domestic
air cargo volumes. Forecast analysts should research these factors by focusing on current trends and
economic outlooks.
2.9.4 Cargo Activity Forecast
As was discussed in Chapter 2.7 Passenger A ctivity Forecast, there are a number of approaches and
techniques to develop cargo forecasts. The most common techniques include:
• Time series/trend analysis;
• Consensus forecasts;
• Market share; and
• Econometric/regression models.
The results of the cargo forecast should be evaluated to determine whether there are any gaps between the
airport's historical trends, the cargo forecast assumptions, and the information used for benchmarking
purposes. When analyzing these variables it is important to consider the nature of cargo and the potential
impact factors of the industry. For the purposes of evaluating dedicated cargo facilities and apron areas, the
total air cargo forecast should be allocated between the cargo handled in dedicated freighter aircraft versus
the cargo shipped in the belly hold of passenger aircraft.
An air cargo tonnage forecast can often be developed along with low- and high-alternative forecasts to
provide a range of potential outcomes. Alternative scenarios allow for the determination of the level of facility
3 FAA Aerospace Forecast Fiscal Years 2013-2033.

development that would be needed to accommodate the higher demand. Like with the passenger forecast,
assumptions commonly used for high case scenarios include:
• The economy grows faster than expected;
• The airport captures increasing market share; and
• Increased transfer traffic.
A new regional manufacturing facility or logistics center may also drive growth in air cargo. The opposite of
these factors would be considered for a low-end scenario.
The results of the cargo tonnage forecast are used as a basis for total cargo ATMs for an aviation forecast. A
narrative summary should also be provided detailing the cargo tonnage forecast assumptions and
methodology. To ensure consistency, the results of a cargo tonnage forecast should be organized on the
same planning levels as the passenger forecast.
2.10 Air Transport Movement Forecast

The volume (frequency) and type of air transport movements (ATMs) are key drivers of airfield, taxiway,
apron, and stand requirements at an airport. An ATM is defined as either an aircraft arrival or departure. Total
ATMs at a given airport are typically defined as the sum of all aircraft arrivals and departures that use the
airport's runways4.
Generally, in both the passenger and cargo markets, an increase in aircraft gauge (size) is observed over
time. The deployment of larger airliners and freighters is a driver for industry cost savings. Therefore, it is
often observed that ATMs increase at a slower pace than passenger and cargo volumes.
2.10.1 ATM Segments
In order to provide an ATM forecast that readily facilitates the evaluation of existing and future airport facility
requirements, it is recommended that the ATM forecast be developed by key operational category:
• Commercial Passenger:
• Commercial Freighter;
• General Aviation; and
• Military.
4 Total ATMs reported by an airport operator may include overflights and helicopter traffic that use the airport's airspace but do not use
the airport’s runway or taxiway infrastructure. Care should be taken to exclude these traffic components as necessary when evaluating
existing or future airfield requirements.

IATA Forecasting— Air Transport Movement Forecast
2.10.2 Passenger ATMs
Passenger ATM forecasts are typically derived from the passenger forecast. Indeed, the aggregate number of
commercial passenger movements at an airport depends on three factors:
• Total passengers;
• Average aircraft size;
• Average load factor (percent of seats occupied)5.
The relationship is shown in the following equation:
ATMs - Total Passengers

Average Load Factor * Average Aircraft Size
This equation permits infinite multitude of combinations of load factors and average aircraft size to
accommodate a given number of passengers.
In the absence of load factor and average aircraft size information, the forecast analyst can use passenger
per movement assumptions to derive an ATM forecast from the passenger volume forecast. This is essentially
a one-step approach that combines the load factor and aircraft size assumptions in one metric.
2.10.2.1 Key Passenger ATM Segments
The basic approach to deriving the passenger movements forecast is essentially the same at all airports. The
underlying assumptions at each airport, however, are inherently different due to the differences in how airlines
choose to serve the demand for air travel to, from, and over each airport. These differences may result, for
example, from:
• A strategic focus on unit revenue versus unit costs;
• An emphasis on a hub-and-spoke system versus a point-to-point operation;
• The business model (new model versus network airline); and
• The airport's geographic location relative to other markets.
Further segmentation of the passenger ATM forecasts is recommended in order to provide a more refined
ATM forecast and associated fleet mix. The segments to be analyzed will need to be determined by the
forecast analyst on a case-by-case basis. The following segments provide an example of the potential ATM
segments an analyst may consider as part of developing a passenger ATM forecast.
5 While airlines measure load factors as a function of revenue passenger miles (RPMs) and available seat miles (ASMs), for airport
planning a “butts in seats” load factor is preferred as it provides a more accurate measure of throughput through the airport’s facilities.

2.10.2.1.1 Domestic versus International ATMs
In most aviation markets the domestic segment tends to be made up of a higher percentage of narrow-body
and regional aircraft while the international segment tends to have a higher concentration of wide-body
aircraft. A relatively straightforward division of ATMs into domestic and international segments will allow an
analyst to take into account growth expectations at the segment level and develop the associated average
aircraft size and load factor assumptions.
2.10.2.1.2 Length of Haul/Geographic Region
This is an extension of the domestic and international segmentation. The distance of down line markets from
the subject airport are one of the determining factors in the type of aircraft deployed. By segmenting ATMs by
length of haul or by geographic region, the results may show greater consistency in the fleet mix that may
otherwise be masked by a less disaggregated approach. For example, in the United States, there has beer a
significant reduction in domestic short-haul flights (less than 500 miles). These markets have typically been
served by small regional jets (35-50 seats) and turboprop aircraft. By allocating less activity to the short-haul
segment, the forecast can naturally de-emphasize these aircraft types and drive a higher overall average
aircraft size. There are always interesting exceptions to many broad rules. For example, the Sydney-
Melbourne market is less than 450 miles apart, however, the significant passenger demand in the market
results in high-frequency wide-body aircraft being deployed on the route.
2.10.2.1.3 Network Carrier versus New Model Airline
Network carriers tend to have more diverse fleet mixes than new model airlines (NMAs) which historically
have operated relatively homogenous narrow-body jet fleets. The growth in NMA activity has been a critical
driver of activity at airports around the globe, particularly in the last decade. From a forecasting perspective,
segmentation by airline business model allows for more targeted assumptions to be made based on the
segment of activity that is expected to drive growth in the future. From a facility planning perspective, NMAs
may need more basic terminal facilities and fewer terminal amenities than their network counterparts. NMAs
may also make higher utilization of their stands than network carriers which may have slower aircraft turn
times. NMAs may also time flights to meet banks at down-line hubs.
2.10.2.2 Average Aircraft Size and Passenger Load Factor Assumptions
Once the key passenger ATM segments have been identified, there are a number of micro and macro
sources that can assist in the development of average seats per flight assumptions at a given airport. A
summary of some useful resources and how they can be used as inputs to the passenger ATM forecast
follow.

IA TA Forecasting— Air Transport Movement Forecast
2.10.2.2.1 Airline Schedules (OAG and SRS Analyzer)
OAG and SRS Analyzer provide historical and 12-month forward-looking airline flight schedules by airline,
market, aircraft type, and seat configuration for all scheduled commercial passenger airlines at the airport
level. These are excellent sources for understanding historical air service and fleet mix trends at an airport.
Additionally, they provide a strong indication of airline growth plans six to 12 months into the future,
depending on the filing status of the airline. The data does not include non scheduled passenger activity and
reflects what airlines scheduled to occur at a given airport rather than what actually occurred. As a result,
cancellations and other factors that may result in deviations from a flight's given schedule are not reflected.
2.10.2.2.2 A irp o rt O perator
The operator of the subject airport or the Air Navigation Service Provider will most likely be able to provide
landing reports by carrier and by aircraft type in order to develop historical average aircraft size and fleet mix
data. Data provided by the airport operator may also include non scheduled passenger activity that would not
be reported in the airline schedule filings. The airport operator may also be able to provide radar data from the
Air Traffic Control tower or from the airport's Flight Information Display System (FIDS).
2.10.2.2.3 Airline Input
Changes in fleet mix or aircraft allocation are the primary drivers in the number of passengers per ATM. As
part of the forecasting process, key airlines need to be interviewed to obtain guidance on their future fleet and
network strategy. Many aircraft orders are also publically available on airline, manufacturer, and other third
party websites.
2.10.2.2.4 Manufacturer Outlooks
Boeing and Airbus each publish annual outlooks that provide twenty-year forecasts of new aircraft deliveries
by world region and by aircraft group (e.g., large, twin-aisle, single aisle, regional jets). While a given airport
may serve a different mix of aircraft than the global average, or even the region as a whole, the manufacturer
outlooks provide a useful context to compare and contrast a more micro level airport forecast.
2.10.2.2.5 Third Party Aircraft Databases
There are a number of companies that maintain aircraft inventory databases including aircraft orders and
retirements. These can be expensive, so the cost must be balanced against the needs of the project.

2.10.2.2.6 General Considerations
Understanding historical and potential future air service and aircraft trends at an airport is critical to
developing defensible measures of average seats per passenger flight as inputs to the passenger ATM
forecast.
The second step in developing the passenger ATM forecast is to develop load factor assumptions for each of
the passenger ATM segments. Load factors in the past five or six years have generally trended upwards as
airlines have made better use of their aircraft assets. According to data published by IATA, global load factors
averaged around 80 percent for the first three quarters of 2013. Load factors do differ by aviation market with
loads in the North American market currently the highest in the world at 82 to 83 percent compared with the
relatively low loads in the Africa market of 67 to 69 percent6 The forecast should try to reflect load factor
trends for the subject airport and the key markets it serves. The forecast must consider if there is potential for
further growth in load factors prior to airlines either adding frequency or increasing average aircraft size.
Once the average aircraft size and load factor assumptions have been developed, the passenger ATM
forecast can be derived based on the formula shown in Chapter 2.10.2, Passenger ATMs.
2.10.2.3 Passenger Aircraft Fleet Mix
For purposes of physical planning at an airport, the passenger ATM forecast can be further disaggregated into
fleet mix categories. A typical requirement is to develop the ATM forecast by aircraft groups. Airports outside
of the United States typically group aircraft based on ICAO categories: Code A, Code B, Code C, Code D,
Code E, and Code F. U.S. airports group aircraft by Airplane Design Group per FAA standards: ADG I,
ADG II, ADG III, ADG IV, ADG V, and ADG VI.
More detailed planning forecast exercises, environmental forecasts, or forecasts that have a simulation
component may require ATM forecasts down to the level of aircraft make and model.
A top-down approach should be employed to allocate the results of the movements forecast to the defined
fleet mix categories. The fleet mix should be developed to match the aggregate average aircraft size and load
factor targets. The process of developing the fleet mix should allow for the calibration of these assumptions
and, where appropriate, making iterative modifications prior to finalizing the assumptions and associated
results.
2.10.3 Freighter ATM Forecast
The freighter ATM forecast s typically derived from the associated freighter tonnage forecast based on
tonnage per movement assumptions. The freighter tonnage per movement implicitly reflects both the size of
the aircraft and the associated load factor.
IATA, Air Passenger Market Analysis, April 2013.

IA TA Forecasting— Air Transport Movement Forecast
Similar to the passenger ATM forecast, the freighter ATM forecast should be developed based on a blend of:
• Historical analysis to understand the mix of freighter airlines at the subject airport;
• Freighter business models;
• Aircraft fleet mix;
• Forward looking aircraft orders; and
• Cargo industry trends.
Cargo load factors can be estimated based on specific aircraft or the average payload of freighter movements
anticipated at a given airport. Cargo load factors can be a useful statistic when determining how much
additional cargo the freighter aircraft at a given airport can accommodate before adding frequency or
increasing average aircraft size. However, cargo load factors should be used with caution for the following
reasons:
• The capacity of a freighter aircraft is dictated not only by weight, but also by volume. For example, a
freighter aircraft full of flowers will result in a significantly different tonnage per flight metric than a freighter
full of steel ball bearings. Consequently, weight-based load factors can be misleading.
• Cargo flows are often imbalanced. For example, a 65 percent cargo load factor on a route between
Shanghai and the United States may represent full freighter flights from Shanghai to the United States,
but half empty flights on the way back.
• A wide-body aircraft may only unload a portion of its total load at a given airport before heading to another
destination. This type of routing results in a relatively low tonnage per flight metric at the subject airport
and may lead the forecast analyst to defer adding frequencies if the multi-segment routing is not
understood.
Once the tonnage per freighter movement assumptions have been developed, they can be applied to the all
cargo tonnage forecast to derive all-cargo ATMs. A top-down approach can be used to determine a more
detailed aircraft fleet mix. Similar to the passenger ATM forecast, grouping the fleet mix into FAA or ICAO
design groups is recommended as a minimum step for physical planning studies.
2.10.4 General Aviation ATM Forecast
Subjective judgment often goes into making general aviation (GA) forecasts due to reliance on national
trends, forecasts and. to the extent such are available, local historical records. GA activity typically includes all
ATMs that are not included in commercial passenger, commercial freighter, or military/government
movements. GA activity includes diverse uses that can range from:
• Fractional jet operators;

• VVIP (very, very important person) aircraft;
• On-demand air taxi flights;
• Recreational flying;
• Flight training activities;

• Business travel;
• News reporting;
• Traffic observation;
• Police patrol;
• Emergency medical flights; and
• Crop dusting.
Understanding the history and current state of the GA industry can help predict future aviation demand. The
following sub-chapters discuss how to develop a general aviation forecast while considering nationwide
historical, emerging, and forecast trends.
2.10.4.1 Emerging Trends
When developing movement forecasts, it is essential to consider historical, national, and emerging trends in
the general aviation market. Similar to the aviation activity from the passenger and cargo segments, GA is
influenced by the overall health of the economy. The forecaster should consider the influence of local
business, tourism, and other economic activity on general aviation activity as well as the influence of various
socioeconomic and demographic characteristics.
Changes in fuel prices impact the economic relationships between modes of transportation and the price
differentials between different segments of the aviation market. Although fuel prices are a major problem for
the commercial airlines, corporate GA users are less sensitive to changes in fuel prices. Given the cost to
own and operate a corporate aircraft or to charter a business jet, the incremental cost of fuel is typically a
secondary consideration.
The concept of fractional ownership in general aviation aircraft has significantly contributed to the revitalization
of the GA manufacturing industry in the 21st century. This concept of purchasing hours of jet time has
encouraged more general aviation activity, allowing more people to have access to GA aircraft.
Regions that are sparsely populated, isolated and/or poorly served by surface modes will tend to have higher
GA activity.
2.10.4.2 GA Forecast
Historical GA activity data should be reviewed and organized to identify significant characteristics, the local
and itinerant mix, and the fleet mix of airport-based aircraft over the planning period. For all airports, the GA
forecast should be further guided by discussions from the fixed-base operators (FBOs), flight training
academies and other factors at the subject airport that may impact GA activity.
The first step in developing a GA forecast is to organize the historical data in tabular format by distributing the
total general aviation movements into aircraft segments (i.e., turbo jet, turbo prop, piston, helicopter, etc.) if
available. This distribution will display historical trends and set-up the groundwork for the GA fleet mix.

Forecasting— Peak Period Forecast
The next step is to select a forecasting approach that makes the most sense for the airport (i.e.t econometric,
trend, or market share). Once the methodology has been developed, the forecaster should apply the forecast
results over a time series. Based on research of historical, national, and emerging GA trends, the next step is
to develop the fleet mix based on this analysis. Explanations should be provided if major changes from
historic trends are expected in the future.
The projections of GA activity should be prepared for the forecast planning horizons along with projections of
the airport-based aircraft fleet mix for the same horizons. To determine the activity level required between
these planning horizons, interpolate the data as needed.
2.10.4.3 W IP Aircraft Activity
It is important to remember that not all airports are the same when developing a general aviation forecast. A
key segment that may affect some airports is often called W IP, or “very, very important person” activity.
W IP s are most commonly royalty or political figures. Airports with W IP activity often have a private apron
and/or an exclusive FBO associated with this traffic. Although W IP service is not common at most airports; it
is significant to keep this type of activity in mind when developing a general aviation forecast.
2.10.5 Military/Government ATM Forecast
Historical military/government aviation activity should be identified using airport statistics. Work with airport
management and staff who are in contact with representatives of the military to have a better understanding
of the expected future levels of military and government activity. Often, military movements are limited and/or
secretive, and therefore hard to forecast.
2.10.6 Total ATM Forecast
The total movements forecast should be derived by adding all the ATM forecasts described above. An overall
tabular format of total movements should be created displaying each category as well as total movements,
including compound annual growth rates. The results from each segment of the movements forecast will be
used for the peak period analysis described in detail in the next chapter.
2.11 Peak Period Forecast

The traffic demand patterns at an airport are subject to seasonal, monthly, daily, and even hourly variations.
These variations result in peak periods when the greatest amount of demand is placed upon facilities required
to accommodate passenger and aircraft movements. Peaking characteristics are critical in the assessment of
existing facilities to determine their ability to accommodate forecast increases in passenger and operational
activity throughout the study period. The objective of developing peak period forecasts is to provide a design
level that sizes facilities so they are neither underutilized nor overcrowded too often.

Passenger peak period forecasts will usually cover the peaks for total, arriving, departing, domestic,
international, O&D and transfer passengers. ATM peak period forecasts will focus on total, arrivals,
departures, international and domestic.
2.11.1 Peak Period Traffic Measure
The following sub chapters provide an overview of the most common ways to measure the current peak
traffic. These methods form the basis of forecasting future peaks. IATA recommends the first approach to
define the busy day. Alternative approaches are used and/or imposed by the local civil aviation authorities.
They are also presented for reference.
2.11.1.1 Busy Day (IATA)
IATA defines the design day, or busy day, as the second busiest day in an average week during the peak
month. To determine the average week, the monthly passengers or movements are divided by the number of
weeks in the peak month or the number days of the month multiplied by seven. The seven-day period
(Monday through Sunday) that is closest to an average week is selected and the second busiest day of the
week during that period is identified. Finally, the hourly profile for the 2nd busiest day is then analyzed to
determine the peak hour.
2.11.1.2 Peak Month Average Day (FAA)
Federal Aviation Administration guidance suggests using the peak hour of the average day in the peak month
for purposes of physical planning; typically referred to as the peak month average day (PMAD). It is
recommended that three to five years of historical data be analyzed to determine the typical peak month at
the subject airport. The PMAD is the day that most closely represents an average day in the peak month.
Alternatively, a weekday average can be used when the airport has significantly lower weekend traffic than
during the week. This is referred to as a peak month average weekday (PMAWD). Once the PMAD or
PMAWD has been identified, the hourly profile is then analyzed to determine the peak hour.
2.11.1.3 Standard Busy Rate (30th Busiest Hour)
The Standard Busy Rate (SBR) is a peak hour definition that was promulgated by the British Airports Authority
(BAA); now Heathrow Airport Limited. The SBR can be calculated differently based on airport operator
requirements, but the generally accepted definition is the 30th highest hour of annual passenger flow. Other
examples include the 20th busiest hour implemented in Amsterdam and the 40lh busiest hour implemented at
French airports (including Paris airports). To determine the SBR, the hourly data must be ranked in order of
magnitude. The 30th busiest hour is then identified as the SBR7.
7 Competition Commission, BAA Airports Market Investigation.

Forecasting— Peak Period Forecast
2.11.1.4 Busy Hour Rate (Five Percent Busy Hour)
Busy Hour Rate (BHR) is the definition currently being used by Heathrow Airport Limited, which is a
modification of the SBR. Ths definition ensures that the projected throughput is lower than the BHR at least
95 percent of the time. As with the SBR, the five percent threshold is a guideline that may be changed by the
forecaster. To determine the BHR, the hourly data must be arranged in descending order of magnitude.
Starting with the highest volume hour, the forecaster calculates the cumulative sum of the top volumes that
amount to five percent of the annual volume.
2.11.2 Incorporating Directionality into Peak Hour Analysis
In order to develop targeted airport facility requirements, it is important to evaluate peak hour activity by
directional flow. Departure peaks drive functions such as parking, check-in, and security screening. Arriving
peaks drive functional elements such as immigration, baggage claim, and greeter requirements. The total
peak may drive overall circulation, concessions, and restroom requirements. It is important to note that these
peaks are typically distinct, occurring at different times of the day as a function of airline scheduling practices.
Depending on the airport and scope of the forecast, further disaggregation of peak hour activity may be
required:
• Market (domestic versus international);
• Airline (NMA versus network/full service); and

• Passenger type (O&D versus transfer).
2.11.3 Peak Period Forecasts
The following sub chapters provide two alternative approaches to forecast peak period demand.
2.11.3.1 Peak Period to Annual Ratios
Forecasts for peak period passengers and aircraft movements can be obtained directly from annual forecasts
by applying ratios of busy period traffic to annual traffic. As passenger demand and aircraft movements
increase, these ratios are usually slightly declining. An analysis of the recent historic data will confirm the
relationship between peak hour demand and annual demand.
The FAA established typical ratios between peak hour passengers and annual passenger traffic. Such ratios
can be found in airport planning materials, including FAA publications. These ratios were developed for North
American airports in the 1980s and 90s are indicative only.

2.11.3.2 Design Day Flight Schedules
For elaborate forecasts, it may be necessary to develop detailed flight schedules for a design day or busy
day. These are often referred to as Design Day Flight Schedules (DDFS). The flight schedules reflect
expectations regarding the future growth of ATM segments (passenger, cargo, general aviation, and military),
the mix of markets, aircraft fleet mix, and the future hourly operational profile of the airport. The future flight
schedule will contain the following attributes:
• Airline name;
• Operating carrier;
• Aircraft registration;
• Flight number;
• Aircraft type (e.g., B737) and sub-type (e.g., B737-800);

• Seat configuration (passenger carriers);
• Flight Origin/Destinatior and intermediary stops, if any;
• Direction (arrival/departure);
• Arrival/Departure time (on-block/off-block);

• Flight type (passenger, cargo, GA, military);
• On-board passengers split into O&D (local) and Transfer; and
• On-board cargo.
The future flight schedule will be used to estimate the volumes of passengers throughout the terminal by
combining the information on aircraft arrivals and departures with passenger check-in curves.
2.11.4 Conclusions Regarding Peak Period Analysis
As discussed above, there is no consistent methodology for developing peak period forecasts across all
airports. The methodology used will vary by region, airport, desired level of service, and the availability of
data. A consistent theme of all the methodologies is to not plan to the very peak period of a given year,
resulting in facilities that are significantly underutilized at other times of year. Indeed, the forecaster may want
to evaluate multiple methodologies and assess the range of results. Sensitivity assessment with some of the
inputs or parameters can be made to provide upper and lower limits of demand.
The forecaster must also determine the appropriate level of effort for the subject airport. The BHR and SBR
methods require hourly throughputs for at least one year. The BHR and SBR methods are very labor intensive
and may also be limited by data in availability. The IATA Second Busiest Day in the Average Week of the
Peak Month and the FAA's PMAD methodologies are perhaps the most widely employed. They have the
advantage of narrowing peak hour analysis to a particular day or at most across the peak month.

IA TA A Forecasting— Peak Period Forecast
Some airports that function primarily as hubs may experience several very sharp peaks followed by very low
activity the rest of the day. In this case, a larger percentage of passengers will experience peak conditions
and it may be necessary to use another criterion instead of the peak hour to size the terminal facilities. This
criterion may be based on a minimum level of service to be experienced by at least 95 percent of passengers.

Section 3—Planning
3.1 Introduction
Once the forecast has been established and agreed to by all parties, airport development enters the planning
phase. Logically, the planning process moves from the more general level of detail through to the more
specific where the different elements that comprise the airport are examined together and separately.
The update of the ADRM is structured to reflect this progression. The Planning Section begins with a
discussion of Master Planning (see Chapter 3.2 Master Planning for more information).
And continues with a comprehensive chapter on planning the Passenger Terminal (see Chapter 3.4,
Passenger Terminal for more information). Passenger terminals are certainly one of the most interesting and
complex elements at any airport. This chapter also addresses Levels of Service (LoS) from both a quantitative
and passenger perception point of view. LoS continue to be of interest as airport infrastructure particularly
terminal facilities, continue to be stretched by the overall growth in aviation.
Phased rollouts of the ADRM will address:
• Airside planning (runways, taxiways and aprons);
• Cargo Terminal planning;
• Support facility planning (catering, maintenance hangars, ground equipment facilities, etc.); and
• Surface access systems planning (roads, rail, etc.)
3.2 Master Planning

Vision
All airports should develop a master plan in order to guide future infrastructure and facility development
programs in a logical, sustainable and cost efficient manner.
Policy
It is recommended that all airports ensure that:
• All airport capacity enhancement programs are closely tied to an airport master plan;
• The master plan is prepared by independent consultants with global experience and a proven history of
delivering plans that enable all stakeholders to expand their operations and undertake profitable business;
• Airlines and their representative associations are fully involved in the creation, development and review of
the master plan;

Planning— Master Planning
• Infrastructure is designed to be as cost-efficient as possible (facilities should not be “gold plated");
• The master plan allows for unfettered incremental expansion of all facilities until the ultimate capacity of
the site is attained.
• No development proceeds until a master plan is in place.
3.2.1 Introduction
Many airports currently lack a master plan or vision of the future. As a consequence, they run the risk that
their short- to medium-term capacity enhancement projects could be ill-judged, misconceived, inappropriately
sized and/or poorly located, thereby restricting their ability to attain the airfield's ultimate potential
This chapter sets out the reasoning for establishing a master plan, the need for consultation and the planning
process that can lead to the creation of a coherent airport master plan.
3.2.1.1 Why Have a Master Plan?
A master plan is required so that all airside, landside and airport support facilities can develop, expand and
improve the operational flexibility and efficiency of their business in a structured, balanced and orderly
fashion. This, without adversely impacting on the business of their neighbors on or adjacent to the airport. In
so doing, the potential of the available land and the capacity of the airport's runway system and terminal area
will be maximized.
All airports should have a master plan to guide their future infrastructure development in a logical, cost
efficient and affordable manner. Without a master plan, there is a risk that short-term decision making will
result in projects for capacity enhancement being poorly located or inappropriately sized, resulting in wasteful
expenditures or restrictions on the airport's overall capacity or performance.
In the absence of qualified internal subject matter experts, the master plan should be prepared by
independent consultants with global experience and a proven history of delivering plans that enable
incremental modular expansion when demand triggers development.
3.2.1.2 The Importance of Adequate Facilities
Airport traffic tends to grow with the economy. An airport needs to be looking to the future to ensure that, as
traffic increases and its composition (fleet mix) changes, the facilities will be in place to meet the needs of that
traffic. Failure to plan and to develop sufficient facilities (e.g., airspace, airside infrastructure, passenger
terminal, support facilities, surface access systems, etc.) will have a direct impact on users and stakeholders,
through:
• Wasted or ineffective capital investment;
• Congestion and delays impacting on passengers;
• Poor customer experience and level of service;

• Higher overall operating costs;
• Loss of revenue potential; and
• Environmental impacts from delays in the air and on the ground.
3.2.1.3 What is a Master Plan?
A master plan is the planners' vision of how the ultimate development potential of the airport could be
realized. It is a physical representation of an airport's long-term business plan. It will provide an indication of
how capacity enhancement may proceed over the short (0-5 years) and medium (6-10 years) terms. Finally,
a master plan will indicate how those developments could be linked to'
• Traffic type and demand;
• Economic and environmental factors;
• Investment requirements; and
• Financial implications and strategies.
Master plans are developed for new and existing airports. They should be reviewed approximately every five
years, or when significant changes in demand occur, so that the airport's future plans reflect the latest market
conditions, technological improvements and emerging trends.
The level of detail in a master plan is a function of:
• The size, issues and opportunities at the airport;
• Budget considerations. However, investment in a master plan is important to ensure that the decision
making process is appropriate and the evolution of the plan is adequate to reflect the special
circumstances of the airport, its users and the local conditions; and
• National policies and regulations. Environmental regulations can also influence the content required in a
master plan.
An effective master plan uses text and drawings to present the material in a way that is understandable by
airport decision makers, airport users and others that have an interest in the future of the airport. A successful
master plan should:
• Provide for the orderly, timely development of the airport to meet current and future air traffic demands;
• Document the issues facing the airport (i.e., traffic growth, limited existing facilities, capacity bottlenecks,
land constraints, etc.);
• Enable effective input from users and from affected political entities;
• Identify a program of development that addresses the airport's needs:
o At the optimal time;
o Satisfying all regulations;
o Optimizing the use of land and airspace;

• Justify the proposed development program through technical, economic and environmental analysis of
concepts and alternatives;
• Guide the land uses in the area surrounding the airport by informing governments and neighbors of the
requirements to protect the airport from encroachment by incompatible land uses;
• Provide governments with guidance on airport access requirements and how the airport should connect
with surface access systems;
• Outline a realistic schedule for the implementation of the development proposed in the plan with emphasis
on the first five years of a 10-year capital expenditure (CAPEX) program;
• Propose an affordable financial plan to support the implementation schedule;

• Provide an effective graphic presentation of the phased development of the airport and anticipated
compatible land uses in the vicinity of the airport;
• Include a framework for a continuing planning process to monitor key conditions and enable changes in
plan recommendations, as required; and
• Provide a context for constructive consultation to take place between all stakeholders, with the objective
of reaching a consensus on all major decisions and changes to the plan over time.
3.2.1.4 Master Planning Principles
The airport master planner must meet the challenge of planning for sufficient capacity and level of service for
the forecast aircraft, passenger, cargo and vehicle movements:
• At the optimal capital and operating costs;
• In a phased approach so as not to provide unnecessary infrastructure for a long period;
• That fully meets all applicable regulatory requirements;
• That provides flexibility ooth in terms of traffic levels and composition, because the future is uncertain and
the forecasts are simply a reasonable estimate of demands that may occur;
• That is aligned with existing and expected future market conditions;
• That considers reasonable and foreseeable trends in technology, systems and service patterns;
• That allows incremental expansion towards the ultimate development potential of the site. The planner
constantly needs to be addressing the question, “and then what?”;
• That considers all constraints and opportunities; and
• That is an active document open to revision as circumstances change.
To optimize capital investment, airport operators and their airline strategic/business partners should first
consider expansion of existing facilities rather than the construction of new ones that may duplicate all or part
of their current operations. It should be noted, however, that refurbishment or expansion of existing facilities
may be disruptive to day-to-day airline operations and may increase short-term airline operational
expenditures. If, after consultation, expansion of existing facilities is not practical, then building new on a
brownfield site, especially if outside the secure zone, may allow new capacity to be developed more quickly

and cost-effectively. Regardless of which option is finally pursued, the design of new facilities should be as
flexible as is practical. A building's layout and construction techniques should enable variations in the
operational usage of the building and facilitate phased expansion in the future.
3.2.1.5 Constraints in Master Planning
Airport planners often deal with constraints that may impact or limit the ultimate development potential of the
airport. These constraints may include:
• Past development that has been haphazard and uncoordinated resulting in a less than optimal site
development;
• The surrounding terrain or human infrastructure place restrictions on the opportunities for future
development;
• Environmental regulations that restrict development opportunities, runway use, and operating hours (e.g.,
nighttime noise restrictions);
• Inadequate land in reserve or land too expensive or impossible to acquire;

• A lack of clear unwavering political support for aviation; and
• Other operating restrictions (e.g., night curfews, movement limits).
Recognizing these constraints early in the planning process will help planners develop realistic assessments
of the future potential of an airport.
3.2.1.6 Limitations of a Master Plan
There are a number of misconceptions of what a master plan is and is not. A master plan is not an airport
design. Nor is it a detailed cevelopment program or a financing plan. It is a long-term guide to development
that supports an airport's business development strategy. It includes indicative investment levels and a
preliminary assessment of financing.
That said, a master plan needs to be robust and possess the ability to accommodate differing periods of
growth and resultant rates of expansion. This is accomplished through the adoption of modular/incremental
expansion principles. Therefore, no master plan should be viewed as the final answer. The changing nature of
the airline business and the potential for this to impact on an airport's strategic direction dictates that the
master plan should be routinely reviewed, at least every five years.
Recommendation: Master Plan Assumptions

It is recommended that all master plan assumptions be thoroughly reviewed and tested at least every five
years through ongoing consultation with the aviation community. Statistical traffic trends should be reviewed
against forecasts on an annual basis to ensure all planning assumptions are still valid.
Corrections/adjustments should be made as necessary.

3.2.2 Consultation
3.2.2.1 Why Consult?
The airport master plan outlines the vision for airport development to the ultimate development potential of the
site. As the airport is an important economic driver, there will be keen interest from those directly and
indirectly involved. People in the surrounding communities will want to understand how the airport will
develop.
Consultation is a key component of a successful master plan. Ideally, when completed, a master plan will be
a consensus on the future direction of the airport. The interested parties in the airport's development are a
combination of those with a direct business interest, and a broader group that includes the general public.
The term stakeholders is often used to describe this broad group. Consultation with stakeholders should:
• Enable planners to take the needs of these groups into consideration;
• Enable planners to benefit from the different perspectives that can be provided;
• Identify key issues that the airport planners may have overlooked; and
• Provide the opportunity to receive feedback on concepts, the scale and the pace of development.
3.2.2.2 When to Consult?
Consultations have the most impact if they are commenced early in the planning process, before irreversible
decisions are made. With early consultation, the issues of real importance to airport users, political entities
and the general public can be identified. Planners can then manage these issues as the plan develops. Early
consultation also highlights common business drivers and interests; this ensures alignment of stakeholder
business strategies.
Late involvement of users or the public in the master plan process will create the impression that the
consultations are not meaningful, because decisions have already been made. This has the potential to delay
formal approval if stakeholders cannot support development as envisaged within the master plan.
Consultation, to be meaningful, should be on-going throughout the master plan process. A recommended
approach is:
• To implement an IATA Airport Consultative Committee (ACC) to inform the airlines during the preplanning
phase, to align business strategies and to discuss the reasons, objectives, scope and major milestone
dates of the plan;
• To make a public announcement of the commencement of the master plan, so that the public knows that
it is underway. This announcement should include start/finish dates, and an indication of the stages at
which consultation will occur;

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IA TA O IL Airport Development Reference Manual
• To have a preliminary exchange of information with governments and regulators;
• To individually interview the airlines and airport tenants/user groups to discuss current constraints at the
airport or issues with airport services or facilities, and to obtain information on the users' plans for their
operations at the airport;
• To present the draft master plan to all interested parties including the general public, and to provide a
period for comment and feedback; and
• To present the plan upcn completion as approved by the airport's management.
Although there are variations from country to country, the current trend is for more consultation rather than
less. In many countries, public consultations are mandatory.
3.2.2.3 Who should be Consulted?
Determining who to consult will vary by city, country and region. Clearly, as the airport's primary function is to
support aviation, airlines should be regarded as a primary stakeholder, or even as a "business partner".
In addition to the airlines, meaningful and effective consultation should also include:
• Air Navigation Service Providers;
• Interested people in the community;
• Community groups;
• Ground handlers;
• Major tenants;
• Support facility operators/businesses;
• Adjacent land owners;
• The traveling public;
• Ground transport operators;
• Surrounding community leaders;
• Civil Aviation Authorities;
• Government agencies; and

• Regulators.

3.2.2.3.1 Airlines
Consultation with carriers and their representative associations needs to be early, frequent and meaningful. A
well-structured program is beneficial to all parties.
The airlines can contribute to the planning process by:
• Sharing recent development experience from other airports;
• Helping to align business strategies between the airlines and the airport;
• Reaching agreement on the assumed rate of growth in traffic;
• Providing input on their preferred method of operation;

• Indicating their criteria to assist in determining the best development option(s); and
• Prioritizing individual elements of the development program.
Contributions as outlined will facilitate the decision-making process on subsequent design/construction

projects. The airlines have an opportunity to assist the airport in keeping capital costs to an appropriate level.
However, it should be acknowledged that, due to the dynamic nature of the airline business, the airlines' time
period of primary focus is often much shorter than the overall period being addressed by the master plan.
In consulting the airlines, several different approaches are needed:
• Individual interviews with “home-based” and other high-frequency air carriers to discuss issues and future
plans. Confidentiality is necessary because airlines may not want to discuss some items in front of their
competitors; and
• Group sessions to present the various stages of the master plan;
• Forecast assumptions;
• The demand-capacity analysis;
• Development of options; and

• Evaluation of the draft and final plan.
Airlines may be hesitant to share data or future plans, either directly to the airport authority or through external
consultants, as these could be commercially sensitive. Airport authorities will need to ensure that the data
disclosed is protected via a non disclosure agreement or other means to protect individual airline interests.
3.2.2.3.2 Air Navigation Service Provider (ANSP)
Consultation with the ANSP is essential, especially when the master plan may include proposed infrastructure
changes that have the potential to significantly increase air traffic movements. Examples include:
• Additional runways;
• Alterations to the existirg runway design;

• New rapid exit taxiways; and
• New holding positions.
3.2.2.3.3 Airport Consultative Committee (ACC)
At larger airports, particularly where significant capital expenditure may be considered, the airlines may
choose to establish an ACC. The objectives of an ACC are to:
• Review demand against available capacities;
• Agree to and prioritize airport development/capacity enhancement programs;

• Discuss affordability;
• Consolidate user views; and
• Provide a focal point for consultation between the airlines and the airport authority.
Recommendation: Airline Consultation

Adequate and meaningful consultation with the airline community at the appropriate level of strategic
engagement should start early in the master plan process. The objectives of this consultation are:
• To enable the airport to understand the operational and business objectives of the airline community and
users; and
• To align the future airport development to the overall airport/airline community business development
strategy.
All matters concerning medium- to long-term airport development programs (with associated large scale
CAPEX), should be referred to IATA through the proper departments at Airline Members head office. The
operating airlines will make available suitably qualified specialists who will be prepared to consult and advise
the local authorities. The IATA Regional Director, in coordination with the IATA Director Airport and Fuel, as
any infrastructure change has charges implications, will arrange for the airline specialists to convene an
Airport Consultative Committee (ACC) for airport developments. In general terms, Airline Operators
Committees (AOCs) cover day-to-day short-term operational issues at the airport for which they are
established. Usually, information concerning a proposed airport development is first received from the airport
authority at AOC meetings. On the other hand, ACCs address medium- to long-term strategic development
matters.
The creation of an ACC at an airport often involves IATA to help in identifying the right airlines and the right
people to assist airports with planning. For major projects, an IATA representative may also participate.

3.2.2.3.4 General Public
Consultations with the general public can be approached using:
• Public information meetings
These are best conducted in an “open house” format, with interactive information stations staffed by
knowledgeable members of the planning team. This method allows the public to interact one-on-one with
the planners. It also limits the opportunity for a special interest group to control the meeting. It is important
that the actual planners participate in these sessions to communicate their knowledge, their commitment
to real planning, and to gain the trust of the public. At smaller airports, the interactive open house
approach may not be feasible, and a more traditional presentation followed by a question-and-answer
session may be the only option. Regardless of format, public information sessions typically need to be
held more than once and in more than one location to give the broadest public an opportunity to
participate. These public involvement sessions require the planners to be open and positive to public
consultation. They can also consume a substantial amount of time and budget.
• A public awareness campaign
This part of the public involvement program can include:

o Fact sheets/information packets;
o Press releases;
o Newspaper ads; and
o A web site (or dedicated pages on the airport's web site).
The scope of public awareness campaigns varies from country to country and from airport to airport, generally
in line with the scope of the projected development plan.
3.2.2.4 Documentation
Documentation of consultations is an important part of the master plan. While the individual interviews with
users are not necessarily published, the key issues from these interviews are extracted and presented in a
form that identifies them as issues raised during the consultations. Often they will be grouped in categories
(i.e., facilities, business, operations, land use, environment, etc.). Not all the issues will be addressed in the
master plan, and those that will be addressed elsewhere should be identified separately. For example, some
users may raise design issues during the master plan consultations. These types of issues will only be
considered in a more detailed design and construction phase that may follow the master plan.
The public consultation program should be documented in an appendix to the master plan, identifying times,
locations, attendee lists, minutes or other feedback forms, plus copies of all public awareness materials.

3.2.2.5 Master Plan Hot Topics
Typical consultations are characterized by several “hot topics” that tend to bring out more public involvement,
and more emotion. These include:
• Aircraft Noise: Noise can be an issue if the airport has not been protected from encroachment.
Development of new runways or new services (e.g., night operations) may also create concerns. Options
are available to reduce noise exposure;
• Air Quality/Emissions: See Chapter 3.2.9 Environmental Responsibility;
• Data and Study Conflicts: In some jurisdictions, there can be data conflicts or even conflicting studies. If
the airport's traffic data, for example, is different from that provided by governments or air traffic control
agencies, the credibility of the master plan can be compromised,
• Done Deals: The impression that consultations are simply presentations for decisions that have already
been made can cause a negative reaction to the master plan;
• Impact on Property Value: If development is envisaged that requires expansion out with the current
airport boundary then this may adversely affect property values;
• Land Acquisition: This is often the most controversial issue as it can bring the airport's future needs in
direct conflict with its neighbors;
• Safety: Local communities, particularly if they are located under or adjacent to standard approach and
departure routings, may express concerns in relation to safety; and
• Surface Access: Expansion may be accompanied by increases in road/rail traffic.
3.2.3 The Master Planning Process
3.2.3.1 Introduction
Airport master planning follows a structured approach that is accepted by airports and regulators around the
world. The key steps are illustrated in Exhibit 3.2.3.1

I ATA Planning— Master Planning
Exhibit 3.2.3.1: Master Plan Process
Source: IATA
3.2.3.2 Key Steps
It is important to stress the need for the airlines, through the ACC process, to be allowed the opportunity to
review, comment on and provide input to the master plan throughout the planning process.
The key steps in the master plan development are:

• Preplanning:
o Scope the effort;
o Determine the scale and requirements of the master plan;
o Determine terms of reference for consultants;
o Determine how planning will be funded;
o Scope potential environmental issues; and
o Establish high-level financial parameters on the maximum feasible level of capital investment over the
period of the master plan;

• Air Traffic/Demand:
o Forecast future aircraft movements, passenger and cargo traffic;

• Site Evaluation/lnventory:
o Assess existing facilities and services in terms of their capacity, constraints and condition;
• Requirements Analysis:
o Compare the capacity of existing facilities to current and forecast demand;
o Identify floor area/footprint/plot sizes to accommodate incremental expansion leading to the ultimate
development phase;
o Establish the demand levels that will trigger the need for facility expansion;
o Determine the relative importance and priorities for expansion or replacement;
o Check compliance with applicable safety/design standards and recommended practices (e.g., ICAO
Annex. 14);
o Understand the strategic business and functional requirements of the aviation community going
forward; and
o Test operational assumptions to ensure they meet evolving user needs;
• Strategic Choices: Identify primary strategic drivers and priorities, including:
o Government policy on aviation;
o Environmental constraints in which airlines operate;
o Home base carrier policy and influence;
o The plans of alliances and their airline partners;
o New model airlines policy;
o Cargo operations policy;
o Fleet development, new aircraft types and their impact on runways, taxiways, aprons and gates;
o The hub operator's demands, influence and benefits (this is sometimes in line with the alliance/airline
partnerships, sometimes not);
o Positioning of the airport in relation to competing airports (e.g., is the emphasis primarily on transfers
or on Origin/Destination traffic?); and
o Catchment areas and presence of airlines with special policies;
• Development of Options/Site Selection:
o Develop concepts and alternatives;
o Facilitate projected functional requirements; and
o Evaluate these options from an operational, environmental and financial perspective;

• Environmental Evaluation:
o Determine potential environmental impacts from development and possible mitigation measures;
• Outline Development Program:
o Recommend the most acceptable and appropriate development option, including phased
development in the short (0-5 years) and medium (5-10 years) terms, and to integrate this within a
land use plan for the airport;
• Financial Assessment:
o Estimate the investment capital costs by year;
o Identify how these costs will be financed;

o Evaluate the affordability of these costs, including any possible impacts on airport charges;
o Modify the plan as needed through continued consultation;
o Develop a viable financial plan; and
• Reporting and Deliverables:
o Finalize and publish the written Master Plan report, including airport layout plans, land use plans and
drawings that convey the future plans of the airport.
The particular order of the plan components may vary, and there may be several elements running in parallel
during the planning process (e.g., forecasting and site evaluation), with information from one component
impacting on another. For example, it is recommended that a preliminary financial analysis start at the
preplanning stage and be updated throughout the development of the plan.
In the sub chapters that follow, each of the plan elements will be discussed in greater detail.
3.2.4 Preplanning
A master plan, even a master plan update, is a major project typically taking a year or more. Therefore, the
planning effort needs to be thoughtfully scoped in advance to match the local conditions.
3.2.4.1 Initial Needs Determination
The need for the study should be based on:
• A change in the type or nature of traffic;
• Evidence of demand exceeding capacity today;
• A forecast that demand will exceed capacity in the future if growth continues;
• Identification of new capacity or capabilities by the airlines at the airport;
• Changes in the types of aircraft using the airport;

• Consultation with the user community (i.e., ACC) regarding ongoing business development strategies;
• Emerging environmental challenges;
• Changes in national, regional and/or local planning regulations; and
• A management objective or regulatory requirement that master plans be undertaken regularly (e.g., every
five years).
The reasons for the master plan should be identified and prioritized (i.e., what are the key business and
regulatory drivers?).
3.2.4.2 Master Plan Objectives
The preplanning should identify objectives, including specifically identifying the development issues that the
plan will need to address. In simple terms, the objectives should answer the following questions:
• Why is the plan being undertaken?
• What are the key issues to be resolved?
3.2.4.3 Data Availability
The availability of data is one factor in determining the scope of and level of effort required for the master
plan. The airport may already possess recent inventory data on the capacity and condition of the facilities,
meaning that the master plan scope can be reduced.
Data availability will vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction and from airport to airport.
3.2.4.4 Level of Detail
The level of detail for each study element should be broadly determined at the preplanning stage based on
the issues facing the airport available data, budgets and regulatory requirements.
3.2.4.5 Land/Facility Surveys
The source and quality of land/facility surveys should be reviewed as part of the preplanning stage. Their level
of detail and accuracy must be adequate to support the master plan.
The required contour intervals for topographic maps should be determined at this time. New base mapping
may be required. If that is the case, the determination of the area to be mapped should consider:
• Any possible expansion of the airport beyond current boundaries;
• Ground access issues and the possible need for new surface access routes;

• The areas that may be required for approach surface drawings;
• The possible extent of noise contours; and
• The location of other, possibly environmentally sensitive, areas.
3.2.4.6 Concession Agreements
For airports operated privately under concession agreements, particularly those lasting less than 25 years, the
master plan should project beyond the life of the concession in order to address possible capacity
enhancement programs and related capital expenditure requirements that may be required immediately
following the concession end date
3.2.4.7 Method of Planning
The preplanning stage should determine which elements, if any, will be undertaken by in-house subject matter
experts and which by external consultants. In today's lean airports, master planning is typically a consultant
responsibility coordinated by a small in-house administrative team.
3.2.4.8 Work Program
Preplanning should include the development of work programs, terms of reference, requests for proposals,
schedules and budgets. The schedule should show milestones and deliverables. If the master plan is to be
undertaken by consultants, then selection criteria should be established. These should be based on the
consultants' experience on similar work and their professional credentials. Input to this process by consultants
is important for the evolution and refinement of the detailed scope and budget.
3.2.4.9 Data Management
The preplanning should include a framework for data management to guide the retention of data, data
formats, and data responsibilities.
3.2.4.10 Coordination and Monitoring
Whether undertaken by airport staff or consultants, part of the preplanning stage is to plan for coordination
and monitoring of the work, including the structure and composition of review committees.

3.2.4.11 Planning Public Consultation
As described in detail in Chapter 3.2.2 Consultation, consultation with stakeholders is essential. The extent
and type of broader public consultation should be determined by:
• General practices within the jurisdiction;
• Policies of the airport's funding agencies;
• The goals and business strategy of airport management; and
• The perceived level of interest. If the airport is far away from the city in a remote area, there may be a low
level of interest in public consultation.
3.2.4.12 Preliminary Environmental Considerations
The preliminary environmental evaluation includes an initial identification of likely environmental issues and
scope based on national and local policies and regulations. Any required documentation of environmental
issues, monitoring of results or planned mitigation actions should be identified.
3.2.4.13 Preliminary Financial Framework
A master plan that recommends “solutions" that are unaffordable is a waste of resources, including time.
Unfortunately, this is a relatively common outcome when no financial guidance is provided to the
planners/consultants on the possible range and sources of financing available. At the preplanning stage, the
airport's financial officer should provide an estimate of the affordable capital for the first five years of the
forecast, for the second five years, for the following 10 years and, in board terms, for the period thereafter.
If there is a possibility of receiving external grants for part of the capital, an approximate value of the grants
should be included in this initial guidance.
The preliminary financial framework should also be subject to consultation with primary stakeholders.
3.2.4.14 Master Plan Funding
The source(s) of funding for the master plan project itself should be identified in the preplanning phase. For
many airports, this requires budgeting to undertake the plan in the next fiscal year. For airports with external
funders for the master plan, identifying the source and amounts is followed by application for funding. The
need to acquire these services by way of a bidding process may also need to be factored into the overall
planning timeframe.

3.2.5 T raffic Forecasts
There are numerous methods used to undertake air traffic forecasts. These are covered in detail in Section 2
Forecasting.
3.2.5.2 Capacity Enhancement-Scale and Timing
Air traffic forecasts are a critical element in identifying the potential scale and timing of each facility expansion
within the master plan. Forecasts should generate a range of data that can be used by planners to determine
floor area, building footprint and plot sizes for all airport facilities.
3.2.5.3 Data Required by Airport Planners
The planning team needs to know:
• Annual and, even more importantly, peak period aircraft movements with load factors by market segment,
airline segment and aircraft category (e.g., Code A, B, C, D, E and F). These will determine the
operational stand requirements;
• Annual departing and arriving passenger numbers by market segment (e.g., charter, domestic,
international), the number of passengers transferring to/from individual market segments and the
projected peak period figures determined from these;
• Annual departing and arriving cargo volumes (e.g., freight, perishables, express, mail, etc.) by market
segment, the volume of cargo transferred on site and the percentage split of cargo carried by market
segment and by scheduled movements and/or dedicated cargo aircraft. Also required is the daily fleet
composition of freight aircraft by all aircraft categories.
• Design day schedules v/henever simulation is envisaged. Such schedules will include all flights during the
busy day with related information on:
o Airline name;
o Aircraft type and sub-type;

o Origin/destination;
o Arrival/departure time;
o Seating capacity;
o On-board passengers;
o On-board cargo; and
o Flight regime.

3.2.5.4 Accuracy and Limitations
Forecasts are an attempt to predict future traffic growth or decline. In reality, accurate forecasts are very
difficult to obtain. No one can predict with absolute certainty world events that might impact traffic growth,
(e.g., SARS in 2002-03 or the Global Financial Crisis in 2007-08). In addition, the airline industry is:
• Constantly evolving;
• Increasingly reliant on more fuel-efficient next-generation aircraft, with different ranges, operational
requirements, wingspans and/or fuselage lengths that will impact on current traffic patterns and facility
planning;
• Fixated on short-term planning, often only looking as far forward as the next season's schedule; and
• Reacting to competition for traffic from newly competitive airports and/or regions.
Because of the uncertainty of forecasts, planners should:
• Conceive flexible master plans that can easily cater to variations in the pace of traffic growth (i.e.,
individual facilities within the master plan should be capable of incremental modular expansion); and
• Determine development triggers and gear facility capacity enhancement programs to traffic levels rather
than specific time frames (i.e., terminal expansion will be required when passenger traffic reaches
30 million passengers per annum, rather than terminal expansion will be required in 2017.
To enable airport planners to conceive flexible master plans, forecasters will provide potential upper and lower
range scenarios as well as their underlying driving forces. The difference between high/low traffic scenarios
and the base scenario will be outlined not only in terms of demand, but also in terms of supply (i.e., aircraft
type, airline types).
Recommendation: Development Triggers

Development plans and phasing should be linked to traffic volumes, not specific years. For example, a
specific development is required when the airport has 32 million enplaned/deplaned passengers, not for year
2022. This approach provides flexibility and will not trigger expansion until it is actually needed.
3.2.6 Data Collection, Site Evaluation and Facility Potential
3.2.6.1 Data Collection
At many airports, a significant amount of the data needed for the master plan may be readily at hand in airport
data bases or in recent reports. It is important to verify the source and relevancy of this existing data to
ensure it is accurate and reflects current conditions.

When the material at hand has been assessed, the task of collecting missing data can begin. This may
include:
3.2.6.1.1 Airport Drawings and Maps
The site evaluation starts with the assembly of all relevant airport drawings, including:
• Airspace drawings identifying obstacles (existing and planned), adjacent airports, etc.;
• Runway departure surface drawings for instrument runways;
• Airport property plans;

• Land use plans within and adjacent to the airport boundary;
• Geological survey maps of the airport, identifying any areas unsuitable for construction;
• Environmental mapping (wetlands, floodplains, archeological sites, etc.);
• Topographic maps in sufficient detail that terrain differences can be determined (e.g., at 0.2 meter contour
intervals);
• Utility drawings identifying major airport service runs and their connections to public networks;
• Surface access drawings identifying major routes by mode;
• Jurisdictional site plans of the adjacent areas;
• Airport layout plans; and
• Floor plans of primary facilities (e.g., passenger and cargo terminals).
These drawings and maps will be used to determine areas, geometries and capacities. They will also be used
in the condition surveys of the existing facilities.
3.2.6.1.2 Environmental Data
Environmental data is needed to establish current baseline conditions and to support the analysis of options.
See Chapter 3.2.9 Environmental Responsibility for details.
3.2.6.1.3 Financial Data
The financial data will be used to establish a financial framework for the master plan and evaluate
development options. This will establish broad guidelines regarding the levels of capital that are likely to be
affordable. See Chapter 3.2.12 Financial Assessment for details.

3.2.6.1.4 Land Use and Regional Setting
The land use in and around the airport needs to be determined by:
• Consulting airport boundary plans;
• Reviewing information on the political entities that are contiguous with the airport, including maps of the
areas that these jurisdictions control;
• Compiling land uses in the areas near the airport by category, including identification of noise sensitive
uses (e.g., residences, schools, hospitals) or other incompatible uses (e.g., lakes, stockyards, landfills);
• Identifying land uses that could have an effect on the safe use of the airport, including obstructions and
adjacent airports;
• Determining the zoning of undeveloped land near the airport, including height and use restrictions;
• Highlighting any unique airport protection zoning established by regulation or legislation;
• Where available, including geographic information systems (GIS) data, to be combined with aerial photos,
topographic maps, aeronautical maps and approach plates; and
• Consulting topographic and hydrographic information to expose possible flooding issues.
3.2.6.1.5 Recent Studies
Recent studies can provide pertinent information on the history of the airport and how it developed. It can be
useful to identify major development milestones on a simple timeline (e.g., from airport opening through
different capacity expansion phases to the present day).
3.2.6.1.6 Regulatory Information
All regulations that could influence development of the airport needs to be collected, including;
• Any provisions of the airport license, lease or enabling legislation;
• Any legislation or planning studies that may have an impact on future development;
• National aeronautical regulations on airport design or operation; and
• Local zoning bylaws, if applicable to the airport.
3.2.6.1.7 Socioeconomic Data
Socioeconomic data is needed to determine the market that the airport serves and the characteristics of the
local community. These will provide specific inputs for econometric analysis within the traffic forecast. See
Chapter 2.2.2 Socioeconomic Base for details.

3.2.6.1.8 Traffic Statistics
Historical traffic data covering the past 10 years is the basis for traffic forecasting. This data is usually readily
available at the airport, but should be checked to ensure that the data is complete and accurate.
The data collected typically covers:
• Passenger traffic (i.e., origin-destination, transit and transfer) by market segment. In some countries, this
may be available by air carrier;
• Aircraft movements by operator and market segment (i.e., scheduled, charter, cargo, military, general
aviation) and by aircraft type;
• Historical demand for overnight parking by aircraft category,
• Cargo and mail tonnage for both belly and all-freighter by market segment; and
• A detailed schedule of arrival and departure times for all traffic.
These statistics can often be obtained in electronic format from the ANSP. Among other things, this data is
used for noise modelling, for developing nominal schedules for future gate planning, and for airfield demand-
capacity simulations.
One area where the data may be incomplete or confusing is transit and transfer passengers. Some airports
count same-plane in-transit passengers (i.e., on a through flight) as transfers in enplaned/deplaned data.
Some airports are missing data on transfers (i.e. between different aircraft). It is important for planners to
understand the data they collect and what is included or excluded.
3.2.6.2 Site Evaluation and Facility Potential
The purpose of the site evaluation is to collect data on the current form, condition and performance of all
elements of the airport infrastructure. This data and the related time spent on site will enable planners to have
an understanding of the development potential of existing facilities.
This baseline data will be used to:
• Confirm current land uses on the airport, including leases and boundaries;
• Determine the remaining useful life and potential timing of major refurbishment and expansion projects;
and
• Determine the capacity and capability of existing infrastructure.
Site evaluation data can be extensive and is usually assembled in the following categories: airfield/airspace,
passenger terminal, support facilities and surface access systems.

3.2.6.2.1 Airfield/Airspace
Data to be collected includes:
• Airspace management information, including noise abatement procedures;
• Identification of obstacles;
• Air and ground navigation aids and traffic control aids;
• Meteorological data including ceiling, visibility, wind speed/direction;
• Geometry of runways, taxiways, holding aprons;
• Pavement centerline separation and obstacle clearance distances to assure they are in compliance with
ICAO Annex. 14; and
• Airport perimeter, including roads and access control systems (e.g., CCTV)
In parallel with the collection of this basic data on the airport's airside facilities and systems, the condition of
each of these requires an assessment that includes:
• Identification of the original installation data and estimated remaining useful life (i.e., lighting and
approach aids); and
• An engineering study of airfield pavements identifying:
o Original construction dates;
o Pavement strength ratings;
o Current conditions;
o Estimated remaining useful life;
o Problem areas; and
o Major rehabilitation projects likely required during the master plan life, including estimated capital
costs.
Some airports will have this survey undertaken on a regular basis and the information will be available
without a dedicated study.
3.2.6.2.2 Passenger Terminals
The site assessment of passenger terminals will evaluate condition, determine sizes of rooms and list the
numbers of processors. For all building systems, a condition assessment may be required if the airport does
not keep ongoing records of the age and condition of terminal systems (e.g., structures as well as mechanical,
electrical and special systems such as baggage handling systems and security systems). Passenger
processing rates (e.g., check-in, security, customs, etc.) will help to determine potential bottlenecks and need
for improvements. See Chapter 3.4, Passenger Terminal for more detail.

3.2.6.2.3 Support Facilities
The quantity, type and condition of support facilities as well as remaining periods on ground leases should be
determined for:
• Aircraft maintenance;
• Airline administration;
• Airport authority administration;
• Airport maintenance;
• Cargo/Express/Mail handling: The quantity and area of buildings and aprons is needed to determine the
capacity of these facilities. The condition of the facilities, including estimates of remaining useful life
should also be evaluated. At many airports, the cargo buildings are on ground leases and the remaining
period of the lease should also be determined;
• Car rental: The number of cars per million O/D passengers by market segment;
• Customs/lmmigration;
• Deicing: The method of deicing fluid recovery (on stand or on a dedicated apron);
• Fuel supply, storage and distribution: The current volumes of fuel stored, the means of supply, the peak
daily/weekly volume dispensed and the method delivery to aircraft;
• General aviation: The assessment of facilities should determine the number, size, location, condition and
ownership of general aviation hangars, aprons, tie-down areas, fixed-base operators and flight schools. In
addition, the number and mix of based aircraft should be determined;
• Ground service equipment maintenance and storage;

• In-flight catering;
• Police/Security/Controlled access points;
• Refueling stations: Both airside and landside;
• Rescue and firefighting services: This will include a fire training area with the capability to recover
aqueous firefighting foam if used during hot training. Depending on the size of the airport this may also
include a crisis control center;
• Utilities: An inventory of utilities (e.g., high-voltage electricity, gas, water, sanitary sewer, storm sewer,
communications, heating and air conditioning is required. This should include capacity determination, age,
remaining useful life assessment and any possible future constraints. Waste disposal systems,
incinerators and deicing facilities should also be inventoried; and
• Other: The airport lands may include other facilities that are not directly related to aviation, including
industrial parks, golf courses, parks, retails businesses and agricultural areas. These need to be
inventoried and included on site plans.

3.2.6.2.4 Surface Access Systems
An inventory of surface access systems to/from/on the airport needs to be taken, including
access/circulation/service roads, parking, and forecourt space. This should cover alignment, condition and
capacity.
Public transportation services should also be assessed for capacity and modal split (e.g., percentages carried
by bus, rail, taxi, limousine, private car).
The surface access inventory also requires dialog with the jurisdictions that provide primary road and rail
access networks to/from the airport to determine their future plans.
Much of the data collected will become working files used to create summaries of condition, existing capacity
and potential capability of all airport facilities and sub systems. The inventory should use drawings, tables,
aerial photos and GIS data to assemble the information in a simple and readable format.
3.2.7 Requirements Analysis
Whether using simple tables, formulae or simulations, the purpose of the requirements analysis is to
determine the capacity of the existing airside facilities (i.e., airspace, airfield, taxiways, etc.). The analysis
should determine a level that is appropriate for the size of the airport and the potential for airside demand
exceeding capacity in the future. At the completion of the requirements analysis, the shortfall five, 10 and
20 years into the future should be determined.
The requirements analysis phase can be relatively simple at a small airport, or a long, complex process
involving simulation models of airfield use and of passenger flows in the terminal at a large airport. The size
and capability of every element of the airport is translated into a capacity that can be compared to demand:
• Airspace, runway and taxiway capacities are determined on an annual and peak period or peak hour
basis;
• Capacities of aprons and gates are calculated in terms of numbers of aircraft by category (e.g., Code C);
• Capacities of every passenger terminal subsystem (e.g., security) is determined in terms of static capacity
for floor areas (i.e., passengers per area) and dynamic capacity for processors (i.e., passengers per
hour);
• Surface access systems, including road (e.g., number and length of lanes available), rail and vehicle
parking; and

IA TA A Planning— Master Planning
• Support facilities, including:
o Aircraft maintenance;
o Airline administration;
o Airport authority administration;
o Airport maintenance;
o Cargo/Express/Mail handling;
o Car rental;
o Deicing;
o Fuel supply, storage and distribution;
o General aviation;
o Ground service equipment maintenance and storage;

o In-flight catering;
o Operations;
o Police/Security/Controlled access points;
o Refueling stations;
o Rescue and firefighting services; and
o Utilities.
Current and forecast demands on each element of the airport are compared to the current capacity of each
element and any excesses of demand over supply are identified, typically in five year increments.
Shortfalls are determined in terms of facility requirements. For example, a shortfall capacity to handle 800
additional enplaning passengers is defined as a facility requirement of 1,280 square meters of additional
space and seating for 640 people.
The requirement for new or additional facilities can be driven by:
• Increased demand in terms of numbers of aircraft, passengers, and/or cargo;
• New demands in terms of aircraft sizes (i.e., span and length) and/or new traffic segments (e.g.,
international traffic at a previously domestic airport);
• Changes in or non compliance with existing ICAO standards and recommended practices;
• Changes in security requirements; and
• Obsolete or unsuitable facilities.
The types and sizes of new facilities are determined through this requirements analysis. By clearly defining
the issues and the reasons that a solution is required, the requirements analysis lays the groundwork for the
development of options.

3 .2 .7.2 Airfield and Airspace Analysis
Airspace and airfield requirements are developed considering forecast traffic and the compliance of existing
facilities with design and safety standards. In addition, consideration must be given to how the airport and its
air traffic will integrate with other traffic flows. The analysis must consider both capability and capacity.
3.2.7.2.1 Airfield Capability
Capability is the compatibility of the facilities with the size and type of existing and forecast traffic. The
assessment of capability includes:
• Size: Are runways long enough for the aircraft types and stage lengths to be served? Do widths and
separation of runways and taxiways meet ICAO recommendations?
• Obstacles: Are there current or planned obstacles, both natural and manmade, that could limit the use of
one or more runways for arrivals and departures?
• Pavement strength: Are the pavements adequate for the demands of the forecast aircraft types and
numbers?
• Orientation: Does the orientation of the existing runways provide sufficient wind coverage to provide
adequate usability during all weather conditions? How do the runway alignments fit with other nearby
airport runway alignments?
• Instrumentation: Are the runways equipped with appropriate navigational aid facilities to provide landings
during all anticipated weather conditions?
3.2.7.2.2 Navigation Aids
Key conventional navigation aids include:
• Approach Lighting Systems (ALS);
• Distance Measuring Equipment (DME);
• Instrument Landing Systems (ILS);
• Precision Approach Path Indicators (PAPI); and
• VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR).
Newer Performance-based Navigation (PBN) procedures can be augmented by Ground-based Augmentation

Systems (GBAS). The requirements analysis for new or additional navigation aids should examine:
• The condition and remaining useful life of the existing aids;
• The forecast fleet mix and its PBN capabilities;
• The usability of the airport: that is, the percentage of the time that the wind, ceiling and visibility conditions
are suitable for operations with the navigation aids and PBN procedures that are in place. The target
usability is very high, typically 97.5 percent; and

• A full cost-benefit analysis for all navigational infrastructure on the airport, including the cost to users of
diversions when the airport is unusable.
Many of the ground-based navigation aids require protected zones for their effective operation (see Exhibit
3.4.10.2.2 Navaid Protection Areas). Some of these zones are horizontal, others are sloped. It is useful to
delineate any protected areas, as they may preclude development in areas that otherwise may be considered
for other uses as options are developed. These protected areas may affect the overall capacity of the airport.
3.2.7.2.3 Air Traffic Management (ATM) Facilities
ATM facilities include control facilities such as:
• Towers and approach control units;
• Air and ground surveillance systems8;
• Remote radio transmitters and receivers;
• Wind shear detectors; and

• Weather observation equipment.
At most airports, these are the responsibility of the ANSP, but are primarily situated on the airport. During the
requirements determination phase, the planning team will need to consult the ANSP to determine:
• Future requirements;
• Division of responsibility for capital investment (e.g., the airport may be responsible for constructing a new
ATC tower structure); and
• Future land use requirements to meet the requirements of the ANSP, including any protected areas for
ANSP equipment.
Consultations with the ANSP should be an ongoing collaborative process as options are developed. For
example, the need for an additional runway may trigger the need for a new tower to meet the requirement to
see all controlled maneuvering surfaces.
3.2.7.2.4 Airside Capacity
Airside capacity is defined in terms of the number of aircraft operations that can be conducted in a period of
time, most often provided as annual and hourly capacity. For a master plan at low volume airports, it is often
sufficient to estimate runway capacity potential using examples of current best practice.
These systems include air and ground radar systems, multi-lateration systems. Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) systems,
camera systems and other sensors.

Exhibit 3.2.7.2.4 is a summary table of best practice hourly and annual theoretical maximum runway
capacities. It should be noted that theoretical maximums can be reduced by:
• Operating restrictions;
• Air traffic control practices and procedures;
• Fleet mix;
• The absence of rapid exit taxiways (RETs);
• The location of aprons and parking in relation to the runways; and
• Poor airport pavement geometry.
Exhibit 3.2.7.2.4: Theoretical Capacities for Various Runways
Runway Configuration Example Best practice Max mvts/annum Theoretical max

used mvts/hr recorded to date mvts/annum
Single runway LGW 55 266,550 (2007) 331,238
Dependent parallel CPH 83 288,793 (2001) 499,868
Independent parallel MUC 90 476,197 (2011) 542,025
Intersecting runways VIE 68 266,402 (2008) 409,530
3 runways: all independent AMS 110 446,693 (2008) 662,475
4 runways: 2 pairs of close parallels CDG 116 551,174 (2008) 698,610
Source: IATA
Notes:
1. Mixed mode is assumed to add -15 percent to segregated mode capacity.
2. Actual achieved runway capacities vary with aircraft mix. A large proportion of large aircraft or a wide
range of aircraft sizes will reduce total movement capacity.
3. The inability to clear runways to allow following aircraft to land (insufficient or poorly positioned RETs), to
reposition aircraft prior to take off (inadequate holding bays) and the need to cross active runways will
significantly reduce movement maximums.
4. Annual movement figures derived by taking best practice mvts/hr figures as shown and assuming a
16.5 hour operating day (06:00 am to 10:30 pm) and 365 day operation.
5. The theoretical annual maximum figures stated are based on a 100% take up of slots over each day and
throughout the year. 100 percent take up of slots is not possible or desirable. As highlighted, maximum
mvts/annum recorded to date better reflect achievable maximums. As such, a detailed capacity
assessment should be made that considers the arrival versus departure demand mix.
If the airfield is complex or nearing capacity, a more detailed approach using an airfield simulation modeling
tool is recommended.
However determined, the capacity of the existing runway system is compared to current and forecast
demand. If there is an excess of forecast demand over capacity, then alternative airfield configurations will

need to be developed to address the shortfalls. The magnitude of the shortfall may point to the alternatives
that may be feasible.
3.2.7.2.5 Runway Geometry
Reference should be made to the minimum distances between parallel runways as recommended by ICAO in
their Annex. 14-Aerodrome3.
Exhibit 3.27.2.5 below provides an indication of the large areas taken up by primary infrastructure systems.
Here, the runway separation is 2,250 meters, the runway stagger is 1,500 meters and the total site area is
1.297.5 hectares. The cross over taxiways are 195 meters opart. This dimension allows for a further code F
taxiway to be inserted between the two shown at some later date. In this example, the area required to
support the movement of aircraft represents approximately 53 percent of the total area available.
Exhibit 3.2.7.2.5: Primary Infrastructure System-Example Land Area
Source: ADRM, 9th Edition

3.2.7.2.6 Runway Length Requirements
Exhibit 3.2.7.2.6: Summary of Runway Length Requirements
ICAO AERODROME REFERENCE MAX TAKEOFF TAKE-OFF RUNWAY

AIRCRAFT
CODE-CODE ELEMENT 2 WEIGHT (KG) LENGTH (M) AT ISA + 20°C
A318 C 59,000 1,828
A319 C 64,000 2,080
A320 C 73,500 2,105
A321 C 89,000 2,286
A300-600 * D 170,500 2,645

A310-300 * D 164,021 2,450
A330-200 E 238,000 2,590

A330-300 E 235,000 2,657
A340-200 * E 275,000 3,260
A340-300 * E 276,500 3,230
A340-500 * E 380,000 3,050
A340-600 * E 380,000 3,100
A380-800 F 575,000 2,750
B717-200 * C 54,885 1,840

B737-600 C 65,091 1,960
B737-700 C 70,080 2,160
B737-800 C 79,016 2,640
B737-900 C 79,016 2,860
B767-200(200ER) D 151,954 (179,169) 2,200 (2,640)

B767-300ER D 186,880 2,920
B767-400ER D 204,117 3,580
B787-8 D 219,539 3,100
B777-200 E 247,208 2,620

B777-200ER E 297,557 3,480
B777-300 E 299,371 3,500
B777-300ER E 351,535 3,160
B747-200 E 377,843 3,190
B747-300 E 340,195 3,320
B747-400 E 396,894 3,018
B747-400ER E 412,770 3,090
B747-8 F 439,985 3,090
MD-11 * D 288,031 3,560

ICAO AERODROME REFERENCE MAX TAKEOFF TAKE-OFF RUNWAY

AIRCRAFT
CODE-CODE ELEMENT 2 WEIGHT (KG) LENGTH (M) AT ISA + 20°C
MRJ 70 C 36,850 1,450

MRJ 90 C 39,600 1,490
CS100 c 58,967 1,463
CS300 c 65,317 1,890
Source: Amended from ADRM, 9th Edition
Notes:
1 MTOW. ISA +20°C/Sea Level, no wind and a dry runway, FAA add 15 percent for a wet runway
** MTOW, ISA +15°C/Sea level. When considering new runways at existing airports, it is important to
consider the existing and projected traffic mix. In this way, the proposed runway length can be tailored to
suit the predominant traffic type so that planned capacity enhancements suit the largest percentage of
forecast movements.
2. Boeing aircraft data courtesy of Boeing Aircraft Company Inc. Airbus data courtesy of Airbus Industries
website. Others via published Airplane Characteristics Manuals.
* denotes aircraft no longer in production
3. The runway lengths listed do not consider the effects of aerodrome elevation, runway slope, wind or
obstacles. Airport planners should refer to the document types listed below for each specific aircraft.
These are provided by the relevant aircraft manufacturers and detail the recommended landing and
departing runway length data:
1. Airplane Characteristics for Airport Planning; and
2. Airplane Flight Manual.
3.2.7.2.7 Runway Land Requirements
The land area required to support the movement of aircraft on and around an airfield can often exceed 50
percent of the total area of an airport. For example, the following table outlines the approximate area required
given twin parallel taxiways with associated clearance (with code F separation) for a single runway of varying
lengths:
Exhibit 3.2.7.2.7: Example of Runway Land Requirements
Runway length 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

Area required 125.3 149.4 173.5 197.6 221.7
(hectares)
Note: The above table includes the area required to support runway end safety areas (RESA), but excludes
approach/departure and missed approach surfaces, glide slope areas and airside roads.

3.2.7.2.8 Taxiway Requirements
The principal function of taxiways is to provide access for aircraft moving between runways and passenger
terminal areas, cargo areas and maintenance hangars. Taxiways should be arranged so that arriving aircraft
do not obstruct and delay departing aircraft.
The extent of taxiway layouts is determined by the volume and frequency of traffic to be handled in the peak
hour and the expected aircraft taxi routings to support planned runway use. Exhibit 3.2.7.2.8 summarizes the
capacity of various configurations of parallel taxiways serving a runway. Should peak hour movements not
require a full parallel taxiway, then a partial parallel layout can be used to minimize construction costs. The
partial parallel taxiway can be extended to a full parallel as traffic demand warrants.
Exhibit 3.2.7.2.8: Capacity of Parallel Taxiways
Number of taxiways Taxiway capacity (mvts/hr) Notes

0 0-15 Backtracking required on runway
1 16-20
2 Runway capacity will be the limiting factor
Landing only 50-55
Takeoff only 30
Source: ADRM 9th Edition
3.2.7.2.9 Exit Taxiways
Exit taxiways allow landing aircraft to leave a runway so that it is then clear for use by other arriving and
departing aircraft. At airports with peak traffic periods and continuous flows of arriving and/or departing
aircraft, the capacity of the runway is dependent to a large degree on how quickly landing aircraft can exit the
runway. An aircraft that has landed delays succeeding aircraft until it has cleared the runway. Taxiways at
right-angles to the runway are possible, but this geometry restricts the speed of exit and hence increases
runway occupancy time. A rapid exit taxiway (RET), with exit angles between 25 and 45 degrees, permits
higher exit speeds. This in turn allows succeeding landing aircraft to be more closely spaced, or it might allow
a take off to be released between two landings.
When carrying out a requirements analysis in a situation where runways are nearing capacity and simulation
is being undertaken to determine capacity and delays, the configuration of the taxiways should be
incorporated into the model. The modeling may indicate that additional capacity could be added if RETs are
considered in the development of options.
3.2.7.2.10 Runway Holding Positions
Runway holding positions are established on the taxiway at the intersection of a taxiway and a runway. A
runway holding position shall be established on a taxiway if the location or alignment of the taxiway is such

that a taxiing aircraft or vehicle can infringe an obstacle limitation surface or interfere with the operation of
radio navigation aids.
Peak traffic volumes at many airports may exceed the capacity of a holding position, resulting in aircraft
queuing on the taxiway leading to the runway end. In such circumstances, multiple runway entrance taxiways
should be established to allow aircraft sequencing on departure.
3.2.7.2.11 Holding Aprons
Holding aprons can be placed at convenient locations on the airport for the temporary storage of aircraft.
These can be required at large airports where the number of gates is insufficient to handle demand during
peak periods of the day. If this is the case, aircraft are routed by air traffic control to a holding apron and are
held there until a gate becomes available.
Holding aprons can also permit a departing flight to vacate a needed gate and to wait near the runway without
obstructing either the arriving aircraft or the departure flow, pending further clearance. They can also be used
for aircraft with long turnaround times, where staying on the stand would unnecessarily tie up capacity, or for
temporary overflow situations caused, for example, by diversions. This is particularly true of airports where
contact stands are limited.
Holding aprons are not usually required if capacity exceeds demand even slightly. However, fluctuations in
future demand are difficult to predict. Therefore, a temporary holding facility may be necessary.
3.2.7.2.12 Other Aprons
Other aprons are airside areas intended to support aircraft as they load and unload passengers and cargo, or
await entry into an aircraft maintenance facility. They also serve as platforms from which all ground service
equipment can operate.
3.2.7.2.13 Apron Requirements
The size and extent of aircraft aprons is dependent on the forecast fleet mix by type of traffic (e.g., charter,
domestic, international, etc.) and the number and type of aircraft to be accommodated in the peak hour. The
areas required for aircraft aprons, both contact and remote, with associated taxiway clearances for varying
wingspans, is approximately:
Exhibit 3.2.7.2.13: Approximate Apron Area Required by Aircraft Category
ICAO Ref. Code B C D E F

Area Required (hectare) - contact 0.22 0.41 0.75 1.14 1.50
Area Required (hectare) - remote 0.19 0.37 0.69 1.07 1.42
Source: ICAO

The diagram below and the table that follows are based on the recommended separation distances for
taxiways/aprons as outlined by ICAO in Annex. 14 as well as head of stand dimensions recommended by
IA T A .
Exhibit 3.2.7.2.14a: Recommended Layouts for Contact and Remote Stands
Source: ICAO
It should be noted that IATA does not recommend that a rear-of-stand service access road be provided for
either contact or remote stands. This aids in avoiding the potential for collisions between ground support
equipment and aircraft maneuvering on and off stand.

Exhibit 3.2.7.2.14b: Recommended Stand Clearances
Type L e n g th Span a b c d e f 9
B 15 m u p to b u t n o t
CRJ 2 6 .7 8 21.21 3 3 .5 0 2 1 .5 0 3 0 .0 0 3 .0 0
in c lu d in g 2 4 m
A319 3 3 .8 4 3 4 .1 0
A320-
2 4 m up to b u t not 3 7 .5 7 3 4 .1 0
C 200 4 4 .0 0 2 6 .0 0 4 5 .0 0 4 .5 0
8737-
3 9 .5 0 3 4 .3 0
BOO
D 3 6 m u p to b u t n o t 8767- 5 4 .9 4 4 7 .5 7 6 6 .5 0 4 0 .5 0 5 5 .0 0 7 .5 0
in c lu d in g 5 2 m 300ER
A340-
7 5 .3 0 6 3 .4 5 2 0 .0 0 3 0 .0 0 2 5 -3 5
600
A350- 6 6 .8 9 6 4 .8 0
900
5 2 m u p to b u t n o t
E B 7 8 7 -8 5 6 .7 0 6 0 .1 0 8 0 .0 0 4 7 .5 0 8 0 .0 0 7 .5 0
B777-
6 3 .7 3 6 0 .9 5
200
B747-
7 0 .6 7 6 4 .9 4
400
F 6 5 m u p to b u t n o t
8 7 4 7 -8 7 6 .2 5 6 8 .4 5 9 7 .5 0 5 7 .5 0 8 5 .0 0 7 .5 0
Source: ICAO. "Exhibit 3.2.7.2.14b Recommended Stand Clearances" replaced with table from ADRM 9th edition on 6 May 2014.
Revised taxiway minimum separation distances are currently under consideration by ICAO's Aerodrome Panel, with these not due
to take effect until late 2016.
3.2.7.3 Terminal Analysis
The requirements analysis for passenger terminals needs to address the linear frontage of gates/stands, the
passenger terminal building and the terminal's forecourts. See Chapter 3.4 Passenger Terminal for more
details.
3.2.7.3.1 Gates and Aprons
The requirement for contact and remote stands is derived from the forecast and compared to the existing
number of gates to identify shortfalls. This comparison needs to be made by aircraft category and by market
segment (e.g., international, domestic, charter, etc.). Requirements for ground service equipment storage and
cargo staging areas (if required) should also be identified. The percentage of flights to be accommodated on
contact stands should be subject to a service level agreement between the airport and the airline community.

3.2.7.3.2 Passenger Terminal Building
The requirements analysis for the terminal buildings will determine the floor area, footprint and plot size. This
by using simple Square Meters per Peak Hour Passenger (SQM/PHP) figures derived from the forecast to
provide preliminary area estimates.
An analysis of floor area requirements on a sub system-by-sub system basis, indicating primary areas and
passenger flow routes through the building complex, can be provided if specifically requested. This can form
the basis of the conceptual design phase for the passenger terminal that may follow the master plan study.
3.2.7.3.3 Forecourts
The requirements for terminal forecourts are a function of:
• Modal splits of current arriving and departing passengers and in the future;
• Dwell times on the forecourt; and
• Forecourt management practices.
Demand calculations result in a forecast of the required forecourt length. This is compared to the existing
forecourt to determine the shortfall that needs to be addressed as options are developed.
Determination of the forecourt requirements for dedicated commercial vehicles (e.g., hotel courtesy vans,
rental car vans, and buses) should also be undertaken and compared to existing facilities. For larger airports,
the requirement will be influenced by:
• The means of reaching hotels (e.g., by public transport, by dedicated services for individual hotels or by a
consolidated bus service serving multiple hotels); and
• The means of reaching car rental facilities (e.g., on foot, by dedicated bus services or by consolidated bus
transfers).
3.2.7.4 Support Facility Analysis
Aircraft Maintenance: The scale of aircraft maintenance facilities is dependent on several factors, including:
• The base carrier(s) and whether or not they elect to carry out base maintenance for all or part of their fleet
at their home base;
• The base carrier(s) fleet(s) in terms of number and type of aircraft, the number of aircraft maintained per
maintenance bay, annual utilization rate, level of maintenance check performed (A, B, C or D);
• The extent of third party line and base maintenance;
• The availability of certified engineering staff and access to spare part holdings; and
• Whether facilities are to offer a one-stop service including engine test and paint spraying.

Airline Administration: Space can be made available on site for airline offices in addition to those provided
within the passenger terminal building. Base carriers may also have supplemental needs in terms of a
headquarters building and training facilities.
Airport Authority Administration: At smaller airports, authority offices can be located within the passenger
terminal building complex or in an annex.
Airport Maintenance: The airport requires buildings for storage and maintenance of airport equipment,
workshop space, and for storage of supplies. Current facilities should be compared to airport facility needs in
the future.
Cargo Handling: The capacity of existing cargo and freight forwarder facilities needs to be assessed and
compared to future requirements, taking into consideration:
• The volumes and types of cargo handled (e.g., general freight, express, mail, perishables, dangerous
goods, high-value, etc.):
• The type of aircraft used (i.e., belly cargo in passenger aircraft, combi aircraft (main deck shared between
passengers and cargo) or dedicated freighters; and
• The method of handling (i.e., manual, semi-automatic or fully mechanized).
In addition to statistical volumes and recent trends, consultations with cargo operators, freight forwarders and
ground handlers on their future plans are an important input to determining future facility requirements. In
many jurisdictions, the airport does not provide cargo buildings or aprons, but simply leases serviced land for
their development.
Car Rental: The requirements for rental car service need to be assessed, including ready and return facilities,
in-terminal service desks, service areas, etc. At large airports, the requirements may point to consolidated car
rental facilities, sometimes located remotely from the main passenger terminal. Facility sizing is derived
through an analysis of current and projected car hire demand per million O/D passengers.
Deicing: Airports that require deicing facilities need to evaluate forecast peak needs to existing facilities and
to identify any requirement for expansion of these facilities in the future. Deicing facilities require a substantial
contained area and should be located within close proximity of runway departure ends. Alternatively, deicing
on stand may be considered.
Fuel Supply, Storage and Distribution: Fuel farms are usually provided by others, such as an airline
consortium, fuel suppliers, supplier joint ventures or independent fuel infrastructure providers. Requirements
for fuel storage depend upon peak day/week consumption and the number of days' storage to be held in
reserve. The reserve required is driven by supply resilience and the method and number of supply sources.
Sufficient land should be held in reserve for expansion of these facilities up to and including the ultimate
development phase.
Click here to find out more on the IATA Guidance on A irport Fuel Storage Capacity.
General Aviation: General aviation includes a wide variety of users including corporate flight operations,
recreational flying, flight training and the fixed-based operators that support these activities. The requirements

of general aviation include aircraft hangars, aircraft outdoor tie-downs, transient aircraft parking and terminal
facilities. Forecasts of future requirements primarily use a forecast of future based aircraft and transient
operations. The current waiting list for hangars and tie-downs can provide an indication of unsatisfied
demand. The airport's own strategic plan will also influence the forecast of requirements. If the airport is
primarily focused on air carrier services, then general aviation requirements may take a lower priority as
alternatives are developed.
Ground Service Equipment Maintenance and Storage: Maintenance of apron support vehicles is
performed in workshops. The number and size of the workshops is related to the scale of the airport
operation, the number of ground handlers and the number of vehicles being maintained at any one time.
Some equipment may need to be stored on a semi-permanent basis (e.g., snow removal equipment).
In-flight Catering: The size of in-flight catering facilities is related to the number of international, domestic
and charter passengers departing on a busy day. These facilities can be located off-site, although this will
increase traffic levels through security posts.
Operations: Enhancements, if required, to ATC, airfield ground lighting, meteorological facilities and
navigational aids need to be discussed with the ANSP.
Police/Security: The number of airside/landside security gates should be kept to a workable minimum, with
the size reflecting the volume of authorized vehicles handled. The need for facility expansion should be
reviewed with existing police/security providers, particularly if the site perimeter is proposed to be enlarged.
Recharging Stations: Airside recharging stations should be located in convenient locations to avoid
excessive distances to/from primary work areas. Multiple locations may be required depending on the scale of
operation and the number of ground handlers operating on site.
Refueling Stations: An area should be set aside to allow cars to refuel. At smaller airports, off-site
petrol/diesel stations may suffice.
Rescue and Fire Fighting Services (RFFS): In accordance with ICAO Annex. 14, Chapter 9.2, airports
should be categorized for rescue and firefighting purposes and the level of protection provided should be
appropriate to the airport category. The category level is based on the aircraft size and traffic operating at an
airport.
At large airports, if alternatives for airfield development involve additional runways, satellite rescue and
firefighting service facilities may also be required to meet the required response times.
Utilities: The forecast requirements for water supply, sewers and sewage treatment, solid waste handling and
disposal, natural gas, electrical power, centralized heating and cooling plants and communications need to be
determined. This will involve determining existing capacities and comparing them to forecast requirements.
Most of the utility requirements will increase with passenger demand and, at the master plan stage, forecast
requirements are usually undertaken using a simple relationship of requirement to passenger numbers.
Where data is available, these relationships can be developed from records of past traffic levels and usage.

Other Requirements: The potential use of airport land for other compatible, non aviation related uses (e.g.,
“Airport City”), needs to be evaluated taking into consideration existing leases for these purposes. In
developing the master plan, these uses are always secondary to the primary aviation requirements, but if
there is sufficient land the forecast needs for these other operations can be considered.
Further planning requirements for airport support facilities will be detailed in future releases of ADRM.
3.2.7.5 Surface Access Analysis
Airports should be considered as part of a broader transportation node where customers change to and from
one mode of transportation to another (i.e., air to rail; air to private vehicle, etc.). The primary focus of the
requirements analysis for surface access is on-airport roads and parking as well as primary road and rail
access. For the latter, detailed consultations with local/regional transportation officials will be necessary.
The capacity of on-airport roads needs to be compared to forecast peak hour demands, taking into
consideration the total traffic that will be using a particular road including passengers, well-wishers, greeters
and employees. All modes of transportation need to be considered, including taxis, limousines, shuttle buses,
courtesy cars, coaches, buses and delivery vehicles. Similarly, the capacity of existing parking facilities and
access lanes, taxi staging areas, mobile phone lots, and employee parking are compared to forecast demand
and shortfalls identified.
If consultations indicate the potential development of a multi-modal interchange, then the requirement for
access routes and terminal linkages should be identified.
Further planning requirements for airport surface access will be detailed in future releases of ADRM.
The requirements analysis is documented in a dedicated chapter of the master plan. It sets the stage for the
development of alternatives. If the requirements analysis is effective, a reader of the master plan will
understand the need for additional facilities or services and how these requirements were established.

3.2.8 Development of Options
3.2.8.1 Introduction to Option Development
With a firm understanding of the strategic direction and a clear definition of the requirements, the planners can
now develop options to satisfy the forecast demand. Options can include:
• Airside Infrastructure:
o Runways-number, length, configuration and phasing;
o Taxiways-number, width, configuration and phasing; and

o Aprons-remote and/or contact, configuration (multiple aircraft use), ground service equipment parking
areas, cargo staging areas, ULD storage, size and aircraft parking configuration;
• Air and Ground Navigation and Traffic Control Aids: Tower location and height;
• Passenger Terminal Building: For new terminals, options can initially consider the various terminal
configurations available. For all terminal developments, there will be options with respect to configuration,
size, number of levels, etc.;
• Cargo Facilities: Options for location, size, access routes, customs office, vehicle parking and access;
• Surface Access: Alternatives for access modes, multi-modal interchanges, road configuration, type and
size of public and staff parking, location of rental car parking, taxi holding areas; and
• Support Facilities and Utilities: Location of administration, main electrical station and back-up power
generation, location of rescue and firefighting services, location and size of general aviation facilities,
location of fuel farm and method of distribution, etc.
A structured approach to develop and evaluate options is recommended (as shown in Exhibit 3.2.8.1
Alternatives Development and Analysis Process). Each of the steps is described in the sections that
follow. While the exhibit illustrates a continuous flow from the first step to the last, in reality the process is
iterative:
• As options are short listed, additional options may be identified;
• As preliminary cost estimates are prepared, some options may not appear to be feasible and additional
development work may be needed;
• Environmental planning (see Chapter 3.2.9 Environmental Responsibility) is undertaken in parallel to
option development and may cause options to be modified or eliminated;
• User and public consultations may cause options to be added, modified or deleted; and
• As airfield, terminal and access options are integrated into an overall plan, compatibility issues may cause
options to be modified or reconsidered.
The process of option identification, evaluation and selection should involve all airport stakeholders.

Exhibit 3.2.8.1: Alternatives Development and Analysis Process
Source: SNC-Lavalin Group Inc.
3.2.8.2 Prioritization
At the start of the option development process, the master planners need to establish priorities. Priorities are
established by considering two factors:
1. Importance in the continuing operation of the airport; and

2. Flexibility in terms of location.
Typically, this means that priorities must be determined for options for:
• Airfield operational areas (i.e., runways, taxiways and aprons);
• Passenger terminals;
• Support facilities;
• Surface accesses; and
• Non aviation airport land uses.

The reason that priorities need to be considered is that they may vary from airport to airport. For example, if
the requirements analysis has shown that the existing airfield will provide sufficient capacity for the forecast
period and beyond, then the top priority for development of options will change, likely to terminal
development. The planning team should establish priorities based on the local situation.
3.2.8.3 Identification of Options
Initially, options for airfield, passenger terminal, support facilities and surface access systems are developed
separately. They will be integrated later in the option development process. In each of these areas, an initial
list of options should be developed that satisfy the requirements that were identified.
There is almost always more than one way to provide facilities that will add the needed capacity and
capability. At this stage in the planning process, it is valuable to identify all reasonable options in a
collaborative, brainstorming approach.
No unreasonable options should be included, however, even at this early stage. All options should be
potentially feasible. Simple variations on an approach should be avoided. Each option should be a different
way of fulfilling the requirements.
The aviation industry has evolved quickly and will continue to do so. These variables will impact on the size,
type and quantity of facilities needed. Master planners should be familiar with industry trends and be
conscious of variations in the pace of growth (i.e., traffic can rise, fall, or stall). To accommodate this
unpredictable operating environment, planners should ensure that flexibility, modularity and expandability are
built into options at all times.
3.2.8.4 Link to Environmental Planning
Environmental planning (see Chapter 3.2.9 Environmental Responsibility) is undertaken in parallel with the
alternatives development and evaluation process. A two-way flow of information is needed with the location
and layout of alternatives feeding the environmental assessment and early feedback from that assessment
causing changes to alternatives. This back and forth work should continue until both the recommended
development plan and the environmental plan are complete.
3.2.8.5 Screening
It is important to reduce the number of options to a manageable number before detailed quantitative analysis
is undertaken on a short list of options. The screening process is a preliminary evaluation of options.
Screening at this stage is primarily qualitative and involves the assessment of technical, environmental and
financial feasibility. The screening results for both retained and eliminated options should be documented.
This documentation should include the reasons for the retention or dismissal of options. A list of screening
criteria and an evaluation matrix should be prepared and agreed to by the planning team and airport
authorities.

3.2.8.6 Development
Working with the short list of retained options, the planners begin to detail them by assessing all quantitative
elements (i.e., capability, capacity) and preparing conceptual layouts.
The specific options will vary from airport to airport, but there are recommended approaches to developing
options for airside infrastructure, the passenger terminal, cargo, support facilities and surface access systems.
3.2.8.6.1 Runway and Taxiway Options
The airfield must accommodate the forecast peak hour aircraft demand for arrivals and departures during both
instrument and visual meteorological conditions IMC and VMC). This will then define the land area for the
terminal and aircraft stand. IATA recommends that apron layouts be configured such that:
• For midfield passenger terminal development, staggered independent parallel runways should be
considered with a minimum separation of 2,000 meters9;
• When planning new runways, sufficient space should always be allowed for a dual parallel taxiway system
to be located adjacent and parallel to all runways. Where land availability does not allow dual parallel
taxiways, the airport planner should note that the capacity of the single taxiway will be the limiting factor
that determines runway capacity;
• There should be a capability to construct dual parallel taxiways in phases, as required to support
increasing peak hour aircraft movement rates;
• Airfield layouts should include the shortest possible and most direct taxiway routes between rapid exit
taxiways and aircraft parking positions, and between aircraft parking positions and holding/bypass
positions at runway thresholds. An exception can occur at existing airports were aircraft crossings reduce
the optimal declared runway capacity. In these circumstances it may be beneficial, if sufficient land is
available and following a cost-benefit analysis, to provide an indirect end-around taxiway;
• For rapid exit taxiways, the location of the Optimal Turn-off Segment (OTS) should be determined after
considering:
o For which operational conditions runway capacity should be enhanced (i.e., peak period, special
weather conditions, particular group of aircraft, mixed mode);
o The representative fleet-mix that the exit is intended to serve after eliminating those with less than five
or 10 percent of the total;
o The separation distance between runway and taxiway (i.e., on non instrument runways, the
separation distances may not allow for design of a satisfactory RET); and
o Aircraft characteristics (e.g., threshold speed, braking ability and turn-off speed for differing wind
conditions);
Other configurations are possible: see ICAO Doc. 9184. The land available for airside, landside and support facilities should support
the capacity potential of the runway(s).

• Dual parallel taxiways should also be incorporated into a master plan to cross between two widely spaced
parallel runways. The number of crossover taxiways should be related to the ultimate development
potential of the site and should be checked using a simulation model;
• At runway ends, by-pass taxiways allow queuing aircraft awaiting take off to be reordered as determined
by ATC. This airline-approved re-sequencing of aircraft can assist in relieving climb and en route ATC
constraints. The holding position should be designed to accommodate two to four aircraft and allow
sufficient space for one aircraft to bypass another. The area allotted for waiting aircraft will depend on
their size and maneuverability. Holding aircraft should be placed outside the bypass route so that jet blast
from the holding aircraft will not be directed toward the bypass route. Runway end holding positions
should be orientated to permit aircraft departing them to access the runway at an angle of less than 90°.
Runway access points oriented in this way allow aircraft a rolling start to their take off and thereby reduce
runway occupancy time.
• For aircraft operating at or near maximum take off weight, the entry point should be as close to the end of
the runway as possible. Small- and medium-sized aircraft that do not require the full length of the
available runway may be permitted to access the runway at intermediate access points leading up to the
runway end. This provices another means by which ATC can reorder departing aircraft. Such access
points should also have intermediate holding positions with all the associated clearances.
3.2.8.6.2 Apron Options
In developing apron options, planners should consider the following recommended approaches:
• Aircraft exiting parking positions do not restrict the timely maneuvering of other aircraft on the airfield;
• Aircraft parking stands are capable of accommodating multiple aircraft types throughout the planning
period through the use of Multiple Aircraft Ramp System (MARS);
• Vehicular traffic at head of stand is reduced to a viable operational minimum. Tail of stand roads should
be avoided;
• Aircraft stands are positioned in order to expedite the movement of aircraft between parking positions and
runways. The positioning, orientation and phasing of stands should relate to the ultimate development
stage, particularly if additional runways are envisaged in subsequent phases;
• Aircraft stands and maneuvering areas meet clearances and separation distances as indicated in ICAO
Annex. 14;
• The layout provides maximum flexibility to accommodate varying aircraft types at differing times of day;
• The stand layout allows for differing aircraft types on individual routes as a result of seasonal variations in
demand that require increases or decreases in capacity;
• The largest aircraft are positioned as close to the main passenger processing complex as possible; and
• Aprons can accommodate all associated ground service equipment, vehicles and forward staging areas
for baggage and cargo.

3.2.8.6.3 Terminal Options
Various passenger terminal configurations are provided, as examples only, in the following photographic
images.
Exhibit 3.2.8.6.3a: Pier/Finger Configuration-e.g., Toronto, Canada
Exhibit 3.2.8.6.3b: Linear Configuration-e.g., Detroit, USA
Source: Aaron Headly from Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA

,n|
IA TA O IL Airport Development Reference Manual
Exhibit 3.2.8.6.3c: X Configuration-e.g., Pittsburgh, USA
Exhibit 3.2.8.6.3d: Y Configuration-e.g., Hong Kong

Exhibit 3.2.8.6.3e: Satellite Configuration-e.g., Atlanta, USA
Source: Craig Butz/Creative Commons
The area available for the passenger terminal/apron complex is heavily dependent on the runway
configuration, the land available between or adjacent to the runway(s) and the ability to handle the mix of
aircraft anticipated to use the airport. At existing airports, terminal/apron options may be restricted by the type
of development that has gone before or be limited by the nature and extent of support infrastructure. If so,
their age and condition should be scrutinized further, with a cost benefit analysis undertaken to determine if
demolition/realignment is a viable option.
In looking at future terminal facility requirements, planners should take into consideration:
• The automation plans of the carriers serving the airport (e.g., self-service check-in, self-service bag tag,
automated boarding):
• lATA's Fast Travel and Passenger Facilitation Program; and
• National streamlining steps with respect to immigration, customs and security.
These initiatives have the potential to change the number and configuration of processors as well as the size
of areas required to support them.
There are several key concepts that planners should keep in mind when developing terminal options:
• Experience has shown that, when designing facilities, the maximum SQM/PHP figure should not exceed
25 square meters for purely domestic passengers, 30 sqm for charter passengers and 35 sqm for

international passengers. Exhibit 3.2.8.6.3g A irport Floor Area and Design Passenger Numbers
provides examples of terminal floor areas globally:
Exhibit 3.2.8.6.3g: Airport Floor Area and Design Passenger Numbers

Airport Terminal mppa Floor Area sqm/mppa Assumed Assumed Floor Area sqm/PHP
PHP (using 35 sqm/PHP)
PHP as % of Annual Passenger 0.004
Marrakesh Menara 4.5 42,000 9,333 1,125 39,375 37
Carrasco - Montevideo 4.5 45,000 10,000 1,125 39,375 40
San Francisco T2 5.5 59,500 10,818 1,375 48,125 43
Haneda Inti Terminal 7.0 159,000 22,714 1,750 61,250 91
Queen Alia - Amman 9.0 103,000 11,444 2,250 78,750 46
Sheremetyevo D 12.0 172,000 14,333 3,429 120,000 50
Terminal
Ninoy Aquino - Manila T3 13.0 182,500 14,038 3,714 130,000 49
Rajiv Gandhi - 15.0 162,000 10,800 4,286 150,000 38
Hyderabad
Dublin T2 15.0 100,000 6,667 4,286 150,000 23
Chubu Centrair 20.0 220,000 11,000 5,714 200,000 39
El Dorado - Bogota 20.0 163,000 8,150 5,714 200,000 29
Changi - Singapore T3 22.0 380,000 17,273 7,333 256,667 52
Berlin Brandenburg 27.0 280,000 10,370 9,000 315,000 31
London Heathrow T5 30.0 353,020 11,767 10,000 350,000 35
Jeddah Hajj Terminal 30.0 465,000 15,500 10,000 350,000 47
Miami North Terminal 30.0 330,000 11,000 10,000 350,000 33
Madrid - Barajas T4 35.0 470,000 13,429 11,667 408,333 40
Dubai T3 43.0 1,713,000 39,837 14,333 501,667 120
Seoul - Incheon 44.0 496,000 11,273 14,667 513,333 34
Beijing Capital T3 60.0 986,000 16,433 20,000 700,000 49
Hong Kong 60.0 710,000 11,833 20,000 700,000 36
Average Figs: 13,715 46
• If at all feasible, options that include rehabilitation and expansion of existing terminals should be included.
This can be a far less expensive approach than new terminal construction;
• All airlines, and at large airports all alliance partners, should be co-located under one roof;
• Low-cost terminals, piers and satellites available to all airlines and capable of incremental expansion
should be included as options;
• At smaller airports, single-level terminal options should be included. However, consideration should be
given to making provision for a second level during later phases should expansion be required;

• At airports where Code F operations are forecast to be deployed, separation distances as recommended
in ICAO Annex. 14 should be established;
• Experience has shown that the distance between the apron and the terminal access road is often too
small, constraining future development as terminal requirements change. For example, a degree of
flexibility needs to be built into the head of stand dimension to accommodate unforeseen expansion of the
terminal/pier/satellite in later stages;
• The mix of contact stands and remote stands will depend on the business strategies of the airlines
serving the airport. Consultation on this issue is important; and
• Piers should be sized and positioned to facilitate free flow of aircraft and to allow for timely passenger and
baggage connection within an agreed minimum connection time.
Throughout the planning process, the terminal options must be closely coordinated with the airfield options, so
that only viable terminal options that accommodate the forecast demand are proposed for evaluation.
3.2.8.6.4 Support Facility Options
While developing concepts for support facilities, planners should consider:
(a) Aircraft Maintenance: These facilities should be located where they do not restrict incremental
expansion of piers, satellites and aprons. At large airports with widely dispersed terminal locations and
apron positions there may be a need to locate smaller line maintenance facilities in more central areas to
reduce the time required for towing between operational stands and remote maintenance areas. The
location and size of the engine run-up facility will need to be carefully considered.
(b) Cargo Handling: It is important that the strategic link between cargo facilities and aircraft parking
positions be established at an early stage in the planning process. At larger hub airports, it is common for
dedicated cargo aircraft to be accommodated on a frequent, perhaps daily basis. At smaller airports, a
high percentage of cargo is transported solely on scheduled passenger flights. As such, there is a strong
interdependency between cargo handling and passenger processing facilities. Therefore, there is a need
for the two areas to be located adjacent to one another in order to reduce transfer distances to a workable
minimum.
However, this adjacency requirement creates a dilemma in so far as each facility requires significant land
area to exploit and expand to their full potential. Therefore, for smaller airports with less than one million
passengers per annum or 50,000 tons of cargo, the individual facilities should be positioned apart such
that each can expand without restricting the growth potential of the other. In the short-term this may result
in separation distances between the two being somewhat greater than appears necessary. However,
airports should allow for unrestricted expansion to the ultimate development stage wherever possible.
When possible, cargo stands should be adjacent to cargo processing facilities. The distance between
cargo processing facilities and passenger stands (where passenger aircraft will be used for the shipment
of cargo) should be less than 2.5 kilometers. However, at small airports a dedicated cargo apron may rot
be cost-effective and as such schedules should be analyzed to determine if aprons can be jointly used.

It is also important to note the differing types of cargo that may need to be accommodated. These can
include general freight, express freight, perishables, pharmaceuticals and airmail. Development of options
for future cargo operations should consider:
• The types of cargo operators serving the airport and likely to serve the airport in the future;
• Forecast annual cargo volumes;
• Types of cargo operations (e.g., truck-to-truck, truck-to-aircraft, aircraft-to-aircraft);
• Access for trucks serving cargo terminals; and
• Security requirements.
(c) Fuel Farms: These should be fed from two independent sources and be located away from the primary
operational area;
(d) Deicing Pads: Should be adjacent to primary departure runway thresholds, if possible; and
(e) ATC Towers and Rescue and Fire Fighting Services: Should be located as stipulated in ICAO
Annex. 14.
3.2.8.6.5 Surface Access Options
Surface access systems need to be very carefully assessed within the master plan and the facilities required
will need to be balanced against the requirements of locating the terminal building and stands. The need to
provide links from rail and road infrastructure should be of prime concern to the airport planner, as these can
have substantial cost and environmental impacts. In developing surface access options, planners should
consider that:
• At large airports, alternatives for future access should consider the possibility of high-speed, regional,
local and city-center express rail running to and through the site. These planned rail access options may
be directly connected immediately under or adjacent to the main terminal building complex. Connections
for passengers and staff departing and arriving on foot should be as short as possible;
• New terminals and access routes should retain a capability to accommodate multi-modal transport
interchanges in later stages of development; and
• Planning for well-located public parking of sufficient capacity should be part of option development. The
viability of parking structures depends on the parking rates and should be the subject of a business case
analysis.

3.2.8.7 Preliminary Land Use Plan
A preliminary land use plan should be initiated early-on in the option development and evaluation process to
determine if concepts will fit within the land area available. This preliminary plan can be simple sketches.
3.2.8.8 Preliminary Cost Estimates
Capital costs are important criteria in evaluating and comparing options. Preliminary cost estimates based on
simple unit cost determinations should be prepared for the shortlist of options. The most effective way to
prepare these estimates is to use a cost estimator/quantity surveyor that is familiar with local unit costs for
construction. All hard and soft costs should be included in this estimate. Hard costs occur once project
construction commences (e g. site preparation, labor, materials, equipment, building services, etc.). Soft costs
generally occur prior to project start (e.g. marketing, legal fees, design fees, taxes, finance charges,
insurance, etc.).
As preliminary cost estimates are prepared, a comparison of an option's costs to the financial framework
developed at the preplanning stage may mean that the option is eliminated or modified to reduce the overall
cost.
3.2.8.9 Option Evaluation
3.2.8.9.1 Process
The process of option evaluation involves:
• Development of evaluation criteria;
• Development of weighting factors for the criteria because not all criteria will be equally important;
• Consultation on the criteria and weight factors with stakeholders;
• Evaluation of options using the criteria by a multi-disciplinary team;
• Consultation on the results of the evaluation with stakeholders and the public;
• Documentation of the options, the evaluation criteria and evaluation results; and
• Preliminary recommendations illustrated on a draft airport layout plan.
The options analysis process should be tailored to the airport size and the issues it faces. Complex analysis
and evaluation methods should only be used when needed. Any method used should reflect good planning
practices, be replicable and be consistently applied.

IA TA yiSU Airport Development Reference Manual
3.2.8.9.2 Evaluation Criteria
Evaluation criteria should be determined before the evaluation of options begins. The selection of evaluation
criteria can influence the outcome of the evaluation so care needs to be taken to develop a balanced mix of
criteria. A broad range of criteria is preferable so that the differences between options can be highlighted.
Evaluation criteria can be considered in four categories: operational performance, flexibility and growth,
environmental and financial
(a) Operational performance criteria: How will the option perform in terms of capacity (e.g., hourly and
annual), capability of meeting objectives, and efficiency?
(b) Flexibility and growth criteria: These criteria consider whether or not an option:
• Enables growth beyond the planning horizon;
• Provides balance between elements, typically in the form of capacity;
• Provides the flexibil ty to adjust to unforeseen changes;
• Conforms with ICAO Annex. 14 standards and to best practices for safety and security;
• Implements the airport's strategic plan (i.e., its goals and objectives);
• Is compatible with the plans of the surrounding jurisdictions; and
• Is socially and politically feasible.
(c) Environmental criteria: These vary in number and complexity from airport to airport. At some airports it
will be sufficient to have a limited list dealing with key issue areas only (e.g., noise, wetlands, social
impact, etc.). In some jurisdictions a much more detailed environmental assessment is needed and this
will be reflected in the list of criteria.
(d) Financial criteria: These should include:
• Financial feasibility including preliminary capital cost estimates;
• Non aeronautical revenue potential;
• Significant incremental operating costs for the airport; and
• Significant incremental operating costs for users.
The financial criteria may also include a cost-benefit analysis of the options.
3.2.8.9.3 Airfield Options Evaluation
Key criteria in evaluating runway, taxiway and apron options include:
• Costs associated with aircraft operational delays;
• Savings associated with improved efficiency;
• Aircraft capacity.

3.2.8.9.4 Terminal Options Evaluation
Evaluating terminal options can involve a wide range of criteria. Planners should select criteria appropriate for
their airport in consultation with stakeholders. This can be a two or three stage evaluation process as the
terminal options are refined with greater detail added following each stage. Examples of criteria used for
evaluating terminal options at this stage include:
(a) Passenger Convenience
• Direct flow routes and minimum walking distances;

• Ease of wayfinding;
• Ease of transfer; and
• Convenient access to surface access systems, vehicle parking and car rental facilities.
(b) Operating Efficiency
• Optimum gate flexibility and utilization;
• Logical, convenient vehicle flows;
• Apron effectiveness; and
• Taxiing distances.
(c) Airline Competitive Advantage
• Operational cost efficiency;
• Maximum flexibility in use;
• Flexibility in the face of changing demands by sector;
• Ease of expansion; and

• Ease of passenger processing at peaks.
(d) Government Agencies
• Meets current and forecast security requirements; and
• Provides for government inspection services.
(e) Construction Issues
• Enables safe and efficient operations while under construction;
• Limits undue disruption of operations.

(f) Financial
• Affordable capital through all development phases;
• Minimum life-cycle costs-minimizes staffing and maintenance costs, not only capital costs;
• Maximum commercial revenue; and
• Low risk.
3.2.8.10 Integration
The final stage in developing and evaluating options is to integrate the various elements of the airport into an
overall recommended development. Compromises may need to be made. A good plan arrives at an overall
optimization that has balanced capacity with an efficient overall operation.
Although integration is shown as a final step after the evaluation of various options, in reality the planners
should be considering integration throughout the development of options.
A final integration check is needed to evaluate how successful the selected integrated plan is at providing for
the highest and best use of airport land.
3.2.8.11 Analysis and Review
The analysis and review step involves additional detailing of the preferred option and consultation with
stakeholders and the public on the options, the evaluation process and the preferred option.
During this additional analysis and consultation, the planners may develop or receive additional information
that can refine the preferred option or even cause a review of the evaluation.
3.2.8.12 Recommended Plan
Following the analysis and review step, the recommended option is selected based on the results of the
evaluation, the additional analysis and the stakeholder/public consultations.
The recommended plan, drawings and text should demonstrate how:
• Projected growth in all types of traffic can be accommodated throughout the entire life of the project until
saturation is achieved in the ultimate development stage;
• All users can operate efficient, effective and profitable operations within the proposed plan;
• Long-term sustainable development can be achieved;
• The environmental impact on surrounding communities and stakeholders will be minimized and
maintained at acceptable levels;

• Additional capacity can be brought into play without negatively impacting on current operations; and
• Associated surface access systems will be introduced in staged developments to support forecast traffic
levels and demand.
3.2.8.13 Constrained Site
In some cases, political or site limitations may mean that the airport cannot grow to meet forecast demand. In
these cases, the master plan should document the reasons for constrained growth and identify the
consequences in terms of how the constraint will impact on the traffic mix, markets served and the financial
and economic costs of capping the demand.
The options development and evaluation leading to the recommended option is documented in a dedicated
chapter in the master plan. There may be a substantial amount of technical data related to this work (e.g.,
capacity analysis, modeling results, records of consultations, etc.) and these should be contained in
appendices to the master plan.
The documentation should be thorough and clear, allowing a reader to understand how options were
developed, why some were discarded, how the evaluation criteria were developed, the results of the
evaluation, and the results of the consultations that were undertaken throughout this step in the master plan.
3.2.9 Environmental Responsibility
Since the Second World War, air transport has grown into one of the world's most important and innovative
industries, driving both economic and social progress. It has brought employment and prosperity to millions of
people while expanding world trade and increasing opportunities for travel and tourism.
The air transport industry is committed to meeting its customers' growing demands in a sustainable manner
while maintaining an optimal balance between economic progress, social development and environmental
responsibility. This means balancing the needs of passengers, society, the economy and the environment by
making the best use of existing facilities while addressing the challenge of new developments.
In delivering these benefits, air transport has had less of an impact on the world's environment than most
people realize. Indeed, by continually improving its fuel efficiency, reducing noise and introducing new, more
sustainable technologies, air transport has been able to reduce or contain its environmental impact:
• Carbon dioxide (C02) emissions: Continuous improvements in aircraft engine technology have reduced
C 02 emissions per passenger-kilometer (pkm) by 70 percent since the advent of the first jets in the
1960s. As a result, the fuel consumption of most modern aircraft does not exceed 3.5 liters per 100 pkm.

Industry research efforts are aiming to achieve a further 50 percent reduction in C 02 emissions for
equipment entering service in 2020;
• Local air quality: Improved fuel efficiency has also meant that other emissions (such as carbon
monoxide, hydro-carbons and smoke) have come down by some 90 percent or more. The higher
temperatures required to achieve these improvements have, however, prevented similar progress from
being achieved in the reduction of nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions. This has implications for both local air
quality and climate change. Ambitious research goals in the European Union and elsewhere are targeting
a reduction in NOx emissions by future aircraft of 70 percent within 10 years and of 80 percent within
25 years; and
• Noise: Today's aircraft are typically 75 percent quieter at take off or landing than the first jets in the
1960s. Research efforts are targeting a further 30 percent noise reduction within 10 years and a
50 percent reduction by 2020.
In spite of these achievements and the technological progress that lies ahead, the growing demand for air
travel is expected to increase air transport's absolute contribution to climate change. Aviation emissions
currently account for some 3.5 percent of human contribution to global warming and could grow to 5 percent
by 2050, according to the most probable scenario identified by the IPCC10.
Such trends sharpen the public focus on aviation's environmental performance. At the local level, noise is the
main political obstacle to airport development. At the global level, C 02 emissions and greenhouse effects a:
cruising altitude represent a major challenge for the air transport industry in the coming years. This illustrates
why some politicians and non governmental organizations (NGOs), especially in Europe, consider managing
growth through capacity constraints and taxation.
Recommendation: Environmental Policy

IATA fully recognizes society's expectations towards further environmental progress and is committed to
achieving such progress through all possible means, such as technological advances, more stringent
standards, and operational improvements. Good practices and voluntary measures are also encouraged, as
well as assessing the role of emissions trading schemes in the longer term. The industry is, however,
strongly opposed to the use of environmental taxes and charges that are considered both economically and
environmentally inefficient and may even be contrary to international law.
3.2.9.2 Environmental Evaluation
Airports must manage their environmental responsibilities carefully, or their future development may be
constrained.
The extent of environmental analysis to be undertaken as part of a master plan varies according to two main
factors:
• Jurisdictional issues: The planning team should be completely familiar with national and local
requirements for environmental assessment; and
10 United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

• The future development of the airport: The preplanning process should have determined the possible
scale and issues in the development. For example, at an airport where the airfield is already completely
developed and the master plan will primarily be focused on terminal expansion, only minimal
environmental analysis may be required.
The environmental assessment element of a master plan should:
• Be scaled to a planning phase document, not a design document. A more detailed environmental
assessment may be required at a later design phase, but the master plan only needs to deal with
environmental issues to determine feasibility, impacts and possible mitigation actions; and
• Environmental analysis should provide sufficient detail to enable differentiation between options. Does
one option achieve the desired operational objectives, but has less environmental impact (e.g., noise)
than other options?
The environmental analysis should be undertaken in parallel with the development of options, in sufficient
detail so it can form part of the option evaluation.
Airports are increasingly being held to account for their energy use, emissions and effects on the
environment. Many are introducing efficiency measures in the context of planning. An environmental
management plan is the first step for airports seeking to implement environmental improvements, as it
provides the framework for an airport's environmental management activities.
The purpose of such a plan is to ensure that activities undertaken at the airport are carried out in an
environmentally responsible manner; ensuring compliance with applicable laws, regulations and best
management practices, as well as with respect for community and public concerns.
3.2.9.3 Sustainability
Sustainability is a broad concept encompassing almost all elements of the airport that could have an impact
on the environment. Sustainability attempts to reduce the environmental impact of developed infrastructure,
but also ensures the airport's viability as an ongoing business initiative.
At the master plan stage, many of the details cannot be resolved, but the plan can set the direction for
sustainability that will subsequently be implemented as new facilities are designed.
Many of the following steps have the added advantage of reducing operating costs and some can be
considered on a rate-of-return basis.

3.2.9.3.1 Aircraft Noise
Managing and finding solutions to aircraft noise is an important priority for airports. Addressing aircraft noise
requires working in partnership with airlines, air navigation service providers, aircraft and engine
manufacturers, national governments, international organizations and the local community. Voluntary
agreements with partners can be successful, as can developing technical, operational and planning measures
to improve the noise environment.
There are formalized approaches and noise parameters that are used to determine the noise “footprint” of an
airport and the relationship of noise levels within that footprint to acceptable land uses near to the airport. At
the master planning stage, noise is considered from a mitigation perspective.
Aircraft noise has been the subject of years of research. The noise caused by a single aircraft on departure
and/or arrival is not an adequate measure to assess the impact of noise, so noise metrics have been
developed to capture the cumulative effect of noise over longer periods. There are several of these
cumulative noise metrics in use, including:
• Noise Exposure Forecast (NEF);
• Day-Night Noise Level (DNL);
• Day-Evening-Night (DEN);
These metrics represent 24-hour cumulative noise exposure. A time-weighting element recognizes that sleep
disturbance is the most significant impact of noise. Night operations (22:00 to 07:00) are weighted more than
day operations in terms of noise impact. These metrics attempt to estimate the level of community
disturbance from aircraft noise in the areas around an airport by assessing noise levels produced from the
frequency and mix of aircraft at given altitudes, and the time of day at which the operation occurs.
These metrics result in contours plotted on a map of the airport and the surrounding land area. Specialized
software is used to determine these contours. In the case of NEF, it is standard practice to display NEF
values of 25, 30, 35, and 40 when plotting onto a base map of the airport.

Exhibit 3.2.9.3.1: Example NEF Contour
Source: GAIA Inc./Leigh Fisher
The plotting of the noise contours is only the first stage of the noise assessment element of the master plan.
The planners use the information to determine how noise impacts can be mitigated:
• Can a new runway be reoriented slightly to reduce noise impacts?
• Would ‘ground profiling’ techniques reduce noise disturbance for neighboring communities?
• Do increased traffic levels mean that new departure abatement procedures may be needed to reduce
noise impacts?
• Does the changing traffic mix mean that noise levels are increasing or decreasing?
• Do changing noise levels mean that the adjacent communities should be limiting the development of
noise sensitive uses like hospitals and schools in areas that were not previously a problem?
• Does the airport need to acquire additional land to protect itself from encroachment into noise-impacted
areas?
Promotion of noise exposure contours (current or forecast) should be undertaken with care to ensure that
interested parties understand that properties located outside of the noise exposure contour may still be
exposed to aircraft noise.
The master plan will develop the optimum scenario for noise management without sacrificing the need to
meet the long-term forecast demand. Many of the available solutions to mitigate noise in the vicinity of
airports, including those obtainable from land-use planning, can often only be realized in the longer term.
However, this should not be seen as a reason by those responsible for seeking reductions in noise levels to

apply minimal effort. This particularly holds true for existing airports where the ability to make immediate
changes in land use is limited.
For existing airports, it is also important that aircraft-source noise reductions and the resultant contraction of
noise contours do not allow local authorities to relax their guard against encroachment upon the airport
boundary.
3.2.9.3.2 Airport Design
The scope for environmental improvement at an airport is determined by its physical layout in terms of the
terminal and airport buildings, facilities, taxiways, runways and their associated infrastructure. Infrastructure
design can reduce environmental impact. Examples include:
• The provision of high-speed runway exits shortens aircraft taxiing time and helps to prevent ground
congestion;
• The provision of fixed electrical ground power (FEGP) at gates and maintenance areas helps to reduce
noise and emissions; and
• Rail access to airports can help take cars off the road, thereby reducing local emissions and improving
the environmental balance.
Recommendation: Efficient Apron Design Characteristics

In an effort to reduce fuel consumption and emissions from aircraft, the length and geographical position of
runways should be optimized wherever possible. The objective should be to maximize aircraft efficiency
during take off and landing procedures. Particular attention should be given to the design of rapid exit
taxiways, which should be designed in accordance with ICAO Annex. 14 clause 3.8. Particular attention
should be paid to the requirements of Figure 3-2, Rapid Exit Taxiway.
3.2.9.3.3 Ecology and Natural Habitat
Airports are often located in greenbelt areas. They therefore have a role to play in the preservation and
enhancement of the biodiversity of their surrounding areas by maintaining and restoring these habitats and
creating new ones where they have been damaged. This could include, for example, involving local schools in
a tree-planting scheme, or furthering local authorities' work in the local community.
An airport should develop a landscaping strategy to utilize specific endemic species plantings that are not
attractive roosting sights for birds in order to minimize the potential for bird strikes. Obstacle limitation
surfaces also need to be considered when planting near runway ends.
3.2.9.3.4 Emissions
Aircraft and motor vehicles emit regulated pollutants including carbon monoxide, volatile hydrocarbons,
nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides and particulate matter. The amount of pollution at an airport is a function of

aircraft and ground access traffic levels, congestion (ground and air delays can increase pollution), prevailing
winds, and the airport's approach to reducing emissions. Solutions can include:
• A reduction in ground service equipment through the use of fixed ground power and fixed preconditioned
air systems. Hydrant-based systems are also available that can deliver fuel, potable water and remove
wastewater from aircraf.;
• Reducing vehicle emissions through conversion of airport vehicles, airline vehicles and ground support
equipment to low emission versions. These can include electric or alternative fuel (propane) vehicles;
• Encouraging taxis, shuttle vehicles, and car rental companies to use low emission vehicles by providing
the necessary infrastructure to support these vehicles and by implementing fee structures to provide
incentives for the use of low emission vehicles;
• Modifying road access to, from and within the airport to minimize congestion and delay;
• Discouraging private vehicle use through the construction of remote car parks; and
• Encouraging greater use of public transport (e.g. dedicated public transport routes).
A valuable tool for forecasting regulated emissions from the airport at the planning stage is the FAA's Airport
Emission and Dispersion Modeling System (EDMS). This computer model, which requires inputs on air traffic,
ground traffic, ground service equipment and any other emission sources, provides forecasts of the emission
levels from:
• Aircraft;
• Auxiliary power units;
• Ground support vehicles;

• Power plants;
• Fuel storage tanks; and
• Ground access vehicles.
Interdependencies should also be considered. For example, a change to a departure procedure in an attempt
to reduce noise may significantly increase emissions.
3.2.9.3.5 Energy Consumption
Energy reductions can be achieved in a variety of ways, including technical improvements and raising staff
and business partner awareness through environmental campaigns. The former can include:
• The removal of older, outdated equipment in buildings and replacement with new energy efficient
technology;
• Energy conservation efforts assisted by automated systems for controlling heating and lighting (with high
yield bulbs or daylight sensitive lighting devices); and
• Monitoring electricity consumption of baggage handling systems, passenger conveyor belts, escalators,
air conditioning systems, lighting, etc.

3.2.9.3.6 Global Climate Change
Airports can work to reduce energy and ground fleet fuel consumption. This has a beneficial effect on C 02
and other emissions affecting climate change. Airports can also influence the sources and types of energy
and fuel, design for lower consumption, and manage their use and storage of ozone depleting substances.
For example, all CFC equipment at airports can be removed and replaced by more modern equipment.
3.2.9.3.7 Ground Noise
Managing ground noise involves technical improvements to equipment. This can include:
• The provision of fixed servicing equipment that avoids the use of aircraft auxiliary power units and ground
power units;
• Management instructions and controls to ensure that correct use is made of equipment and that
construction activities do not produce excessive noise;
• The construction of special ‘noise suppression facilities’ used for engine ground running and engine
testing; and
• The construction of ‘sound walls’ or ‘ground profiling’ to reduce noise disturbance for neighboring
communities.
3.2.9.3.8 Landscaping
Landscaping can improve the quality of the environment for people who work at, travel to, or live near an
airport. It can also play a role in integrating the airport into the surrounding community if partnerships are
developed with local communities, local authorities, environmental charities and land owners.
3.2.9.3.9 Land Use Planning and Management
Noise nuisance from overflight, take off or landing is primarily due to the absence of adequate land-use
planning and management in and around airports. In many countries, land-use planning and zoning is the
responsibility of national, regional and local municipalities. Each airport has its own geographical, political,
economic and historical characteristics and there is no single land-use planning and management approach.
Compatible land-use planning and management helps to minimize noise impact around airports and to
safeguard traffic growth. In addition, identification of specific noise exposure contour zones for property
purchases as well as noise protection or insulation programs also help to optimize the benefits from quieter
aircraft. They also help to prevent the unnecessary encroachment of residential development into noise-
sensitive airport areas.
A close relationship with the local municipality or council is important to ensure that land-use planning
measures are implemented and noise impact reduction realized.

3.2.9.3.10 Materials
Particular care must be taken regarding the management and treatment of hazardous waste and chemicals.
Environmentally hazardous materials like toxic chemicals, heavy metals, etc. should be replaced by more
responsible alternatives whenever possible.
3.2.9.3.11 Renewable Energy
Following a favorable cost-benefit analysis, alternative heating methods in buildings can be deployed. These
include the use of geothermal energy, incineration of non recyclable goods, solar power, heat exchangers,
etc.
3.2.9.3.12 Waste Management
Solutions to waste management must generally involve the airport's business partners, since many airports
handle waste on behalf of airlines, retailers and tenants. These partners need to be encouraged to reduce
waste generation and to recycle where it is operationally practical. Other measures for consideration are:
• How can the volume of hazardous waste generated at the airport be reduced?
• How is recycled material and waste disposed of after collection?
• How can the financial benefits of waste minimization and recycling be passed back to airlines and airport
tenants?
• Are there specialized training and awareness programs to minimize the risk of air, ground and water
contamination from fuel, chemical waste, dangerous materials and oil spills?
Airports generate a number of waste-streams, including the following:
• Cabin waste (galleys and cleaners);
• Terminal waste from shops, restaurants, business lounges, security (e.g., confiscated liquids), etc.;
• Catering waste;
• Maintenance Repair and Operations (MRO) waste (e.g., oils, lubricants, dust, paints, solvents, scrap
metal, batteries, waste electrical equipment, etc.). Some small volumes will be generated on stand, but
most in separate MRO shops. This can also include off-spec (contaminated) fuel and fuel-contaminated
absorbents (from spillages).
These waste-streams are often subject to regulation and may require specialized treatment (e.g.,
incineration). A comprehensive review of waste management legislation and waste characteristics must be
undertaken to ensure that appropriate waste management systems are implemented that encourage waste
minimization and recycling.

Recommendation: Business Partner Environmental Strategy

Airport operators should actively work with their business partners, such as airlines, ground handlers, aircraft
fuel suppliers, as well as water companies and building electricity and gas suppliers, etc., to ensure that all
hazardous materials are properly used and disposed of while at the airport. The airport operator and all its
business partners should collectively work together to ensure operational efficiency of the airport by
developing specific energy efficiency targets.___________________________________________________
3.2.9.3.13 Water Consumption
Airports are often located in water-stressed regions. As such, usage in washrooms, kitchens, laundry, MRO
facilities, vehicle cleaning and for horticultural purposes needs to be reduced whenever possible. In addition,
alternative sources of non potable water, such as groundwater wells, should be considered.
The reduction of water consumption at an airport can be achieved by:
• Installing equipment that is water efficient (e.g., replacing old sanitary equipment);
• Finding ways to influence or provide incentives to airport tenants and other airport users to lower their
consumption of water;
• Harvesting rainwater; and

• Recirculating and recycling water.
3.2.9.3.14 Surface and Ground Water Quality
Water management, retention and the avoidance of contamination can be achieved in a number of ways. For
example, if:
• New or replaced airfield paved areas are being considered, how will additional volumes of surface water
be handled? Large paved areas create large runoffs that can cause erosion, loss of fish habitat and
downstream flooding. Have retention ponds to control runoff been considered?
• Deicing is required, has consideration been given to dedicated aprons where deicing fluids are collected
and treated? Have alternative methods been considered (e.g., infrared)? Can pavement deicing be
performed using geothermal water?
• Swale drains are incorporated to accommodate storm water runoff in non paved areas. Do they increase
water retention and aid drainage away from runway and taxiways? Caution should be exerted, however,
as standing water may attract some bird species and other wildlife.
• New fuel farms are planned. Do they include consideration for the removal of old underground tanks and
clean-up of the sites to reduce ground water contamination?
• New ground service vehicle parking areas are included in the plan, does the plan point out that oil
separators will be needed to prevent oil and hydraulic fluid leaks from entering the ground water?
Staff awareness and training programs are important to prevent careless behavior and accidents. Clear
instructions and controls can ensure that potential contaminants are properly disposed of and that drainage
systems are used correctly.

To monitor contamination levels, soil and water quality testing is recommended at servicing and maintenance
sites. To reduce the risk of water contamination, aircraft should be washed and deiced in specially-designed
enclosed areas.
3.2.9.3.15 Wildlife Control
Tends to be more of an operational issue than a master planning problem, but land uses near the airport need
to be taken into consideration in planning to minimize the possibility of bird attractions, in particular.
Some environmental issues will be documented in the evaluation of alternatives. The environmental chapter
of the master plan will normally address:
• Baseline conditions today, particularly if measurements are carried out;
• Identification of key issues and sensitivities; and
• Documentation of impacts from the recommended alternative and a proposed mitigation plan for their
reduction. This should focus on carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, hydro
fluorocarbons and per fluorocarbons. It should also provide carbon dioxide equivalencies for these
greenhouse gasses (GHGs) so a common metric can be established.
3.2.10 Land Use Planning
One of the key products of a master plan is an airport land use plan that:
• Clearly identifies the lards under the airport's control;
• Protects the operational areas of the airport from constraints;
• Prioritizes the uses of airport lands;
• Optimizes the use of airport lands to enhance commercial revenues;

• Coordinates airport land use planning with local and regional development plans;
• Identifies lands outside the airport boundary that are affected by airport operations; and
• Identifies the potential need to acquire additional lands to meet the aviation requirements of the airport in
the future.

3.2.10.2 Airport Land Use Planning
3.2.10.2.1 Control of Airport Lands
One of the most fundamental elements of a land use plan is a clear definition of what lands the airport
controls through ownership, leasing, easements, etc. In many countries this is clear-cut and easy, but in
others there may be control issues, including squatters on airport land.
Forecasts of increased demand may point to the need for the airport to acquire new land to support the
ultimate development potential of the site.
3.2.10.2.2 Operational Areas and Priorities
Airport land use is planned according to a priority system:
• The top priority is land needed for aviation operational areas, both existing and planned. These include:
o All aircraft maneuvering areas and areas set aside to protect these;
o Protection areas for existing and planned navigation aids (see Exhibit 3.2.10.2.2 Navaid Protection
Areas)-, and
o Areas for current and future passenger terminals, ground service equipment storage, etc.;
• The second priority is aviation-related uses, with an emphasis on those facilities requiring airside access
(e.g., aircraft maintenance, cargo, fuel distribution and storage, in-flight catering, etc.);
• The third priority is airport-related commercial uses that do not require airside access (e.g., car rental
facilities, hotels); and
• The lowest priority is non aviation commercial uses (e.g.: farming, shopping centers, etc.).

Exhibit 3.2.10.2.2: Navaid Protection Areas
The priority approach should be thought of as a series of layers of drawings, with a drawing of aviation
operational areas created first, then other layers added in the spaces that remain.
One key reason that land use plans are an important part of a master plan is to ensure efficiency of land use
and to prevent short-term decisions that commit land to uses that are subsequently needed for higher priority
uses. The land use planner is considering, for example, how the passenger terminal will be expanded in the
future when plans for a new cargo facility are evaluated.
The planners need to consider the timing of when lands will be needed. An area that may be needed for
aviation operations in the future may be available for a commercial lease in the short and medium terms. For
example, this land could be used for low-cost box warehousing with short-term leasing arrangements,
knowing that these facilities will need to be demolished in the future for more critical aviation use.
Some land use plans deliberately include all the airport lands, so that there are no uncommitted areas. This is
a recommended approach where there is a concern that unplanned areas could be removed from the airport's
control.

For the master plan, all the individual pieces of the development jigsaw need to fit and be correctly
assembled. All the interdependencies within the operational area need to be identified. At this stage, however,
the detailed operational characteristics of each facility are not required.
Land use plans should be produced to cover the existing site and proposed development at five-, 10- and
20-year intervals. A plan supporting the ultimate development stage should also be developed regardless of
the planning horizon proposed. These should be updated on a regular basis (every five years) and be
distributed to the local authority responsible for planning, development and land use.
3.2.10.2.3 Airport Land Use Plan Drawings
Airport Land Use Plans drawn to scale should depict existing and phased development (including intended
land uses) up to the ultimate development stage (i.e., when the runway system is saturated). The plans
should include:
• Airport site boundary or perimeter, facility and property boundaries, security fence lines and control post
positions;
• Runway clear zones and associated approach surfaces;
• True azimuth of runways (measured from the true north) and north point;
• Airside infrastructure including runways (including separation distances, length and width), runway lighting
and markings, taxiways, holding bays, aprons (including deicing), engine test facilities, location and
specification of navigational aids, vehicle parking areas, staging areas, and access roads;
• Landside infrastructure including passenger terminals, ground transport interchanges, hotels, primary and
secondary access roads and parking structures (at grade and multi-story), rail lines and vehicle fuelling
stations;
• Airport support infrastructure including administration buildings, aircraft maintenance, airport maintenance,
cargo, fixed-base operations, fuel supply storage and distribution, ground-handling equipment
maintenance, helicopter operations, in-flight catering, meteorological compounds, police and security
facilities, rescue and firefighting facilities, general aviation, containment and treatment facilities;
• Areas reserved for aviation-related revenue producing development such as industrial areas, duty-free
zones, etc.;
• Non aviation related property and land with the current status and use specified;
• Facilities that are to be demolished; and
• Prominent natural and man-made features such as trees, streams, ponds, rock outcrops, ditches, etc.
Recommendation: Land Use

All airports should develop land use concepts that allow all airport users to develop and expand their
business in a structured, orderly fashion, without adversely impacting on the business of their neighbors on
or adjacent to the airport.

Exhibit 3.2.10.2.3: Example of a Land Use Plan
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3.2.10.3 Adjacent Land Uses (Zoning)
The need for control of development in the vicinity of airports has been recognized from the very beginning of
commercial aviation. Concerns include:
• Obstacles that could interfere with approach or departure paths;
• Electrical interference with radio communications and navigational aids;

• Areas of dense population within the runway clear zones;
• Confusion of pilots by lights on approach;
• Reduced visibility due to the production of smoke or vapor clouds; and
• Birds in critical operational areas.
As part of the master plan process, airports need to work with surrounding jurisdictions to achieve compatible
land uses in the areas near the airport. Compatible land uses are defined as land uses that can coexist with

the airport without constraining the safe and efficient operation of the airport or exposing people living and
working in the nearby area to unacceptable risks or noise.
In discussing adjacent land uses, six broad categories are used:
• Residential;
• Commercial;
• Industrial;
• Institutional;
• Infrastructure; and
• Agricultural/Undeveloped.
In working with nearby jurisdictions to manage land uses near the airport, the airport's goals are:
• To limit noise sensitive land uses, including hospitals, nursing homes and schools;
• To limit uses that include:
o Tall structures;
o Visual obstructions such as smoke, steam, dust or lights;
o Wildlife/bird attractants such as waste dumps, wetlands, open water and some crops; and
o High concentrations of people (e.g., sports stadiums, etc.).
If the airport and its surrounding jurisdictions do not act to protect the airport from encroaching incompatible
land uses, the consequences can be severe, including restrictions on airport operations (e.g., flight
procedures, curfews) or even community action to attempt to close the airport.
Land use control is central to the overall process. Many jurisdictions embrace the concept of “zoning” where
land areas throughout the region are designated for particular functions/uses. Properly managed, it will
effectively protect public health and safety by minimizing exposure to emissions and excessive noise. These
management principles need to be coupled with supportive legislation. Legislative frameworks regulating
surrounding land use outside of the airfield boundary should be provided by national or state/regional
governments and planning authorities, as they are ultimately responsible for ensuring that the airport is
interwoven into the regional and national socioeconomic fabric. These should set the broad policy context
within which local authorities can work. Ideally, there should also be a consultation process by which the
various stakeholder groups (e.g., surrounding community, airport operators, and airline representatives) can
comment on and suggest changes to draft policies. The airport operator should also be consulted on
monitoring the effective application of the legislation.

3.2.10.3.1 Land Use within Noise-Impacted Areas
The sustainability of air transport is heavily dependent on controlling environmental impacts, with aircraft noise
being the largest factor to be considered when undertaking land use planning within and around the airport
boundary.
The airport land use plan is an integral part of area-wide comprehensive planning programs. During
consultations, every effort is made to coordinate the airport's land use plans with the plans of adjacent
communities. At the same time, efforts are typically made to get those responsible for areas adjacent to the
airport to protect the airport's approach and noise-affected areas from incompatible development.
Sensitivity to aircraft noise will vary from one country or location to the next, and be dependent on many
factors outside of the airport boundary. These can include:
• Land use;
• Building use;
• Type of construction;
• Distance from source;
• Background noise levels;
• Sociological factors;
• The amount of diffraction/refraction/reflection due to buildings and topography encountered on site; and
• The meteorological conditions prevalent at the time of exposure.
The establishment of noise zones surrounding an airport is an important step when determining future land
use. This process is separate from overall land-use zoning by regional authorities. Noise zoning serves two
purposes: to protect the airport from encroachment and to protect residents from noise exposure. The number
of zones, noise descriptors and noise exposure calculation methods vary from one country to the next. For
example, three zones could be established, as follows:
• Zone 1: As a general rule, noise sensitive development such as housing, schools, hospitals, offices and
banks should not be permitted in the first zone;
• Zone 2: Where some restrictions apply; and
• Zone 3: Where no restrictions apply.
Whatever approach is used, it is important that local authorities apply strict controls over proposed
development in the zones around the airport. It is also important to stress that the zones be calculated based
on the ultimate achievable throughput of the airport (i.e., when the runway is saturated) so long-term
development will be assured.
A single authority should have overall responsibility for developing land-use criteria. Zoning plans should be
created as a first step when establishing an airport, as zoning changes are difficult if not impossible to achieve
in retrospect.

Numerous strategies can be applied to control the use of land surrounding airports. Development restrictions
within predefined zones can secure the long-term vision for new airports. Retrospective noise insulation
measures may go some way toward redressing the balance for commercial and residential properties near
existing airports. However, the means of control, regulation and finance will vary from country to country and
be dependent on national and local characteristics. There are three differing forms of control:
• Planning: A comprehensive development or layout plan should be provided to local authorities and
should be used as a guide by authorities when establishing development restrictions and controls. For
existing airports this will assist in determining the compatibility of development proposals with government
policy;
• Mitigation: Measures can be employed that will help to alleviate the problems of aircraft noise, including:
o Sound insulation specifications for new construction,
o Sound insulation retrofitting for existing buildings;
o Barriers can also be used to mitigate noise generated by maneuvering aircraft or by ground-handling
equipment. Barriers can be in the form of earth berms located adjacent to runway thresholds, ground
modelling and holding aprons. Alternatively, building structures e.g., main terminal buildings and
finger piers or satellites) can be employed as sound attenuation barriers;
o Land acquisition and relocation. This is an expensive option and is used primarily when no alternative
will provide a satisfactory solution; and
• Financial: Financial incentives can be used to promote the development of compatible land uses around
the area (e.g., commercial, office parks, light industrial, etc.).
3.2.11 Outline Development Plan
Typically, following approval of a master plan, the airport will prepare an outline development plan that
addresses requirements over the next five to 10 years.
The outline development plan provides a description of how the recommended plan could be implemented in
terms of the estimated capital cost, specific projects, timing and phasing. As a minimum, an implementation
plan should include:
• A proposed schedule;
• Identification of potential key projects and their timing/development “trigger" definitions; and
• Any special considerations.

In some countries, a more detailed facilities implementation plan may be needed as part of the master plan.
This may include:
• A comprehensive schedule;
• Detailed descriptions of the major projects; and
• Details on coordination and responsibilities;
The facilities implementation plan needs to consider:
• The timing of needed additional capacity;
• Financial constraints;
• Logical project sequencing;
• Lead times for regulatory or environmental permits;
• Lead times for design and consultation with users; and
• Other issues such as time for property acquisition.
3.2.11.2 Capital Cost Estimates
The requirements analysis portion of the master plan will result in a detailed picture of the various expansion
and major rehabilitation projects needed over the duration of the plan. In the financial analysis, these are
translated into capital cost estimates. At the master plan level of detail, these are normally estimates based on
simple unit costs to give decision makers an approximate idea of costs. These costs should also include soft
costs, such as:
• Mobilization;
• General contractor conditions, overhead and profit;
• Bond;
• Insurance;
• Program contingency; and

• Design/construction management.
These will be a percentage of the overall hard costs for construction based on local conditions.
The capital cost estimates are normally developed for each year of the master plan. For example, if at some
point 10 years in the future the terminal will need to be substantially larger, the cost estimates will be broken
out over the period that construction would occur (years 7 to 9, for example). It is important in such cases to
account for inflation and define “money of the day” to ensure consistency in application of this financial
planning tool.
Typically, there will be more detail for the first five years of the capital cost forecasts than for the periods
thereafter.

Exhibit 3.2.11.2: Example Capital Plan
2012 2013 2014 2015

1.1 AIRSIDE
1.1.1 Tug Road and security fencing $47,000 $470,000
1.1.2 Cargo Apron $2,673,125 $13,365,625 $13,365,625
1.1.3 Aircraft Isolation area $910,625 $9,106,250
1.1.4 Fire training area with access road $264,375 $2,643,750
1.1.5 New Control Tower $1,057,500 $10,575,000
1.1.6 New Radar
1.1.7 Apron Expansion West $2,849,375 $28,493,750
1.1.8 RESA's $381,875 $3,818,750
1.1.9 Overlay Echo Taxi $352,500 $3,525,000
1.1.10 Reconstruct Apron 1 $293,750 $2,937,500
1.1.11 Overlay Apron 8 $528,750 $5,287,500
1.2 TERMINAL
1.2.1 Rebuild Old Terminal Roof $1,292,500 $12,925,000
1.2.2 Regional gate expansion (1b) $646,250 $6,462,500
1.2.3 New enclosed entry hall, transfer corridor $705,000 $7,050,000
1.2.4 2 Nr Airbridges and gatehold area $2,220,750 $22,207,500
1.2.5 Holdroom Expansion $2,379,375 $23,793,750
1.2.6 Cargo Terminal $2,291,250 $22,912,500
1.3 LANDSIDE
1.3.1 Road Realignments $146,875 $1,468,750
1.3.2 Accelerate Demolition-Old Fuel Storage $58,750 $587,500
Area
1.3.3 Spine Service Road $148,875 $1,468,750
1.3.4 Taxi Bus Staging Area $58,750 $587,500
1.3.5 RESA road Extension $411,250 $4,112,500
1.3.6 Employee parking area access and $293,750 $2,937,500
expansion
1.3.7 Tug road around terminal expansion $0 $0
1.3.8 Security perimeter patrol road $822,500 $8,225,000
Minor Rehab Capital All areas $3,683,625 $3,683,625 $3,683,625 $3,683,625
Total Phase 1 Capex $10,516,250 $64,595,625 $84,613,750 $84,171,125
Because the outline development plan needs to consider financial constraints, it is essential that the capital
plan be linked directly to the airport's financial model (see Chapter 3.2.12 Financial Assessment) so that
adjustments in the scope, scale and timing of capital projects can be made to achieve an affordable plan.
Recommendation: CAPEX Plan Documentation

Existing airports should possess a 10-year CAPEX document that shows their intended program of works
over two consecutive 5-year periods. The program should be reassessed annually after consultation with the
airline/IATA airport development specialists. The resultant impact of the development program on user
charges should be discussed and agreed to with lATA's User Charges Panel.

3.2.11.3 Phasing
The key to phasing is that facilities should be developed in time to meet forecast demand. Facilities should be
expanded in an incremental modular fashion and at intervals to keep slightly ahead of demand and to
maintain predetermined and agreed upon service levels.
Phased expansion should allow for periods where individual facilities can settle into routines such that
operational efficiencies can be maximized. In general terms, this period should extend for a minimum of four
to five years after project completion. Longer periods between construction projects may be the result of
overprovisioning of facilities. This could be associated with cost penalties that would invariably be passed on
through airport charges and may, in turn, negatively impact on growth.
The master plan implementation may require a number of complex, interrelated projects. The planners need
to consider how the projects will fit together and develop a sequence that minimizes conflicts with other
development programs and with the ongoing operation of the airport. A master schedule showing phasing,
project “trigger” mechanisms and relationships should be prepared.
At minimum, the master plan phasing should show the first phase and/or development in years 5, 10, and 20
as well as the ultimate stage. Short-term plans should be supported by a rolling 10 year development program
that will be reviewed annually with the airlines.
Traffic may grow differently than planned, so the phasing plan should be linked to demand “triggers” for key
projects rather than dates, so that the implementation plan can be easily changed if the triggers are reached
earlier or later than planned.
For the major projects in the plan, the phasing plan should identify:
• Airport approval activities (e.g., Board of Directors, Ministry, etc.);
• Airline consultation activities;
• Public consultation activities and time requirements;
• Financial requirements (i.e., lender involvement, etc.);
• Design activities and time required; and
• Regulatory approvals and timeline.
The implementation plan chapter of the master plan should contain the final recommended capital plan (after
revision from the financial analysis, if necessary) and the phasing plan.

3.2.12 Financial Assessment
Although there has been a significant shift in airport management practices towards a stronger business
focus, even today there are master plans being produced that have no possibility of implementation, because
they are not affordable either by the airport, the airline community or by the responsible government.
As was introduced in the Preplanning chapter (see Chapter 3.2.4 Preplanning), it is important to start the
financial analysis early and for it to be maintained throughout the planning process. The purpose of the
financial analysis during the master plan is to guide the proposed options development and final
recommendation plan. The end purpose in the master plan is to show how the airport will afford the proposed
program, along with related financial features such as the potential for enhanced commercial revenues.
The key financial issue in a master plan is to determine if the proposed investment program is affordable. If
the forecast capital program does not appear to be affordable, then the investment program should be
revisited to change the timing of proposed developments or to seek less expensive options. This may result in
the airport not meeting its development goals and an inability to serve unconstrained demand.
An effective master plan wil reflect the business plan for the airport. The financial section of the plan is
concerned with finances at a strategic level:
• What are the forecast capital investment requirements for the airport to ensure it is maintained in good
condition and expanded as needed to provide sufficient capacity?
• When are the capital investments needed?
• Are the capital investments affordable?
Details regarding financing development, cash flow analysis, financial statements, determination of debt
requirements, analysis of leases and agreements, fees and charges and financing capability and development
funding, etc. will be covered in a future section of ADRM.
Recommendation: Business Plan

Master plans should be considered to be a key element of the airport business plan. Capacity enhancement
programs should be supported by a full business case. A financial model should show the proposed methods
and time scales for cost recovery to enable the airline community to determine the financial impact on their
operations.
3.2.13 Reporting/Deliverables
The executive summary and technical reports should be produced in both paper and electronic formats. Parts
of the public information kit may also be electronic.

3.2.13.2 Master Plan Report
The airport master plan report is a document that brings together all the work and findings of the master plan.
It is used by decision makers at the airport and by stakeholders. It is typically a public document and can
often be found on an airport's public website for reference.
Chapters of the plan can vary, but a master plan report will normally cover:
• An executive summary. The master plan report, including technical appendices, may be a very large
document. Some airports publish the executive summary as a separate, stand-alone document for
widespread dissemination. It may also double as the means of disseminating information to public groups;
• An introduction, describing the background, the linkage with the airport's strategic plan, and the goals for
the master plan;
• Air traffic forecasts;
• The site analysis, providing a description and drawings of the airport/site as it is today;
• Stakeholder consultations, describing planning issues and any guidance to the master plan provided by
consultations, including on the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and challenges facing the airport.
The master plan should logically follow the airport's strategic plan and this chapter provides a linkage
between the two. Airline support (or non support) for the recommendations of the master plan should be
identified;
• The condition and capacity-demand assessment of the airfield;
• Air navigation requirements for the airport (e.g., navigation aids, tower, etc.);
• Passenger terminal condition and capacity-demand assessment;
• Landside facilities condition and capacity-demand assessment (e.g., roads, parking, taxi storage, bus
parking, car rental facilities, terminal forecourt frontage, etc.);
• Airport operations facilities, identifying the capacity and shortfalls in facilities for administration, airport
maintenance, airport utilities, airport rescue and firefighting and how the capacities compare to forecast
demands;
• Commercial facilities, comparing capacity and forecast demand for cargo facilities, fixed-base operations,
ground handling, aircraft fuelling, aircraft maintenance, other aviation related commercial land and non
aviation commercial land;
• The environment, dealing with capacities, demands, forecast issues and mitigation actions proposed for
sustainability, air quality, noise, waste management, ground and surface water management and possible
construction period environmental issues;
• The proposed development plan for the airport, including options, evaluation of options and a
recommended plan, including how this plan will be phased. This chapter contains the drawings illustrating
the planned development of the airport:
• Cost estimates and the financial analysis;
• Appendices containing details of the analyses undertaken and other supporting material; and
• A glossary as many aviation terms and acronyms will not be familiar to decision makers or the public;

The master plan must be easily understood by a broad, perhaps non technical, review team. Very technical
material should be appended or even put in separate supporting documentation. Master plans should adopt a
consistent format so that comparison of master plans can be done on a like-for-like assessment basis.
3.2.13.3 Master Plan Drawings
The master plan drawings are the graphical representation of the airport today overlaid with the proposed
development. The master plan drawings are provided in the master plan report and separately in full sheet
AO (841mm x 1189mm) or A1 (594mm x 841mm) size format. They are also normally provided in electronic
format. The complete drawing set includes:
• Airport location map, showing the airport and the surrounding 15 to 20 kilometer radius, including cities,
major rail lines, highways, obstructions, terrain and political boundaries:
• Airport airspace drawing;

• Drawing of the inner portion of the approach space in both plan and profile, and identifying any
penetrations by obstruc:ions;
• Runway departure surface drawing;
• Wind rose drawing with orientation of the runways;
• Airport property map;
• Airport layout plans (current and recommended in each phase);
• Terminal area plan (current and recommended in each phase);
• On-airport land use plan (current and recommended in each phase);
• Off-airport land use drawing ("zoning” map) (current and with any known major future changes);
• Noise compatibility drawing showing extent of DNL/NEF contours today and five,10, and 20 years into the
future;
• Utility drawing showing the location and capacity of services and connections to off-airport providers;
• Surface access plan, both on-airport and in adjacent off-airport areas (current and recommended in each
phase); and
• Other drawings that may be required for site specific reasons.
A common title block should be used for all drawings, showing:

• Drawing description;
• Name of person and/or firm responsible for creating the drawing;
• Name of person who prepared, checked and approved the drawing;
• Drawing reference number, the date drawn, scale and number of associated sheets; and
• Revision details (number, description, who revised, who approved change and date).

Importantly, the master plan drawings are planning drawings and are not intended to be design drawings in
detail or accuracy.
Exhibit 3.2.13.3a: Example of an Airport Layout Plan
Source: Sypher:Mueller International

Exhibit 3.2.13.3b: Example of a Terminal Area Plan
FV ^ ^ B
Enlarged Concept Pton
LEGEND
------ Airport Property Line
Previous AirfioW Apron Pavement
mm New Airfield & Apron Pavement Aircraft Parking Positions.
Existing Building - f t International
mm New Terminal
mm Existing Roadway ^ Domestic
H New Roadway
mm Existing Cargo -( Cargo
■■■ New Cargo - f Remote
General Aviation Pacifctics
Military Po-ice ^ inactive
^m Existing Airport Support Facilrties
mm New Airport Support F$£ilit>6£
Res<*
PuWic Parking
Emptoyaa Parking
^m Car Rental Services
■■■ Commercial Uses
— Bus/Taxi
Parking Caraga
h C oncrete* P e vR m ftn t
Source: Grupo CCR/SNC Lavalin/Architectural Alliance

Exhibit 3.2.13.3c: Example of a Protected Surfaces Drawing
CONICAL SURFACE
ELEVATION: 95.0 M CONICAL SURFACE
ELEVATION: 95.0 M
AIRPORT BOUNDRY BORDER
Source: Asterion/Leigh Fisher
3.2.13.4 The Public Information Kit
Some airports may find it useful to also produce a public information kit to support the planning and airport
management team as they speak to various public groups. This kit can contain presentation materials,
models, the executive summary, and other supporting materials.
3.2.14 Master Planning on a Greenfield Site
The primary reason that a greenfield airport may be needed is that traffic demand is forecast to exceed the
capacity or capability of the existing airport or airport system.

Importantly, if a greenfield airport is being considered, the planners need to take account of the considerable
time that may elapse between the development of a master plan, construction and eventual opening. A major
greenfield airport can take ten years or more to acquire land and seek environmental approvals, and five to
seven years to construct.
Greenfield airports, especially if they are replacing large well-established airports, may also need to be
adequately sized to accommodate development of a different order of magnitude than what has been catered
to before. Many of the most recent greenfield airports have been planned to accommodate 160 million
passengers per annum and/or 12 million tons of cargo, supported by five or six runways on sites with land
requirements exceeding 7,500 hectares.
All the steps described for a master plan in the preceding sub-chapters are needed for a new greenfield
airport. However, additional criteria will need to be considered.
3.2.14.2 Primary Driver-Land Availability
At existing airports, the land available for future development is normally well documented and will, in part,
determine the ultimate development potential of the site. For greenfield airports, the quantum of land required
to support forecast traffic levels needs to be determined first, prior to undertaking the initial search for suitable
airfield locations.
Before a detailed site evaluation can be undertaken, an initial understanding of the amount of land required to
support efficient airport operations is needed so that only sites with sufficient land are considered. The land
required will be driven primarily by forecast traffic demand and the runway system/configuration required to
support this.
The number of runways required is dependent on the peak hour number of aircraft movements to be
accommodated, the mix of aircraft types and the operational resilience required by airlines. Wherever
possible, land should be reserved and protected to allow airports to extend their runway systems so as to
avoid imposition of operating restrictions (i.e., maximum permissible take off weight) and to accommodate
changing fleet mix and traffic type, without having to impact on surrounding communities.
Exhibit 3.2.14.2 provides examples of the approximate land areas for airports as a function of the number cf
runways. This should really be read as minimum areas. Except those airports that were planned to be very
large and had access to a lot of available land, if asked, almost every airport would indicate that they are
undersized.

Exhibit 3.2.14.2: Airport Land Area as a Function of Number of Runways for Selected
Airports
Airport No. of Total Annual Total Annual Pax. Total Annual Land Area
Runways Mvts. (mppa) Cargo (ha)
Europe
CDG 4 491,346 61.6 2,150,950 3,257
ARN 3 207,000 19.6 146,000 3,100
AMS 5 423,400 51.0 1,500,000 2,787
FRA 4 482,000 57.5 2,066,432 2,160
MAD 4 373,185 45.1 359,362 1,925
ATH 2 153,295 12.9 76,424 1,700
FCO 4 313,850 37.1 135,847 1,600
AYT 2 160,984 25.1 325,362 1,586
MUC 2 398,039 38.3 290,301 1,575
ORY 3 233,981 27.2 105,672 1,540
BCN 3 290,004 35.1 96,519 1,533
OSL 2 230361 22.0 104,543 1,300
BRU 3 223,431 19.0 459,265 1,245
LHR 2 471,341 70.0 1,460,000 1,227
CPH 3 253,762 22.7 330,000 1,180
VIE 2 244,650 22.1 252,276 1,000
1ST 3 349,000 45.0 1,231,000 947
MAN 2 168,883 19.7 103,000 883
ZRH 3 270,027 24.8 454,000 880
PMI 2 173,957 22.6 13,711 767
LGW 1 256,987 34.2 88,111 674
North America
DEN 6 618,257 53.1 521,793 14,000
DFW 7 650,124 58.6 663,302 6,963
ORD 7 878,108 66.8 1,443,281 2,833
SFO 4 424,566 44.4 380,791 2,104
JFK 4 401,950 49.3 1,283,663 1,995
ATL 5 930,310 95.5 646,481 1,902
YYZ 5 433,990 34.9 482,518 1,867
LAX 4 605,480 63.7 1,866,432 1,443
MIA 4 389,467 38.3 2,030,793 1,307
LAS 4 527,739 41.6 91,000 1,100
Asia & Pacific
ICN 3 254,037 38.9 2,456,724 6,070
DEL 3 295,500 35.9 568,400 2,112
CGK 2 381,168 53.7 342,473 1,800
PEK 3 557,167 81.9 1,787,027 1,480
SIN 2 324,700 51.2 1,810,000 1,300
HKG 2 352,000 56.5 4,025,000 1,255
KIX 2 128,729 16.7 687,425 1,055

Airport No. of Total Annual Total Annual Pax. Total Annual Land Area
Runways Mvts. (mppa) Cargo (ha)
NRT 2 208,704 32.8 1,952,207 940
SYD 3 300,467 36.9 444,320 905
Africa & Middle East
DXB 2 344,245 57.7 2,279,624 3,500
Latin America
GRU 2 273,884 32.8 544,930 1,400
MEX 2 377,743 29.5 397,018 750
Source: IATA
3.2.14.2.1 Runway Configuration
The runway configuration and its fit on a site will be a key factor in determining the suitability of a site. The
specific runway configuration adopted will be a function of the capacity that is required. Tables of current best
practice actual and theoretical capacities for various runway configurations are outlined in Exhibit 3.2.7.2.4
Theoretical Capacities for Various Runways. Exhibit 3.2.14.2.1 below also summarizes the advantages
and disadvantages of various configurations.
Exhibit 3.2.14.2.1: Runway Configuration Assessment Table
Runway Configuration Advantages Disadvantages

Single Runway
• Lesser impact on environment • Airport capacity restricted by
due to reduced apron area and single runway traffic movements
reduced mvts./hr. capability
MaJIESL'-; , — N • Runway utilization often high • Runway emergencies and
maintenance more difficult to
• Recommended choice of IATA
—| T manage
(subject to capacity
requirements) • Cross wind take off and landing
can present problems
Open “V" to "L" Runways
• Increased runway mvts/hr • Has larger impact on
yields increased airport environment than a single
capacity runway and some parallel
runway configurations
• Varied runway orientations can
overcome seasonal prevailing • Layout occupies larger apron
cross wind problems area
• Runway emergencies and • Does not naturally lend itself tc
maintenance easier to manage efficient apron expansion
(subject to case)
• One runway will always be more
• Both runways can be used compromised to prevailing wind
simultaneously (subject to ATC direction
limitations)
• Aircraft crash at apex of “V” to
“L” can render both runways
inoperative


Intersecting Runways
• Varied runway orientations can • Both runways cannot be used
overcome seasonal prevailing simultaneously
cross wind problems
• Has larger impact on
• Runway emergencies and environment than single or
maintenance easier to manage parallel runway configurations
(subject to case)
• Occupies larger apron area than
single runway or parallel runway
configurations
• Does not naturally lend itself tc
efficient apron expansion
• One runway will always be more
compromised to prevailing wind
direction
• Aircraft crash at intersect point
can render both runways
inoperative
Staggered Runways
• Runway utilization can be high • Cross wind take off and landing
• Runway emergencies and
maintenance easier to manage
• Dedicated take off and landing
runway operations promote
safer multiple runway
operations
• Runway layout naturally lends
itself to efficient apron
expansion
requirements)
Dual Parallel
• Runway utilization can be high • Cross wind take off and landing
• Runway emergencies and
• Dedicated take off and landing
runway operations promotes
operations
• Runway layout naturally lends
expansion.
requirements)


Multiple Parallel
Runway utilization can be high Cross wind take off and landing
Runway emergencies and
Dedicated take off and landing
runway operations promote
operations.
Runway layout naturally lends
expansion
Recommended choice of IATA
requirements)
Source: Amended from ADRM, 9th Edition and Images from FAA (1,3, 5 & 6) & Eurocontrol (2 & 4)
3.2.14.3 External Considerations
3.2.14.3.1 External Conditions
The need for a new airport may be determined by external conditions such as a political decision to close the
existing airport because of encroachment by a city.
That said, it is unusual for small airports to relocate unless there are limiting factors that completely restrict
capacity enhancement (e.g., lack of available land for development). In addition, small airports with passenger
numbers below approximately 10 million passengers per annum may not be able to afford to change
locations, unless government assistance is provided.
When external conditions drive the need for a new airport, a risk for the airport operator and for airlines is
created. The risk is that the old airport stays open, although there was an initial commitment to close it. There
are examples of this all over the world.
This risk creates the potential for duplication of operating costs and competition issues, potentially for both the
airport operator and airlines. A multi-airport approach, when existing or projected traffic demand does not
justify this, is an outcome that all stakeholders should work to avoid.
Recommendation: Multi-airport Systems

Multi-airport systems should only exist where there is no possibility of operating from a single airport. A multi
airport system needs to have sufficient traffic volume (20 to 30 mppa) to support entirely independent
operations. Success will be heavily dependent on each facility securing the support of a major network
carrier or an alliance grouping, and many high-volume individual routes operating to both airports would be
needed.

3.2.14.3.2 Strategic Vision
The airport's strategic visior may also be a factor in determining the size of the site:
• Is the new airport planned to replace an existing airport or augment it?
• What are the strategic goals of the airport?
• How far into the future will the airport be planned to serve the traffic growth?
Part of the strategic analysis should be the development of the case for the new airport, including the
justification for its development.
Taking all the above into consideration, the planners should develop an initial program definition for the new
airport that would include:
• Ultimate development in terms of annual passengers, numbers of runways, etc.
• Initial development phase; and
• Preliminary sketch drawings of the phases, including approximate runway orientation and separation.
With this program definition, the approximate land area requirements will be determined.
Exhibit 3.2.14.3.2a is an example of a 4,800 hectare site, showing the DNL 65-75 contours. Even with a site
that size, the noise impact of the airport extends beyond the airport boundary. To protect the airport from
encroachment by development, in a perfect world, the site would be large enough to contain the noise
impacted areas.

Exhibit 3.2.14.3.2a: Example of a 4,800 ha Airport Site

Exhibit 3.2.14.3.2b is an example of how a four runway configuration completely uses the 4,800 hectare site.
Exhibit 3.2.14.3.2b: Example of Four Runway Configuration on 4,800 ha Site
Source: Asterion/Leigh Fisher
3.2.14.4 Site Selection Process
The evaluation of alternative greenfield sites needs to be methodical, quantitative, transparent and well-
documented. A greenfield site involves large costs. These need to be accurately quantified to ensure that
development is ultimately affordable to all stakeholders. Almost any site recommended will be challenged on
distance from the urban area, cost and environmental impact. A strong planning team and a detailed
approach are needed to provide governments, users and other stakeholders with reassurance that the
selection was effectively carried out.
With the initial determination of the area required, it is possible to start the site selection process.

3.2.14.4.1 Steps Required
Criteria for preliminary site evaluation should be developed. These include:
• Minimum area required; and
• Distance/travel time from urban area.
Using this initial set of criteria a short list of possible sites can be prepared. There are a number of basic steps
that have to be taken in turn to determine which shortlisted sites offer the most potential to satisfy the growth
requirements of both airlines and airport authorities alike:
• Development of detailed weighting criteria;

• Data collection and analysis from each site; and
• Preliminary land use layouts.
3.2.14.4.2 Weighting Criteria
Additional criteria, over and above those identified in earlier sub-chapters, will be required for the site
selection of a greenfield airport. These include:
• Geology, topography and obstacles;
• Meteorological conditions;
• Airspace;
• Financial considerations;
• Operational efficiencies:
• Land use compatibility; and
• Social considerations.
3.2.14.4.3 Geology, Topography and Obstacles
Significant variations in site elevations will need to be recorded as these will determine the amount of material
that will be required to be excavated, transported or filled in order to produce a graded site capable of
supporting aircraft operations. Soil conditions, particularly the ability of the site's various terrains and substrata
to safely and adequately support the loads imposed by aircraft, vehicular traffic movements and building
structures need to be determined.
Some terrain may be of low bearing quality and may influence the planner's choice as to where best to locate
a major runway without incurring additional construction costs. Soil analysis and borings will influence which
areas to map out for runway development. Soil composition/quality is an important cost factor in determining
the type of construction materials required. The presence or absence of water on the site is also an important
element to take into consideration.

Visibility and ceiling heights are very much affected by weather, obstacles and terrain. Obstacles often
represent serious constraints to an optimal layout of runways or may in some circumstances reduce runway
operational capabilities. ICAO Annex. 14 specifies that airspace around airports should remain free of
obstacles so as to permit the intended aircraft operations to be conducted safely and to prevent the airport
from becoming unusable by the growth of the obstacles around the airport. Criteria for evaluating such
obstacles are contained in the ICAO document Procedures for Air Navigation Services-Aircraft Operations
(PANS OPS). Features within the natural landscape may also influence the orientation or length of proposed
runways. While small obstructions can be removed, cost and the subsequent additional benefits obtained will
be the determining factors v/hen considering removal. The requirements for obstacle limitation surfaces are
specified by the intended use of a runway (i.e., take off or landing and type of approach) and are intended to
be applied when such use is made of the runway. In many countries, all approaches and departures are
conducted under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) and limited straight-in approaches and defined departure
routes.
3.2.14.4.4 Meteorological Conditions
The main criteria for the orientation of runways are the prevailing winds. Historical data will have to be
retrieved to determine their direction, frequency and strength. As a general rule, the principal traffic runway at
an airport should be oriented as closely as practicable in the direction of the prevailing winds. ICAO specifies
that runways should be oriented so aircraft may land with cross wind components of 20 km/hr or less at least
95 percent of the time for runways of 1,500 meters or more. Optimum runway directions are determined by
using a wind rose.
Fog, turbulence and abnormal rainfall may at times also reduce the capacity of runways. In order for airlines
to maintain regular schedules during adverse weather conditions, airports are equipped with approach aids.
The category of these aids depends on both the sophistication of the equipment installed at the airport and on
board the aircraft. This determines the minimum visibility required for an aircraft to be able to land.
The approach minima, as prescribed by ICAO in their Annex. 14, are acceptable only when full facilities are
installed and no objects penetrate obstacle clearance surfaces. Category III requires much more sophisticated
equipment, which is not commonly installed at airports or in the aircraft using them. Given the small benefit
that Category III gives compared to its costs, it is usually not installed at most airports. Cat. Ill is most
prevalent in Europe where it is a necessity for the airlines to maintain normal schedules in poor weather
conditions.
In general terms, high temperatures will impact on the length of runway required, the positions of rapid exit
taxiways and the distances that can be traversed by aircraft while taxiing. High temperatures result in lower air
densities which in turn cause lower engine thrust. When determining runway length a correction factor needs
to be applied on temperatures above 15 degrees Celsius or 59 degrees Fahrenheit. Airports that experience
excessively high temperatures during the day may find that their operations are restricted due to insufficient
runway length being available to support maximum possible take off weights. In these instances, cargo
volumes and/or passenger numbers may be restricted or operations may only be cost-effective during cooler
early morning or late evening periods. Altitude, and its resulting effects on air pressure and other temperature
factors, also plays an important role in determining the most effective runway configuration for a given facility.

3.2.14.4.5 Airspace
Each airport has to coexist and operate within national or international air traffic systems. Individual airports
utilize vast areas of airspace in order to accommodate the procedures required to allow aircraft to approach,
hold, land and take off. As a result, any extensive growth plan should be discussed and carefully coordinated
with the relevant ANSP, such that feasible recommendations can be developed and impractical concepts
eliminated. Coordination may also be required with military-controlled airspace.
3.2.14.4.6 Financial Considerations
The potential viability of the new airport should be assessed, including an initial capital cost estimate and a
preliminary discussion of the source of funding.
Financial considerations include both capital requirements and operating costs.
For greenfield sites, remote locations may involve significant startup costs including, but not limited to:
• Land acquisition;
• Site clearance;
• Topographical manipulation;
• Surface access provision;
• Primary utility connections and/or self-generated power; and
• Self-contained water and sewage treatment plants.
The additional capital and associated operating costs as well as the source and means of financing, will need
to be evaluated to determine if these render the Greenfield option unaffordable.
For many greenfield sites, unless the initial traffic levels are high because of the closure of the old airport,
self-financing through airport charges will be difficult or impossible. Therefore, government financial support or
other forms of contribution will be required.
One recommended approach is to use the proceeds from the sale of land or facilities at the former site to
offset the cost of new facilities.
3.2.14.4.7 Operational Efficiencies
Some sites will be superior to other sites in terms of serving the operational needs of the airport. The shape
and orientation of the sites will have an impact on the layout of the airport and its operational efficiency.

3.2.14.4.8 Land Use Compatibility
The land uses in the areas around the prospective airport sites should be a consideration in evaluating
alternatives. The evaluation should include elements such as existing environmental constraints (e.g., bird
migration routes, etc). A preferred site should be surrounded by:
• Compatible land uses; and
• Committed land (i.e., land that is not available for future development for incompatible uses.
In addition, an assessment of the compatibility of the site with the broader plans of the region should be part
of the evaluation.
3.2.14.4.9 Social Considerations
There may be differentiation from site to site in terms of social impacts. If this is the case, social
considerations should be part of the evaluation criteria.
3.2.14.5 Data Collection
Sufficient data will need to be collected from each site to enable the evaluation criteria to be used to assess
the site.
3.2.14.6 Preliminary Airport Layouts and Land Use
Before the sites can be fully evaluated and a recommendation made on the optimum site, a preliminary airport
layout on each site will be need to be undertaken, taking into consideration:
• Size and scale of airport facilities being planned;
• Area and shape of available land;
• Topography and site soil conditions;
• Obstacles;
• Meteorology;
• Operational efficiency;
• Surrounding land uses; and
• Timing and scale of phased development of the airport
At this alternative development stage, the key airport elements will be the primary focus (e.g., airfield,
passenger terminal and surface access).

3.2.15 References
Annex. 14 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation-Volume 1 Aerodrome Design and Operations,
International Civil Aviation Organization, Fifth Edition-July 2009.
3.3 Airside Infrastructure

Under development. To be released in a future roll-out
3.4 Passenger Terminal
3.4.1 Introduction
Contemporary airport passenger terminals serve many different functions, accommodate a wide variety of
stakeholders who frequently have diverging objectives, and have to respond to one of the world's most
dynamic industries. Airport terminals need to be functionally and operationally efficient, commercially viable
and offer passengers as effortless and straightforward a travel experience as possible.
This chapter of the Airport Development Reference Manual (ADRM) addresses the key requirements
associated with typical airport passenger terminals and provides guidance on many of the specific challenges
associated with airport facilities.
Note: The ADRM does not provide a definitive guide on how to design an airport terminal and it is not
intended to be used in that context.
Although many airport terminals face similar design challenges, every airport is unique and has to satisfy
many varying parameters, including:
• Volumes of passenger traffic in annual, busy (design) hour and peak hour numbers;
• Growth projections with different design and construction phasing requirements;
• Compositions of aircraft fleet traffic (e.g., wide-body/narrow-body/regional);
• Mixes of passenger traffic (e.g., domestic/international, long haul/short haul, origin and destination,
transfer, first-class/business class/premium economy/economy);
• Types of airline operations (e.g., multiple carriers/dominant alliances, full-service airlines, New Model
Airlines, home-based carriers);
• Environmental and sustainability objectives;
• Local, regional and national security/immigration/emigration/customs requirements;
• Adoption of Internet processing facilities, self-service desks, self-service bag drop facilities and biometric
immigration/emigration facilities;

Planning— Passenger Terminal
• Level of Service standards (e.g., process times, bag drop times, security process times, immigration and
emigration process times and transfer process times);
• Local customs with significantly different numbers of “meeters and greeters” and “well-wishers”;
• Cultural/religious behaviors regarding proximity, orientation and availability of amenities;
• Average number of checked baggage and/or cabin baggage;
• Requirements for “front of house" or "back of house” checked baggage screening;
• Demand and opportunity for retail and food & beverage offers;
• Perspectives on utilization of advanced technology/engineering systems; and

• Kinds of intermodal connections to public transit, vehicles, rail, etc
As a consequence of these numerous variables, it is wholly misleading to surmise that the rigid application of
the information contained within the ADRM will necessarily deliver the most appropriate solution.
Recommendation: Experienced Professional Assistance

It is strongly recommended that appropriate benchmarks be rigorously reviewed and critiqued and that any
commissioning airline, airport or government authority select professionals with ample relevant experience to
assist them.
Nevertheless, the challenges faced by each airport are frequently similar. Consequently, with reference to
international best practices and targeted benchmarking, it is possible to gather a broad set of design guidance
principles. These form the basis for the recommendations contained in the ADRM.
3.4.2 Terminal Design Considerations
3.4.2.1 Terminal Concept and Processes
The planning and configuration of passenger terminals must be related closely to the runway/taxiway system,
apron configuration and airport access (road and rail) systems. In design “FORM FOLLOWS FUNCTION”. So,
the requirements of the airport operation and how the major airline users operate within the airport complex
must be fully understood. The basic operational strategies and priorities of the major airlines need to be
understood in order to fully appreciate the terminal's required functionality. The dominant type of operation,
such as transfer hub versus origin and destination airport, and the associated differences in passenger
requirements, should be taken into consideration. Understanding the “right” functionality will play an important
role in the layout and flexibility of the airport terminal building. As discussed in the Master Planning chapter of
the ADRM, the types and category of aircraft that can be accommodated by the runway system/configuration
will significantly influence the appropriate terminal concept layout.

3.4.2.1.2 Key Functions
The passenger terminal complex is fundamentally a series of interconnected subsystems. Ideally, each
subsystem is capable of expansion as and when demand dictates. The interconnected sub systems include:
• Ground transportation systems (e.g., vehicles, rail, etc.);
• The main terminal spaces. For departing passengers, this comprises the departures forecourt and
departures hall and any associated commercial (i.e., retail and food & beverage) offerings. For arriving
passengers, this comprises the Arrivals Hall and Forecourt (for "meeters and greeters") and the related
commercial spaces);
• Outbound (emigration) and Inbound (immigration) inspection services (i.e., security checks on departures
and health checks, immigration and customs control on arrivals),
• Primary and centralized lounges to accommodate airside waiting prior to boarding (i.e., the main
departure lounge and the associated retail and food & beverage offerings);
• Secondary and dispersed lounges (i.e., finger piers and/or satellites containing gate lounges). These
zones can also contain associated commercial offerings; and
• Baggage Handling System (BHS) to collect, screen, sort, store, transfer and deliver bags to aircraft on
departures, and on arrivals to unload and deliver bags into the terminal for redistribution back to
passengers.
As developed further in this sub-chapter, certain basic criteria should be observed in the selection of a
terminal concept and the planning of passenger terminals. The criteria include those considerations outlined
below.
(a) Modularity and Expandability
Each of the interconnected subsystems in an airport terminal is subject to modification and therefore
requires the integration of tangible methodologies to adjust, grow and adapt. Whether it is a capacity
enhancement issue (i.e., more security screening positions) or a change in security protocol (i.e., more
detailed search criteria), utilizing modular building design, materials and systems is one proven way to
accommodate changes over time. Another way to improve adaptability of the basic building to collocate
“fixed” facilities like structural elements, mechanical systems and vertical circulation cores, with
designated internal “growth” zones in the form of atriums or interstitial spaces that can absorb expansion
capability within the building without unnecessarily disrupting existing airline operations and/or functions.
In this way, new regulatory developments and changes in the nature and volume of passenger flows can
be readily and quickly accommodated without the need for wholesale changes to existing facilities or for
constructing “more building”.
Recommendation: Modularity
It is recommended that, on an unconstrained “greenfield” or “bluesea” site, a plan be based on modular
flexibility and expandability reflected in a single terminal complex or “campus” capable of accommodating the
entire site's passenger handling needs. The goal is always to deliver excellent passenger service and
experience, and the most effective and efficient operations. To achieve this, the functions that drive airport
and airline operations need to be fully understood and incorporated into the design and development.

(b) Compatibility and Flexibility
Contact stands and parking positions for aircraft should be designed with built-in flexibility to
accommodate larger future-generation aircraft. Current longer length variants such as the B737-900,
A340-600 and B777-9X need to be considered. Piers and satellites should have expansion zones
reserved in order to allow for flexibility. Gate lounge areas within these facilities need to provide the same
flexibility. This will ensure that existing and proposed facilities have the ability to accommodate varying
aircraft types and differing traffic mixes.
(c) Cost-Effective Design Solutions
Capital expenditure (CAPEX) proposals to extend or construct new passenger terminal facilities should be
substantiated by a business case and cost-benefit analysis that has been vetted and agreed to by the
user community. The business case must demonstrate and quantify clear benefits in terms of increased
capacity to satisfy existing and projected demand, improved passenger experience and operational
efficiency.
As previously outlined, it is preferable that new construction be viewed as an additional module to an

existing but expandable operational system. Design, management and construction costs should be
optimized by adopting a repetitive, low risk approach that should not adversely impact existing operations.
Expensive, above-average cost solutions with unique “one off’ architectural fixtures and fittings or
engineering features should be avoided. Highly functional and aesthetically pleasing design solutions that
provide an atmosphere that enhances the passenger experience will provide a competitive advantage that
will benefit and reflect positively on all stakeholders.
(d) Centralization
In the process of planning a terminal concept, airport authorities and/or their consultants must consider
the functionality needed to support the strategic goals of their airline business partners. This will include
determining the degree of centralization of the processing activity required, or the degree that can be
accommodated by the base carrier, alliance partnerships and other carriers by physical as well as
technological means.
In centralized terminal concepts, all the major components (i.e., surface access systems, passenger
processing and BHS) are located in a single passenger terminal complex, independent of any particular
traffic segment (i.e., domestic, international, short-haul, long-haul, etc.). In a centralized terminal, airlines
and alliances can avoid unnecessary duplication of activities, common facilities can be shared and
associated CAPEX and resulting charges can be optimized to the benefit of the aviation community.
3.4.2.1.3 Passenger Segregation
When developing plans for expanded terminal capacity, either through an extension to an existing facility or
construction of a new terminal area, the requirement to physically separate non secure arriving and transfer
passengers from departing security-screened passengers must be taken into consideration. The preferred
solution is to segregate the different passenger flows on different levels of the facility. Other less optimal
solutions use other means of physical separation (e.g., glazed screens, etc.).

3.4.2.1.4 Wayfinding and Passenger Orientation
The simplest decision is “no decision”. A good example is limiting the number of air terminals at any given
airport to one. Similarly “straight ahead” is always the simplest way to maintain passenger orientation. Many
of the most successful air terminal facilities employ these key design principles.
When it is necessary to make a choice or change direction and/or level, the simplest way to maintain
passenger flow and orientation is to limit the number of choices available. At key decision points the options
should be limited to “A” or “B” (only two choices). Where multiple directional decisions are necessary, these
should be arranged in sequential decision points, each with only an “A” or “B” option.
The best airport terminals are those that provide the most clear and direct path from departures processing to
aircraft gate. Intuitive wayfinding, limiting decision points and using materials, lighting, outdoor views and
other physical directional queues that enhance passenger orientation is significantly more effective than a
reliance on signage. Passenger orientation within the terminal can be greatly enhanced by adopting a
transparent building philosophy. There is no simpler way to orientate passengers than to allow them to see
their final destination. For departing and transfer passengers, this means views of aircraft. For arriving
passengers, this means sight lines toward landside surface access systems and/or “meeter/greeter” areas.
Directional information should only be needed to support ancillary facilities that may be away from the
primary, clearly evident circulation routes (i.e., to information/transfer counters, Commercially Important
Passenger (CIP) lounges, toilets and associated support services, etc.).
To avoid confusion, passengers should not be subjected to changes in direction greater than 90 degrees and
should not be made to perform repeated 90-degree turns within a short distance. In no instance should
passengers have to backtrack or walk against passenger flows.
(a) Passenger Cross-flows
Situations where passenger movement routes cross must be avoided to limit confusion and congestion.
Movement flows also include routes for people with reduced mobility and assisted vehicular passenger
transfers. Where it is impossible to avoid cross-flows, it is imperative to provide sufficient space to amply
absorb the volume of people.
(b) Minimized Travel Distances
Airports are daunting places, even for those without mobility challenges. Walking distances from the
forecourt to the gate and vice versa should be minimized. Convoluted circulation routes that include
changes in direction or level negatively impact orientation. Walking distances in excess of 300 meters
should always be augmented with moving walkways.
At all times where departing and arriving passengers must transport their checked baggage they should
be provided with baggage trolleys. Terminal conveyance systems (i.e., elevators, escalators and moving
walkways) should permit passenger movement without the need to off-load and reload trolleys when
changing levels. Circulation routes should also permit passengers to pass one another, with or without
baggage trolleys.
On the airside of the passenger terminal complex, baggage trolleys should be smaller to assist with
permitted cabin baggage, and they should be easily accommodated within all concession outlets.

Passenger flow routes should be clear and easily understood. Concession areas along the way to
passenger boarding areas should be convenient and available to passengers without impeding direct
access to gates, or increasing the overall walking distance. Passengers who wish to make quick, easy
and direct routings through terminals should be accommodated. Dedicated “fast-track” procedures,
especially for CIPs, should be considered.
(c) Minimal Level Changes
If possible, departing and arriving passengers should not be required to change levels. The use of ramps
to facilitate such level changes is encouraged where the overall walking distance is not increased
excessively.
In cases where difficult site conditions, existing operations or building structures leave no alternative, then
level changes should be achieved by modes of conveyance (i.e., escalators and elevators) with an
associated staircase and/or ramp as backup should the mechanical devices fail.
3.4.2.1.5 Aircraft Methods of Access
There are two primary aircraft access methods: Passenger Boarding Bridges (PBB) and aircraft stairs.
It is important to understanc the impact of these methods in the full context of the function of the airport.
Airport operators, airlines and agents/ground handlers that use the boarding areas and associated gates will
be the primary stakeholders determining the appropriate access methods to be utilized. Ongoing research
continues to indicate that access to the aircraft via a PBB is perceived by most passengers to offer the best
level of service. However, it is still quite common for smaller aircraft (under 75 passengers) to be boarded
directly from the apron utilizing remote or aircraft stairs. In addition, New Model Airlines tend to prefer apron
boarding to minimize aircraft turnaround times. Nevertheless, PBB use enhances safety and security and
provides a perceived greater service level.
“Contact stands” are aircraft parking stands that can be accessed directly from the terminal or satellite
building without recourse to a busing operation. Aircraft on stands that are accessed via a passenger bus are
deemed to be parked on “remote” “stands”. Inactive aircraft are often “pushed back” onto remote stands to
allow other active aircraft to utilize a contact stand. Apron boarding stands adjacent to and accessed directly
from the terminal are also deemed “contact stands” but are not necessarily provided with a PBB.
Recommendation: Contact Stands Designed for Passenger Boarding Bridges

It is recommended that all contact stands be designed to accommodate a passenger boarding bridge even if
the boarding bridge is not initially installed.
The passenger throughput of the overall airport, the airlines' preferences and the aircraft types served, in
addition to the various physical and operational aspects of the terminal building in relation to the apron area,
all play a role in determining the type, size and number of boarding bridges that will be installed per contact
stand. Many models of passenger boarding bridges are designed to serve a range of aircraft and sizes by
providing a telescoping mechanism that will reach all aircraft types within the limits of the available distance
from the building to sill height of the aircraft door. Other features relate to the anchoring support system

mechanism and functional requirements for the range of maneuverability. Some designs address baggage
handling requirements (e.g. last-minute checked baggage). Some passenger boarding bridges are designed
with a mechanical system that allows the mechanism to glide up and down the face of the terminal building
(called a luffing mechanism) to accommodate the boarding and deplaning of passengers at segregated levels
of the passenger terminal building. PBB manufacturers also offer a range of enclosure options including
glazed walls to allow the passengers views to the aircraft and apron as they move through the bridge.
Levels of service for apron boarding operations can be augmented by various passenger protection devices.
Access to similar sized, smaller aircraft adjacent to or near the terminal building may be enhanced with a
covered or enclosed walkway that provides protection from inclement weather. The protected walkway may
extend from the base of the terminal building to the foot of the aircraft stairway. At remote stands, aircraft
stairs may be covered
When evaluating various aircraft methods of access, the following issues must be considered:
(a) Passenger boarding bridge
• Sizes of aircraft to be served;
• Single or multiple bridges to accommodate larger wide-body aircraft or multiple aircraft using a single
stand (Multiple Aircraft Receiving Stands-MARS);
• Types of bridges per manufacturer;
• Local and national codes and regulations governing the acceptable slope of the boarding bridge and
safety requirements related to fuelling and jet blast;
• Passengers, including those with reduced mobility, and last-minute baggage handling;
• Access to the ramp for airline and ground handling staff;
• Exiting requirements where boarding bridge systems are deemed part of the terminal building
emergency evacuation route; and
• Maintenance and reliability;
(b) Apron boarding
• Type of stairs (aircraft or remote);
• Accessibility for passengers with reduced mobility (PRMs);

• Weather protection to the aircraft or at the aircraft stairs; and
• Busing operations to remote stand positions;
(c) Aircraft/airline preference

• Possible rear aircraft door access for enplaning/deplaning;
• Access for ramp servicing vehicles (e.g., fuelling, catering, etc.);
• Airline operations, crew and ramp personnel; and
• Self-boarding/card readers and other technology.

IA TA A Planning— Passenger Terminal
Exhibit 3.4.2.1.5: Incheon Airport, Self-boarding and Document Check
Source: Incheon Airport
3.4.2.1.6 Operating, Maintaining and Servicing the Air Terminal
(a) Objectives
All terminals must be planned for efficient and uninterrupted operations. Standard Operating Procedures
(SOPs) must be developed and implemented to mitigate the negative effects of irregular operations
(IROPs) and unexpected events such as natural disasters.
Access to the landside, terminal and airside facilities must plan to accommodate all types of emergency
vehicles (e.g., ambulance, fire, etc.).
(b) Terminal Building Assets
The multitude of building components (i.e., structural, mechanical, electrical, lighting and plumbing
systems, baggage and IT equipment, materials, fixtures, furnishings and cladding) will require different
forms of maintenance to ensure their cleanliness, safe functioning and long-term effectiveness.
Maintenance regimes will vary depending on many factors including but not limited to:
• Usage (system operations space vs. public space);

• Materials (details, connections, durability);
• Location (interior or exterior, height, climate factors); and
• Age of assets.
For expansion and renovation projects to existing facilities, it is recommended that project teams and
design consultants meet frequently with existing airport maintenance experts to understand the issues
and lessons learned for that particular facility.
For new terminals, researching and vetting should include not only how materials and systems will
perform, but also the means and methods for ongoing maintenance. This critical analysis should be
started in the concept planning and design phases. Engaging with the airport's facilities department

experts should continue periodically throughout the design and construction process, including through
commissioning of the building. Project handover should include suitable inventories of assets and
maintenance schedules.
(c) Other Airport Assets
In addition to the terminal building, the following airport assets should be considered during planning and
design in terms of ease of access and level of effort/expense to maintain. At a minimum, the following
should be included in the airport active maintenance programs:
• Building utility infrastructure (water supplies and power);
• Roads, tunnels and bridges;

• Staff and passenger fire escapes;
• Passenger boarding bridges; and
• IT infrastructure.
The following apron systems must also be considered with regard to maintenance:
• Taxiway lighting and control;
• Runway lighting and control;

• Perimeter fencing and security detection;
• Access control systems;
• Fire services systems;

• Storm water collection and treatment;
• Sewage treatment and disbursal system; and
• Fuel farm and fuel delivery systems.
3.4.2.1.7 Sizing of Facilities
Right-sizing terminal facilities requires a blend of research, calculation, modeling (simulation) and, in
particular, experience. A fundamental understanding of the operational parameters needed to serve
passengers and aircraft is mandatory. The different functions that support the movement of passengers from
the landside forecourt to and from aircraft as described and illustrated throughout this document, each require
special attention. Each of these functions also occupy different spaces and the criteria that drive these spaces
must be based on a full understanding of the functions that take place in a particular space. This functional
understanding is particularly complex as the aviation industry continues to evolve. Process improvements and
innovations impact many of the key functional spaces in today's air terminals.
In particular, departing passenger processing has changed dramatically. Increasing numbers of travelers no
longer “check-in” (obtain a boarding pass and tag their checked luggage) at the terminal building. Innovations
such as “web check-in”, common use self-service (CUSS) kiosks and “bag drop” zones are having a dramatic
impact on the traditional “check-in” process. As a result, the spaces that must accommodate this are also

evolving. Indeed, future terminals are likely to feature only Self-Service Bag Drop units as passengers will
arrive at the terminal with all processes complete and will only need to introduce their self-tagged bags into
the Baggage Handling System (BHS). In some cases, passengers may no longer be required to bring their
checked luggage to the airport at all, but will send this on ahead to meet them at their final destination. These
process changes are already having a dramatic impact on the functions and space requirements of the air
terminal’s departing passenger areas.
Other major terminal processing areas that will see a considerable amount of evolutionary change in the
coming years are:
• Security screening areas (e.g. “Smart Security”, a joint program between IATA and ACI)
• Immigration and customs areas due to process automation such as “Trusted Traveler” programs; and
• Baggage claim areas (see the “IATA Baggage Book”)
Process improvements will change how these areas function. The purpose of these modified functions is to
remove choke points and bottlenecks in today's passenger processing sequences and enhance passenger
throughput and flows. These improvements will allow existing terminals to process more passengers without
the need for physical expansion. However, the overall spatial design must be able to adapt quickly and
effectively to these new processes as they come on line.
It is vital that airport owners and operators as well as design professionals understand these functional
process changes and design the supporting spaces so they can adapt to the evolution of functions throughout
the terminal building. Today, some airport terminal buildings are being designed to accommodate functions
that will no longer exist at airport terminals in the near future. Spaces must be designed to be FLEXIBLE to
allow for simple and straight forward reconfigurations that can easily and cost-effectively accommodate the
evolving airport functionality.
The factors that most significantly impact the size of a terminal facility are:
• The current and future capacity of the airfield (i.e., runway, taxiway systems);
• The types of aircraft (size/capacity) that serve the airport; and
• The “peak hour” flow of passengers through the terminal complex.
Ideally, all of these elements are aligned to ensure that all components work together and support one
another. “Balanced Capacity” is an important aspect of effective airport design (see Chapter 3.2 Master
Planning).
Passenger flow volumes in the air terminal are driven by the capacity of the aircraft that serve the airport. The
frequency and density of air services directly impacts the “peak hour” passenger flow rate through the
building. This determines the terminal capacity needed to handle the volume of passengers in reasonable
timeframes. However, the frequency and density of an airport's air services are related directly back to the
capacity of the airport's runway and taxiway system.
The mix of aircraft types that serve the airport will also influence the configuration and size of the terminal
facility (see Chapter 3.2.7 Requirements Analysis (Master Planning). The types of air services offered at
the airport (e.g., domestic vs. international, transfer vs. origin and destination) will also impact passenger

flows, volumes and routes. It is vital that this information is understood and taken into account in the terminal
design.
Other factors that impact the size and functionality of the terminal are:
• Prevailing passenger profiles (e.g., leisure or business, families, elderly);
• Type of Baggage Handling System (BHS);
• Average number of checked bags per person; and
• Surface access arrival profiles of passengers coming to the airport based on modal split data and/or
surveys.
Passenger throughput calculations are the primary inputs that impact the handling capacity and functionality
of all areas of the terminal. The capacity of the BHS is determined by the volume of checked baggage
processed through the airport. Support functions such as airline offices and other tenant accommodation
spaces are influenced by the number of passengers being served and flights being handled. Types and sizes
of commercial activities such as retail and food & beverage concessions are influenced by the passenger
throughput. Some consideration should also be given to the needs of the airlines and customers during
periods of mass disruption. At these times, volumes will spike to extraordinary levels with an emphasis on
rebooking, reticketing and overnight accommodation for disrupted customers.
Sizing passenger processing spaces within the terminal uses capacity and Level of Service figures to
generate requirements. These are detailed in Chapter 3.4.8 Passenger Process.
3.4.2.2 The Planning Context
3.4.2.2.1 Incremental/Phased Growth
Airports facilities must be designed so they can respond to growth in a logical, phased manner. This is a
fundamental element derived from the airport's Master Plan (see Chapter 3.2 Master Planning).
In order to facilitate future growth, airport owners, developers and designers should seek to ensure that
airports can be expanded incrementally. Additional infrastructure should be added in an economically efficient
manner on a "just in time" basis to meet increasing demand without negatively impacting investments in
earlier facilities. Furthermore, ongoing expansions and development must be planned so as not to negatively
impact on-going airport operations. A comprehensive Master Plan that addresses the phases of development
is crucial. The aim of good terminal design should be that all incremental developments are consistent with
the outcome shown in the Master Plan (see Chapter 3.2 Master Planning).

Airports must accommodate a variety of different facilities and systems to meet specific functional needs.
Each of the following major airport elements needs to be capable of managed phased growth to
accommodate growing demand:
• Airspace availability;
• Airside infrastructure (including runways, taxiways and stands);
• Landside infrastructure (including surface access systems such as roads, rail and car parking); and
• The terminal building.
Each of these elements must be in balance with the others; there is no benefit in having surplus capacity in
one element if others are constrained.
Incremental expansion is also important for other airport facilities. Cargo and catering facilities will require
expansion as air traffic increases. Maintenance hangers will also need to expand in phases dependent on the
aircraft fleet mix serving the airport.
A modular design philosophy enables capacity enhancements to be added to individual subsystems and
facilities without unnecessarily disrupting airline and terminal operations. As a consequence, new regulatory
developments and changes in the nature and volume of passenger flows can be readily and quickly
accommodated.
The defining principle of efficient planning is to have a robust plan that adapts effectively to capacity increases
and process changes without disruption to the airport's fundamental business processes.
3.4.2.2.2 Flexibility
One of the most significant challenges for airports is adapting to change. The aviation industry continues to be
an extremely dynamic business. There will continue to be major changes to the way airlines operate, the way
passengers interact with airlines and the way airlines and passengers use airports. These changes will, in
part, continue to be driven by dramatic developments in technology which will significantly change space
utilization at airports.
Airlines and passengers will continue to challenge airports to optimize their facilities; to generate the most
efficient facilities at the least cost. Given the extremely dynamic nature of the aviation industry, the future
requirements for any airport cannot be predicted with certainty. Airport owners, developers and designers are
faced with the challenge of providing cost-effective airport facilities that offer the greatest possible flexibility.
The most successful airports are able to respond to changing requirements and adapt their facilities with
minimal disruption.
Designing terminal facilities that embrace flexibility is paramount. There are proven methodologies that
enhance flexibility. Large structural spans and “column-free” spaces improve flexibility. However, these
solutions must also be cost-effective. Clustered siting of physical elements that are difficult, costly and
disruptive to relocate (i.e., structural elements, vertical circulation and service cores) is effective. Another

example is the use of vertical partitions that can be moved simply without extraordinary disturbance and
expense.
Building services also need to be designed to allow flexibility. The location of key aspects of the primary plant
should be carefully considered with regard to future expansion. Distribution systems need to balance initial
cost vs. the requirement for future flexibility.
Airports must be designed to minimize the physical constraints each element imposes on future expansion by
ensuring that all elements address flexibility.
3.4.2.2.3 Systems Integration
Technically sophisticated systems are the norm at airports. An extensive variety of data systems support and
enhance the operation of the airport and its partners (i.e., the airlines and other business associates). These
systems include:
• Data management systems including Airport Operational Databases (ADOBs);
• Flight Information Display Systems (FIDS);
• Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) systems;
• Public address systems;
• Fire alarm and evacuation systems;
• Security systems;
• Communication systems;
• Building management systems;
• Crowd management systems; and
• Staff management systems.
Many of these systems exchange data information with each other in order to provide a comprehensive
airport operational system. Integrating and coordinating the input and output of these various data systems is
an important part of comprehensive airport management. Often the core of the data system is the AODB
where all the data comes together to be stored and extracted to other information systems when and as
needed. The extent of integration of the various IT and data systems must be managed to ensure that
systems can also operate independently should one or more of the data systems fail.
The development of new airports and the upgrade/expansion of existing airports requires a dedicated team of
systems experts. Management of projects in large airports frequently also results in a zoned approach. This
allows the system coordination exercise to be managed with fewer components. System management zones
should be discussed with and aligned to those of the airport operational team.
Significant training is required to ensure that airport operators are familiar with and able to make the most of
enhanced systems. This training requirement is a must for a significant part of the start-up ORAT (Operational
Readiness and Trials/Training) program.

3.4.2.2.4 Cost-effectiveness
Airport facilities must provide a cost-effective and fully functional operational solution. As one of the primary
business partners of the airports, airlines want to see that functional requirements are addressed efficiently.
Capital expenditure proposals supporting the provision of new or expanded passenger terminal facilities need
to be accompanied by a robust and quantifiable business case. This must be accompanied by a cost-benefit
analysis that is vetted and has the consensus of the aviation community. The business case must
demonstrate clear benefits in terms of increased capacity commensurate with proven and sustainable trends
in air traffic growth. The objective of both the business case and the CAPEX proposal must be to satisfy
existing and projected demand and improve operational efficiency that results in increased revenue and/or
savings to businesses at the airport
As outlined in Chapter 3.4.2.1 Terminal Concept and Processes, expansions and new construction should
be conceived as additional modules to existing operational facilities and systems. Design, management and
construction costs can be minimized by adopting a repetitive, modular approach that does not adversely
impact existing operations. Simple, functional design philosophies should be adopted.
3.4.2.3 Life Cycle
3.4.2.3.1 Principles
It is important to think beyond a building's first time capital costs and to take into consideration its useful life.
Airport terminals are amortized over extended periods (25+ years) and the costs to maintain and operate
these facilities over their entire lifetime should be part of the business case analysis supporting these facilities.
Life cycle analysis takes into consideration the following elements:

• Initial capital costs for construction, installation, start-up;
• Energy operating costs;
• Repair replacement costs and frequency;
• Manpower operational costs;
• System adaptation costs to accommodate change; and

• Decommissioning costs at the end of useful life.
Life cycle analysis can be either predictive or comparative:
• Comparative life cycle analysis is a design tool for system selection; and
• Predictive life cycle analysis is a way to predict the overall actual costs over the lifetime of a facility.

The assumptions used as the basis of life cycle analyses need to be documented to ensure completeness
and constancy. It is also important that sensitivity to assumptions be tested and documented. Examples of
typical assumptions are the future price of energy (i.e., gas, oil, electricity) and the future cost of labor.
3.4.2.3.2 Design
An air terminal can be evaluated in terms of its internal systems. Each system has a different life cycle. Some
typical life cycle periods are highlighted below in Exhibit 3.4.2.3.2.
Exhibit 3.4.2.3.2: Examples of Typical Life Cycle Periods
Software /Applications
Computers. Servers, IT Hardware
Office Furniture and Equipment
Building Communications Backbone & Cabling
Exterior Coatings, Seals, Sealant & Roofing
Baggage Handling Equipment
Mechanical and Electrical Services Plant
Ductwork, Piping, & Wiring
Effectively indefinite Civil, Structure

i-
10 20 30 40 50 years
Lifetime (years)
Source: HOK
During the concept and design phases of an air terminal project it is important to understand how the specific
systems under consideration will impact the facility's overall operational life.

Comparative life cycle analysis compares the differences between system life cycles to optimize system
selection. The criteria being compared should be a combination of all the applicable parameters to get a full
view of the cost of a system, including:
• Energy;
• Manpower operating costs;
• Maintenance costs;
• Replacement costs;
• Adaptation costs; and
• Decommissioning costs.
Comparative life cycle analysis uses consistent assumptions to establish which system is the most cost-
effective over its life span.
For example, assuming the existing energy cost structures are maintained, System A uses 20 percent less
energy than System B. Therefore, no matter the actual future cost of energy, System A will always be more
cost-effective than System B.
Another example: a certain structural system may provide sufficient adaptability (i.e., open spans and modular
construction) to require no changes over the facility's life span. A different structural solution with an initial
lower cost may limit flexibility and require significant modifications to adapt to changing functional
requirements over a facility's life cycle. The costs of these future structural changes may negate the initial cost
savings of the less expensive structural system.
Predictive life cycle analysis is used to evaluate multiple variables when there are variables that impact
options differently. For example, manpower operating costs, maintenance costs and energy prices may all
vary in different ways. In such cases, sensitivities combined with agreed upon assumptions will give a clearer
picture of the preferred design option. In addition, the exercise will also provide a range of operating cost
data.
When using predictive life cycle analysis, it is important to agree upon and record assumptions about the
variables being considered. Examples of such variables include:
• Weather extremes or fluctuations;

• Energy costs;
• Labor costs;
• Unscheduled maintenance (repairs);
• Operational changes;
• Impact of irregular operations (IROPs);

• Cost of future construction work and disruption; and
• Changing regulatory or security requirements.

3.4.2.3.3 Commissioning
Thorough commissioning is essential to obtaining optimum life cycle cost results.
Commissioning covers the full range of operational systems within the terminal complex. Commissioning is a
thorough process whereby every individual system is first tested separately and then together with all other
systems to verify its performance. Commissioning also requires testing of the interrelationships between
various systems to ensure that the whole is operating as predicted in normal, irregular and emergency
circumstances.
Commissioning should not be confused with operational trials. Operational trails are a separate process
whereby actual systems are used by trail “passengers” to evaluate the readiness of a facility for actual live
operations. Trials are part of the Operational Readiness (ORAT) Program.
3.4.2.3.4 Adaptation
In air terminal complexes it is important to provide sufficient flexibility to allow primary systems to adapt to
changing circumstances without the need for additional major capital investment. When performing life cycle
analysis, change scenarios must be taken into consideration. The analysis will look at the capital cost of
additional flexibility and expandability versus the future cost of renovations and expansion.
3.4.2.3.5 Decommissioning
The final element of a life cycle cost analysis is the cost of decommissioning a system or building element
once it has reached beyond its useful life. A complete life cycle analysis must consider how systems will be
replaced and include this cost in the analysis.
3.4.2.4 Environmental Sustainability
3.4.2.4.1 Concept
Integrating sustainability in aviation requires a holistic approach in addressing three key aviation industry
components: aircraft, airports and infrastructure. The most comprehensive approach needs to address issues
of greenhouse gas emissions, noise, local air quality and natural resource conservation.
The aviation industry has achieved major improvements in its environmental performance. Today's aircraft are
75 percent quieter than 50 years ago and 70 percent more fuel efficient than the first jet aircraft. Emissions
from aircraft engines have been reduced through the introduction of improved engine designs. Over time, this
has gradually reduced the emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and carbon monoxide (CO) and has almost
completely eliminated emissions of unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and smoke. In addition to the development
and introduction of new aircraft designs and technologies, the industry is working hard to further mitigate its
environmental impact through flight and on-ground operational and management practices.

Even though much of the aviation industry's environmental impact relates to operations outside the airport's
building infrastructure (i.e., aircraft and ground-handling operations), airport operators and aviation industry
stakeholders are realizing that designing and operating airport buildings sustainably and efficiently is a
significant component of their environmental responsibility. The industry as a whole is working together to
mitigate its environmental impact in both the transportation and building sectors. Airports are a critical
component in driving sustainability in aviation. All across the globe, airport operators are recognizing that
partnership and collaboration among all stakeholders is an essential factor in achieving its environmental
responsibility goals.
3.4.2.4.2 Efficient Use of Resources
The strategic and efficient use of resources in aviation includes both the protection of natural resources and
reduction in demand for natural assets. A balanced approach is key to successful outcomes. This approach
needs to include:
• Economic viability;
• Operational efficiency;
• Natural resource conservation; and
• Social responsibility.
This is known as the EONS model. This model, coined by Airports Council International-North America (ACI-
NA) redefines the known “Triple Bottom Line” approach by adding operational efficiency as a significant
contributor to a successful implementation. When using the EONS lens in evaluating the efficient use of
resources, the following elements need be addressed:
• Economic viability: initial cost vs. life cycle benefits of implementation/design considerations;
• Operational feasibility: customer service, operational process efficiency, training, congestion and delay
reduction;
• Natural resources: improved air quality, emissions and noise abatement benefits, water quality protection
and conservation, energy reduction, use of renewable energy, solid waste reduction and material
efficiency, wildlife management and landscape restoration; and
• Social benefits: supports and benefits to the community, provision of improved quality of life while
responding to needs, promotion of diversity, education and public outreach, and enhancement of
community welfare.
In airport building design, responding to the local climate, context and natural environment is the first step in
implementing natural resource efficiency. Buildings that are designed to be in tune with their local climate,
respond to solar impact, make efficient use of daylight, energy and water resources, rely on local materials
and have robust waste management practices are set to use fewer resources in building operations. Focusing
on the efficient use of land, energy, water and materials from the start yields the best results in building and
operating efficiencies.

Operational practices also play a key role in the reduction of air pollutants. These include:
• Reducing taxiing and queuing;
• Providing electrical power and preconditioned air to aircraft at terminal gates.
Ultimately the solution requires a comprehensive and balanced long-term assessment that includes: reduction
at the source, land-use planning considerations and review of operational procedures. Many airports are
modernizing ground service equipment and vehicle fleets by using more efficient and less polluting vehicles.
Some are introducing bicycles for employees and bike paths for short distances around the facility. Many
airports are also building or enhancing mass transit lines into cities, replacing buses and maintenance
vehicles with hybrid and hydrogen-powered ones, and optimizing transport options for the many thousands of
people employed at airports.
Issues related to the efficient use of resources at airports are closely tied to waste reduction. State and local
requirements and airline/vendor goals also help support these efforts. Successful airport operators realize that
partnerships with users, tenants and operators are essential to the successful implementation of waste
reduction efforts. It is essential to plan waste management and reduction processes early throughout the
facility while providing ample opportunities for occupants and visitors to participate in waste reduction
programs. Today, there are numerous examples where, through a mix of incentives and requirements, airport
operators are effectively implementing waste management programs.
3.4.3 Terminal Planning Concepts
The design of passenger terminals must be related closely to and balanced with the capacity of the
runway/taxiway system, apron configuration and airport surface access systems. The requirements of the
major airline users must also be fully understood and incorporated in the functional design considerations.
This will play an important role in the layout and flexibility of the airport facilities, now and for years to come.
More information on this subject can be found in Chapter 3.2.8.10 Integration and Chapter 3A.2.2.3
System Integration
The types and categories of aircraft that can be accommodated by the runway system will dictate the viable
terminal concept layouts and relationship with the stands. The terminal concept will also relate closely to the
types of airlines and passenger business markets that will use the facility.
Recommendation: Passenger Terminal Concept

It is recommended that the chosen passenger terminal concept provide a simple, functional, cost-effective,
expandable and user-friencly solution that allows airlines to undertake efficient, profitable operations in one
location.
A modular design philosophy is required such that capacity enhancements can be easily added to individual
subsystems without unnecessarily disrupting existing airline operations and/or terminal functions. In this way
new regulatory developments and changes in the nature and volume of passenger flows can be more readily
and quickly accommodated.

3.4.3.1 Terminal and Apron Configurations
There are generally three main terminal configurations recognized globally:
1. Linear
2. Pier/Finger
• X-Type
• Y-Type
• H-Type
3. Satellite
3.4.3.1.1 Linear
The linear terminal consists of a centralized passenger processor and an associated airside concourse. In
linear configurations the airside concourse is often integrated and adjacent to the processor. Although the
concourse generally has a linear configuration, the overall geometry is determined by landside and airside site
conditions. Typically, aircraft parking positions are oriented along one side of the concourse. In many cases
these positions may wrap around the each end of the concourse.
All originating and departing passengers and baggage flow through the central processing area and circulate
to and from the aircraft parking positions on the concourse, (see Exhibit 3.2.8.6.3b in Master Planning).
The possible advantages and disadvantages of the linear passenger terminal design concept are summarized
in the following table:
Exhibit 3.4.3.1.1: Linear Pros and Cons Summary
Criteria Possible Advantages Possible Disadvantages

Airport/Airline
Operations
• Centralized terminal processor simplifies • Centralized processor may

landside access experience forecourt
Landside
congestion during peak
• Landside expansion may not conflict with hours.
airside operations
Airside • Efficient use of continuous perimeter • Single loaded linear piers are
aircraft stands not space efficient
• Centralized processor centralizes airline • Aircraft parking is limited to

and government inspection services one side of the concourse
operations adjacent to the main
Terminal processor, which limits
• Simplifies signage and displays efficient use of pier space
• Compact baggage conveying/sorting
systems


Financial
Initial Capital • Low to Moderate initial costs
Operating/Maintenance • Low operational and maintenance costs
Passenger
Convenience
Processing • Reasonable processing/close-out times
Concourses spanning long
• Acceptable walking distances for most
lengths from the central terminal
passengers to/from their gate if concourse
Walking Distances area may result in long walking
length is limited or with use of moving
distances if not limited in
walkways, etc. expansion
Orientation • Simple signage and easy wayfinding
Transfer • Permits short minimum connecting times

within the main concourse/terminal area
Amenities
• Amenities can be located in close proximity
to the main processing area and departure
lounges
• Food & beverage and retail concessions
can be centrally located in the main
processing hub, increasing potential traffic
Source: HOK
3.4.3.1.2 Pier/Finger Terminal Concept
The pier/finger terminal concept (see Exhibit 3.2.8.6.3a in Master Planning) consists of a centralized
passenger terminal for processing passengers and linked piers (airside concourses) in single or multiple pier
configurations. In large examples of this type, the main processor may consist of several semi-centralized
areas such as passenger processing or baggage claim, sharing a common departures/arrivals forecourt. The
geometry of pier/finger concourses vary and configurations can accommodate aircraft parking positions on
one or both sides of the concourse.
All originating and departing passengers and baggage flow through the central processing area and circulate
to and from the departure lounges and aircraft parking positions located along the piers. In large terminals of
this type, secondary baggage sorting areas may be located in the piers to facilitate processing and connection
times.
Subsets of this configuration include X-Type, Y-Type and H-Type. See Chapter 3.2.8.6.3 Terminal Options
in Master Planning for examples. More information on these types will be included in a subsequent update of
the Airport Development Reference Manual (ADRM).
The possible advantages and disadvantages of the pier/finger passenger terminal design concept are
summarized in the following table.

Exhibit 3.4.3.1.2: Pier/Finger Pros and Cons Summary

Airport/Airline
Operations
• Centralized terminal simplifies landside • Centralized terminal may

access experience forecourt
congestion during peak hours.
Landside In this case, multiple traffic and
parking lanes and multiple
passenger islands are
required.
• Aircraft parking on both sides of the • Airside areas between

pier/concourse increases efficiency of adjacent piers can be
space congested or impacted by
limited access and aircraft
maneuvering area
Airside • Multiple pier configurations can
result in lengthy taxi routes
and increased taxi times
• Long apron cul-de-sacs
between concourses can
increase congestion and
impact push-back times
• Can accommodate many passengers • Requirements to segregate

under one roof arriving and departing
passengers may require
• Centralizes airline and government secondary circulation routes
inspection service operations
within piers, or multiple levels
• Simplifies signage and displays • Extending piers can increase
Terminal • Individual piers can be secured or walking distances and
managed without terminal-wide impacts negatively impact connection
times
• Piers can be extended in length with little
impact to operations and at relatively low • Expansion of hub operations
cost to multiple piers can result in
increased airline operating
• Pier extensions can be incremental and complexity
tailored to demand
Financial
Initial Capital • Moderate initial costs
Operating/Maintenance • Low operational and maintenance costs


Passenger
Convenience
Processing • Simplified passenger processing
• Moderate walking distances from • Adding or extending piers

departure forecourt to gate and from increases complexity and
Walking Distances arrival gate to forecourt walking distances and may
trigger a requirement for
moving walkways
Orientation • Pier configuration simplifies signage

requirements
• Supports low Minimum Connecting Time • Long connection times
Transfer (MCT) if flight pairs are properly between multiple piers, often
coordinated, due to compact nature of requiring screening at the
terminal central processing point
• Concessions can be consolidated where • Long piers may limit

piers join main processor to maximize passenger access to major
Amenities exposure to passenger flow concession nodes and require
secondary concessions areas
within concourses
Source: HOK
3.4.3.1.3 Satellite
The satellite terminal concept (see Exhibit 3.2.8.6.3e in Master Planning) consists of a central processing
building for passenger and baggage processing and remote concourses around which aircraft are parked. The
remote concourses or satellites are connected to the main terminal by combinations of above- or below
ground links to facilitate the movement of passengers and baggage between the satellites and the main
terminal. These connections may include monorail mass transit systems, Automated People Mover (APM)
systems or underground walkways equipped with moving walkways.
Satellite concourses typically include centralized concession nodes oriented around the APM stations, a
circulation spine and departure lounges. However, this is dependent on the number of gates served from the
satellite.
Outbound baggage is collected at central passenger service counters, sorted and conveyed to the baggage
makeup areas either in the central processor or in the satellite. Baggage is transported to the aircraft by
mobile apron equipment or mechanical systems.
This concept is often used in conjunction with pier/finger and linear configurations to provide additional aircraft
contact stands.
The possible advantages and disadvantages of the satellite passenger terminal design concept are
summarized in the following table:

Exhibit 3.4.3.1.3: Satellite Pros and Cons Summary

Airport/Airline
Operations
• A centralized terminal processor • Forecourt congestion in peak

simplifies landside access hours if percentage of
originating departures/arrivals
traffic is high
Landside
• Addition of satellite contact
stands will likely require
modification and/or expansion
of access roadways/forecourts
at processor
• Usually provides excellent access to

aircraft stands
Airside • Linear satellites permit direct aircraft
routing between stands and runways
• Efficient use of continuous perimeter
aircraft stands on the satellites
• Separation of arriving and departing • May require airlines to have

passengers within satellites can be secondary or multiple
easily achieved, if required Commercially Important
Passenger (CIP) lounges in
• Facilitates control of passengers, if satellites to accommodate
required individual traffic segments
Terminal
• Variety of incremental expansion
• Airline and airport staffing
possibilities requirements can be higher due
• Additional satellites can be designed to to separation from main
accommodate future aircraft design terminal building
developments
Financial
• High initial capital costs for the

APM system between the main
terminal and satellites,
especially if these are below
Initial Capital
ground
• High initial capital costs for the
baggage conveying/sorting
systems
• High operating and
maintenance costs for the APM
system between the main
terminal and satellites,
especially if these are below
Operating/Maintenance
ground
• High operating and
maintenance costs for the
baggage conveying/sorting
systems


Passenger
Convenience
• Normally provides for the centralization • Early processing (check-in) and

Processing of airline and government inspection close-out times
services staff
Walking Distances • Short walking distances (to/from APM)
• Permits a relatively simple flight • Multiple level changes required

Orientation information display system
• Passengers must learn the
APM system
• Permits short minimum connecting times • Minimum connecting times

within individual satellites between flights in different
satellites are increased due to
distance and the need to locate,
wait for and use the APM
Transfer
system,
• Passengers can be required to
be processed through the
central processor, which
increases connection time
• Permits centralization of major • Requires secondary concession

concession outlets (i.e. food & beverage, outlets in satellites
duty-free, etc.)
• Commercial revenue can be
Amenities
impacted by the perceived
passenger journey time to
satellites where outlets are not
in the same volume
Source: HOK
3.4.3.2 Terminal Layouts
3.4.3.2.1 Centralized vs. Decentralized Facilities
Recommendation: Centralized Facilities

It is preferable to have a single centralized passenger processing facility rather than a series of multiple-unit
facilities. A centralized terminal provides cost benefits associated with operating centralized facilities. A
centralized terminal also simplifies passenger journeys.
(a) Centralized facilities: One area for processing all passengers and baggage within the same facility,
regardless of airline.
Centralized facilities inherently provide many benefits to the operator, airlines and passengers, minimizing
confusion and putting all service offerings together in one place. New airlines entering the airport market
for the first time can be collocated with their alliance partners without the need to displace or move other
airlines to other terminal facilities.

For large airlines in a centralized facility, particularly if they are the base or a primary carrier, operations
can be focused in a preferred operating zone that also accommodates operations of partners. The cost-
effectiveness of the terminal is increased by the optimal use of space.
In centralized facilities passenger traffic can be directed past centralized concession offerings. This
assists in improving concession revenue performance.
Airport owners, operators and designers need to be aware of some of the challenges that need to be
addressed when working with centralized facilities. Long walking distances to and between gates may
need to be mitigated with an internal transportation system such as an Airport People Mover (APM). The
complex nature of the terminal may also be addressed by providing different processing areas for different
travel segments (e.g., International, Domestic, Schengen and non-Schengen in Europe, and trans-border
in Canada/USA).
(b) Decentralized Facilities: Due to existing site constraints it may only be possible to provide additional
capacity by creating a separate terminal facility within the airport site for processing passengers and
baggage. These facilities may be separated by airline, alliance, departure, arrival or transfer, or any
combination of these types, but the inherent difficulties in managing the different passenger flows usually
creates potentially costly management challenges.
The primary question during project definition and conceptual design is which of these two models is most
appropriate.Considerations include:
• Existing site conditions/constraints;
• The local market and the passenger types to be served;
• The level of service that can be achieved and maintained for both airlines and passengers;
• The need to accommodate the changing needs of airlines;
• The nature of the dominant base carrier(s) and ever-changing alliance partnerships;
• The economies of scale;
• Emerging trends;
• The integration of state-of-the-art technologies; and
• Integrated IT systems.
3.4.3.2.2 Terminal Levels and Sections
Recommendation: Minimal Level Changes

It is recommended that level changes be minimized in all terminal designs. Departure and arrival flows can
be accommodated and processed on separate levels of a terminal building or complex, but level changes
within the same passenger journey should be kept to a minimum.
Minimizing level changes in the passenger journey can increase the footprint of the building and, therefore,
walking distances; so a considered and balanced approach to the building design must be taken. Site
constraints may impose further challenges and opportunities.

Terminals can be split into two types for simplicity when considering level and design:
(a) Complex multi-level terminals
(b) Simple single-level terminals
In order to establish the optimum arrangement of levels for a new terminal building, the following key factors
should be considered:
• Landside interface with forecourt, multimodal interchange and connection to adjacent terminals on the
site;
• The size of the key processing spaces in relation to one another;
• Segregation requirements;
• Minimum level changes and optimum travel distance for passengers;

• The baggage system and space for expansion;
• Airside interface, configuration of piers and aircraft stands; and
• Need for Automated People Mover (APM) or light rail link through the site.
(a) Complex multi-level terminals
Large modern air terminal should have a significant landside “inter-modal” interface with local, national
and international ground transport networks. These may include cars, buses, metros, light rail, regional
rail networks, high-speed national and international rail networks and even maritime links.
Intermodal connectivity requires careful planning to minimize level changes and segregate different flows
(e.g., passengers, surface vehicles, rail links, etc.). The following diagrams are typical cross-sections for a
complex multimodal interchange/terminal interface where the routes have been carefully planned to
optimize the passenger arrival and departure experience and to ensure minimum crossover of passenger
and vehicle routes.

I ATA Planning— Passenger Terminal
Exhibit 3.4.3.2.2a: Terminal Flows
Source: HOK and NACO
The full list of accommodations required in a terminal building is substantial and should be developed in
detail through the briefing process. General sizing of each space should be undertaken as described in
Chapter 3.4.2.1.7 Sizing o f Facilities and agreed to with the client and users through a consultative
process. The accommodation list can then be broken down into blocks of space to assist in establishing
the arrangement of levels and requisite cross-section for the terminal. The designer must have a clear
understanding of the colocation of functions required for an efficient and effective terminal operation.
In addition, the height and span of each functional space should be carefully considered to maintain
balanced special proportions. The function of the space must always be the primary consideration.
Column spacing is an important consideration. A floor plate with many columns disrupts the flow and
views and limits opportunities for changing the terminal layout in the future.
It is important that the departures and arrivals routes be maintained with minimum level changes. Often,
the departures level is at the upper level and the arrivals is at a lower level. This tends to facilitate a
quicker baggage route from aircraft to claim on the arrivals journey and offers the arriving passenger a
route straight out of the terminal.
• Segregation Requirements
Segregation is best achieved through the use of different levels. This avoids the use of crossover
points that can cause congestion and require additional staff. It also avoids perimeter circulation
corridors that restrict gate utilization due to the need to maintain separation. Hence, in large terminals,
it is common to locate the departures route on a different level from the arrivals route. A typical
arrangement is indicated in the illustration below.

I ATA flISU Airport Development Reference Manual
Exhibit 3.4.3.2.2b: Example of Segregated Arrival and Departure Flows
Support Accommodation,
{! IV I iMUMjaet Storage & I’ lnnr
Departures Lounge IV | i.iit» i>s C o n co u ix e

Doording pats check. And Ow <:k In
2 Ktri
H old ttagyaye Sc* w irin g S hirers. Iiom d ie t l ii^_
n oggog a Handling
Ari.vils Immigrants*! Claim Antvals C<
(outbound)-_______
A 1*1MU B ik k i .vom Offload (inbound). Storme S Plant
□opaitutOT Route
Anivais Route-
Source: HOK and NACC
This cross-section shows departures at the upper level through the terminal leading out to the piers
with no level change. Arriving passengers travel along an arrivals corridor in the pier at a lower level,
dropping to ground level inside the terminal building and leading directly out to the arrivals forecourt.
This arrangement achieves the minimum number of level changes for both the departures and arrivals
routes (only one level change for arrivals) and maintains full segregation of departing and arriving
passengers throughout the terminal building.
Minimum Level Changes and Optimum Travel Distances for Passengers
The departures, arrivals and transfer journeys should be kept as level, simple and intuitive for the
passenger as possible. This is important for all passengers, including those with reduced mobility
(PRM). Minimizing level changes also helps to minimize the capital cost of escalators, elevators and
moving walkways.
The Baggage System
The baggage system is the largest system in a terminal building and as such it should be fully
integrated into the design from the outset, with suitable options for modular expansion as and when
necessary.
Airside Interface, Configuration of Piers and Aircraft Stands

In simple terminals, domestic departing and arriving passengers may not require segregation. In
these cases, a single level pier may suffice. However, when segregation is desirable, it is best
achieved through the use of different levels in the pier or terminal. A single level is not efficient
because cross-segregated crossover points at each gate require that the corridor be closed whenever
an aircraft is being boarded. Depending on flight sequencing, this can severally limit gate usage and
result in frequent operational disruption.
A common pier arrangement is shown in the cross-section below with the departures level above and
the arrivals level below. It should be noted that due to the requirement for gate lounges, the footprint
of the departures level is generally wider than that of arrivals. As a result, the arrivals level is

sometimes placed at the upper level. In both cases, the interface with the main terminal building and
the number of level changes on the departures and arrivals routes must be carefully considered.
Exhibit 3.4.3.2.2c: Example of Pier Arrangement with Arrivals and Departures on

Different Levels
Departures
G M Room Cate Room Fixed Link wrth
Vertical clrci laHdn
-
Swon Arrivals
AccornmodAnn
.4.
R am p
A-ccam m oflati-en
• Simple single-level terminals
These are generally small terminals with a lower passenger throughput and with lower air traffic
movements. The design of a small terminal will need to consider most of the factors outlined above to
varying degrees. A typical cross-section is shown below along with a basic single-level diagrammatic
plan.
Exhibit 3.4.3.2.2d: Example of a Single-Level Terminal (Section)
Land sid* 2&na Air sid* Zone
_____________ aJ ---------- --------------------------»OJL»____ ■________1

----
Dtpartur*
> Arival

Exhibit 3.4.3.2.2e: Example of a Single-Level Terminal (Plan View)
3.4.3.3 Terminal Types
3.4.3.3.1 Origin and Destination Terminals
The Origin and Destination (0/D) terminal can be defined as a terminal that caters mainly to flights and
passengers that use the airport primarily as their point of origin or destination. The O/D terminal generally
does not facilitate transfer traffic.
Dedicated O/D terminals are typically not large in scale and tend to serve a limited regional market. Typical
examples of primarily O/D terminals are those that:
• Serve a niche market (e.g., London Luton Airport, England; Toronto City Airport, Canada; Dallas Love
Field, USA);
• Serve regional communities (e.g., Cork Airport, Ireland; Cebu Airport, Philippines); and
• Are located near a popular tourist destination (e.g., Marseille Airport, France; Phuket Airport, Thailand;
Ibiza Airport, Spain; Aspen-Pitkin Colorado County Airport, USA).
Some international airports with limited onward destinations that only cater to a small amount of local regional
transfer traffic may also be classed as “predominantly O/D” rather than “dedicated O/D" (e.g., Cape Town
Airport, South Africa; Geneva Airport, Switzerland). The primary passenger processing functions required for
a typical Domestic/lntemational O/D terminal are outlined in the illustration below. In its most simplistic form,
an O/D terminal has no transfer facilities and only one centralized processing area. Baggage handling is only
provided for inbound and outbound traffic and there is no capability of storing or transferring bags between
aircraft.

IATA Planning— Passenger Terminal
Exhibit 3.4.3.3.1: Passenger Flows in Origin and Destination Terminal
LANDSIDE AIRSIDE
Local legislation in some countries may require emigration and outbound customs prior to security control.
Primary transfer processes are included in the diagram but are greyed out for clarity.
The major processing areas in an O/D terminal should be sized according to capacity and Level of Service
calculations taking into account design flows.
At smaller O/D airports, outbound passenger processing and emigration & immigration functions are likely to
be simple, manual processes. However, all must meet prevailing national and international requirements.
Generally domestic and international departing and arriving passengers will all need to be segregated to meet
international security requirements.
It should be noted that an O/D terminal may accommodate transfer traffic on a small scale if arriving
passengers collect their bags on arrival and be reprocessed for an onward flight at the departures processing
area. However this type of operation is not regarded as providing a good level of customer service nor does it

meet internationally recognized passenger service standards. This operational situation should be avoided
wherever possible.
3.4.3.3.2 Transfer (or Hub) Terminals
A transfer terminal (also known as a hub airport) is where passengers and/or cargo are transferred between
aircraft without a direct service from their point of origin to their point of destination. Delta Airlines pioneered
the hub-and-spoke system for passenger aviation in Atlanta, Georgia in the 1950s. FedEx also adopted this
model for cargo in the 1970s. In practice, most hub airports cater to both transfer traffic and O/D traffic in one
terminal building, or in a system of terminals. This optimizes connection opportunities with minimal transfer
times.
Transfer-only terminals are not common, although many terminals throughout the world experience a greater
proportion of transfer than O/D traffic.
A transfer terminal has a significant transfer infrastructure in the airside zone to cater to the transfer
passengers. It may have reduced check in and landside facilities due to the lower proportion of O/D traffic. It
should also be noted that this type of terminal will cater to transit passengers (i.e., those that are deplaning
and reboarding the same aircraft en route to their destination for reasons of aircraft refueling, crew change,
etc.).
Hub airports concentrate large numbers of passengers (and cargo) from diverse geographical areas in one
place, thus augmenting the aviation market. This also allows airlines without direct route rights to transfer
passengers. Airlines can build opportunities to transfer passengers across their own operation and that of
their partners and alliances. This is often done through code sharing by scheduling flights into aircraft arrivals
banks followed by aircraft departures banks to maximize connectivity opportunities. A hub strategy will impact
the terminal design due to significant peaks in traffic around these aircraft banks. This is a significant
consideration during the initial scoping of any new terminal or redevelopment.
For passengers the hub model can also allow for stop overs on long-haul routes. The airside amenities for
transfer passengers must be carefully considered to cater to their needs. Extended waiting times between
arriving and departing flights means that hotel rooms, retail outlets, food & beverage provisions as well as
toilet and shower facilities should be amply provided. Hub airports are also able to maximize commercial
revenue and augment/enhance the overall travel experience with extensive customer offerings.
Terminals that accommodate transfer operations may over time need to also accommodate increased levels
of O/D traffic due to changes in local or regional policies on tourism, industry, etc. Thus it is vital that
transfer/hub terminals always incorporate the flexibility needed to adjust to changing demands over time.
Current examples of a primarily transfer terminals are Doha, Qatar and Atlanta, Georgia. In 2012, both these
airports had a ratio of approximately 70 percent transfer to 30 percent O/D traffic.
The primary passenger processing functions required for a typical Domestic/lntemational Transfer Terminal
are outlined in the illustration below. Increasingly, government requirements are becoming aligned globally
and the requirement for separate processors in the future, e.g. one-stop security.

Exhibit 3.4.3.3.2: Transfer Passenger Flows
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Primary O/D processes are included in the diagram but are greyed out for clarity.
Although transfer terminals may have a higher proportion of transfer traffic, they are usually large in scale and
will still need to cater to a degree of O/D traffic. Therefore, they will require a comprehensive forecourt facility
which may be on two levels depending on the scale of the terminal.
Check in, bag drop, boarding pass control and emigration & immigration facilities may be smaller in a transfer
terminal compared to a primarily O/D terminal. However, transfer terminals still need to cater to:
• A certain amount of O/D traffic;
• Some stop-over traffic on long-haul flights; and
• Some transit traffic.

As is the case for any terminal, transfer terminals must in all cases meet stringent international and national
security requirements. Security screening for all transferring passengers must be accommodated in the
airside zone. This can be accommodated in one central transfer area or in separate facilities specific to each
pier or zone. To eliminate duplication of facilities, one central security screening facility for both O/D and
transfer traffic may be considered. This will reduce staffing and equipment needs for typically “peaky” traffic
flows. However the dramatic impact of transfer peaks needs to be taken into consideration during the design
process.
Some transfer terminals may also have transit lounges to accommodate onward passengers who must
deplane. Transit passengers without the proper visa to “enter” the transfer country should not mix with
passengers from other flights. These passengers may be escorted to and from their aircraft and, if
segregation from other passengers is maintained, transit passenger need not be rescreened
A transfer terminal is likely to have a significant number of piers and gates to accommodate both short- and
long-haul domestic and international aircraft. The movement of passengers between aircraft gates needs to
be a primary design consideration.
Baggage facilities at a transfer terminal will need to accommodate a significant amount of transfer baggage.
The transfer baggage storage facility will also need to be quite large and include an Early Bag Store. The
baggage handling system will need to process baggage from multiple inbound to multiple outbound flights
simultaneously and will typically require a highly sophisticated level of automation.
3.4.3.3.3 Terminals for New Model Airlines
The emergence of New Model Airlines at the end of the 1990s highlighted the need for the industry to focus
on operating costs. This, coupled with rising fuel costs, challenging economies and stalling traffic growth,
resulted in a focus on cost reductions. The entire airline industry continues to demand value for money and
competitive airport charges in a highly competitive market.
Recommendation: Balanced Level of Service (LoS)

It is recommended that all new developments and terminal redesign projects look at balancing Level of
Service (LoS) with cost and quality in order to achieve the best value terminal infrastructure possible.
All airlines want lower cost facilities. Automation and self-service passenger facilitation are good examples of
lower cost terminal processing concepts that are as attractive to traditional, legacy carriers as they are to New
Model Airlines.
Legacy carriers are keen to “value-engineer” where possible, while still maintaining their service standards.
New Model Airlines may examine their service provision to balance with their fare proposition. For example, a
New Model Airline may choose to use terminal stands without passenger boarding bridges in order to reduce
aircraft turnaround times thereby increasing aircraft utilization and thus lowering the cost base. There is also a
potential impact on Level of Service (LoS).

The most common approach is to design terminals with enough flexibility to cater to all airline business
models, while reducing operating costs as much as possible through efficient and simplified processes. This
enables all carriers to benefit from lower airport charges.
3.4.3.3.4 Small Airport Terminals
A small airport is typically a facility capable of processing up to one million passengers per annum (mppa).
The airport facilities must stll meet the same regulatory, legal and security requirements of larger facilities,
and be in accordance with relevant ICAO annexes. However, processes are simplified wherever possible.
At small airports, a single building typically serves all of the functions of a terminal and pier/concourse. Site
planning considerations for future expanded use must be considered even at small airports. It is important that
space for future development be safeguarded by creating a master plan. Demand analysis should align with
the requirements of the airlines, the traveling public and the local community.
Similar to larger airports, the small airport's master plan and associated business plan may provide for small
scale non aeronautical uses such as training facilities, hotels, business parks and other commercial uses. The
design of small airports should align with the long-term aspirations of the master plan and development zones
should be safeguarded accordingly.
The primary passenger processing functions required for both small and large Domestic/lntemational
terminals are outlined in the illustration below. Although the small terminal will generally make use of the
same high-level processes illustrated, they will have reduced capacity throughput requirements.

Exhibit 3.4.3.3.4: Small Airport Terminal Passenger Flows
AIRSIDE
In addition to passenger processing space requirements, there will also be space requirements for support
functions, back office facilities, baggage storage and processing, etc. All these space requirements should be
sized in accordance with the capacity and Level of Service calculations in the next section of the Airport
Development Reference Manual (ADRM). See C h a p te r 3 .4 .4 T e rm in a l C a p a c ity a n d L e v e l o f S e rv ic e .
Optimizing the design of small airport terminals:
• The landside forecourt is likely to only require a single level.
• Many processes can be simplified due to the smaller traffic throughput.
• A general departure lounge/gate area should be designed for optimal efficiency. Passenger wayfinding
will be less complex given the smaller area. Retail, food & beverage, rest areas and toilets should be
provided, in part to create parallel revenue streams to support the airport operation. It is also possible that
smaller airports will incorporate business or private aviation functions (General Aviation) that may require

Commercially Important Passenger (CIP) facilities such as lounges and dedicated passenger processing
areas.
• Typically, a small terminal will have no concourse or piers. Passengers are often bused or walk between
the gate and the aircraft using dedicated apron walk routes and staff-supervised protocols.
• Small airports usually operate remote stands that allow aircraft to power in/out (i.e., self-maneuvering
stands).
• Baggage handling facilities can be limited and geared around the processing of one flight at a time rather
than multiple flights simultaneously as in larger airports. Baggage handling processes may also be mainly
manual, but they must be designed in accordance with Health and Safety Regulations and industry best
practices and all baggage safety and screening protocols must be accommodated.
• It is not uncommon for a small airport operation to share its terminal building with a flying school, flight
training facility or Fixed-Base Operator (FBO).
Increasingly, there are situations where smaller airports will exploit a terminal space or equipment for multiple
functions so as to maximize its utilization and optimize the use of space. For example, inbound transfer flight
baggage may be processed with departures screening equipment using agreed upon protocols.
Where possible, any opportunities for flexible use of space should be considered (i.e., heavy morning arrival
peaks followed by a heavy afternoon departure peak creates opportunities for flexible use of gate lounge
areas). Also, tourism-led demand typically generates peaks for a limited number of months. There is,
therefore, an opportunity to make flexible use of the terminal building in less busy months (i.e., shutting
elements of the building down, allowing for decreased costs of operation, etc. during these periods).
3.4.3.3.5 Dedicated Terminals for VIP/CIP or State Functions
There are three types of "Important Passengers” to consider:
1. Commercially Important Passenger (CIP): This generally includes business and first-class passengers
who provide airlines with greater unit commercial revenues;
2. Very Important Passenger (VIP): This can cover a range of passengers from celebrities to high-ranking
officials and politicians; and
3. Very, Very Important Passenger (WIP): This usually refers to heads of state and royalty.
Dedicated terminals or facilities for the above groups of passengers vary in configuration throughout the world
according to local politics and protocols. CIP, VIP and W IP dedicated terminals are common in the Middle
East, but less so in Europe and the United States. CIP facilities in Europe and the United States are usually
incorporated into the main terminal operation and include dedicated fast track facilities and waiting lounges
3.4.4 Terminal Capacity and Level of Service
The concept of Level of Service (LoS), as applied to airport terminal design, was originally developed by
Transport Canada in the mid to late 1970s as the prevailing definitions of “capacity” were considered

inadequate. In 1981, the Airport Associations Coordinating Council (AACC)-the precursor to ACI-and IATA
jointly published a study on airport capacity that resulted in the first edition of the Guidelines for Airport
Capacity/Demand Management, which contained a tabular presentation of LoS guidelines by airport
processing area, based on the Transport Canada concept. This guidance was further updated in 1990 and
1996. Finally, it was incorporated into lATA's Airport Development Reference Manual and has remained
largely unchanged through the 9th edition (published in 2004).
Over this period, the concept of Level of Service has been applied in various ways for the design of new
facilities, the expansion and monitoring of existing facilities, and as a benchmark that determines whether the
contractual obligations of airport owners, operators and/or third party service providers are being met. It has
also been highlighted that the importance of the previous airport LoS guidelines was perceived to be higher in
correlation with other key quantitative (e g waiting times, process rates) and qualitative (e g perceived
service quality, information flow, wayfinding, walking distances) characteristics. These alternative key
performance indicators are used in the industry but often not with the same consistency as LoS guidelines.
Taking some of these considerations into account, the LoS references have been reviewed and refined in a
way that now incorporates waiting time aspects and perceived service quality in addition to the spatial
requirements. In this way, it is possible to determine a balanced LoS that neither under provides nor over
provides and responds to a realistic design horizon for facility planning.
Terminal design and LoS should reflect the various characteristics and volume of passengers and baggage to
be handled. They may also be used to determine contractual service levels. Managing terminal capacity and
designing with LoS in mind are key requirements in the development of competitive airports. These factors
have long-term financial and operational implications for passenger facilities.
Planners and decision makers must keep in mind that passengers visit an airport for one primary
reason: to catch a flight. Passengers' expectations and needs should be at the very heart of the planning
process. The mark of a successful airport is its natural and unobstructed passenger flow between objectives,
easy navigation through the terminal, simplicity and cost-effectiveness.
Consideration needs to be given to existing LoS offered at an airport prior to establishing and entering into a
new LoS agreement. It is important to understand and quantify the LoS currently being provided in order to
establish an appropriate new LoS requirement. Existing LoS must be taken into account to ensure that the
“stretch” to improve LoS is not so difficult or extreme as to discourage those tasked with making and
managing the service improvements.
Recommendation: Use of Qualified Professionals

It is recommended that qualified professionals be retained to assist in quantifying existing Levels of Service
at an airport. IATA Consulting and other consulting organizations have experience providing this type of
specialist consulting service. ACI and IATA are available to assist with recommendations.
Traffic peaking at airports has been the subject of increasing concern by airlines and airport operators around
the world. This is a complex issue. Extreme traffic peaking at airports can result in congestion resulting in
severe economic ramifications such as delays to aircraft and passengers. Bottlenecks and delays at airports
are often the result of inadequacies in one or more of the airport system components. A balanced approach to
capacity provision and enhancement is recommended to ensure one component of the terminal system is not

causing a bottleneck when all other processes are adequately sized for the design throughput. It is important
to also consider that all processing systems are interrelated and solving a capacity issue at one processing
location may just move the congestion on to the next processing point. Solutions must be formulated
holistically across the entire passenger flow. Oversized facilities for the current/design traffic LoS are
unnecessarily costly. A management decision between the stakeholders and the airport must be made which
balances capacity provisions with economic and design objectives.
The Level of Service (LoS) concept is a way to ensure that considerations of demand, processing rates and
service quality are taken into account when defining airport service levels. The LoS can be expressed in terms
of the design target or actual achieved. Most LoS provisions fluctuate during the day, week or month
depending on traffic peaks. The larger the peaks, the more potential impact there is on LoS.
3.4.4.1 Airport Terminal Capacity
The airport should undertake regular capacity assessments to identify the source of any capacity problems as
well as the corresponding solution. The airport should also proactively anticipate where development and
additional capacity will be required. All stakeholders should work together to prevent capacity limitations
before they occur and minimize the risk of short-term reductions in LoS.
An airport capacity assessment is undertaken for several purposes:
1. To assess the facility requirements as part of a planning exercise;
2. To measure the operational capability of various components of the airport system; and
3. To justify new developments at the airport.
3.4.4.2 Capacity Definitions
Capacity definitions and measurements vary from one subsystem to another. However, the term “capacity
generally refers to the quantitative measure for supply of service of a processing facility to accommodate
sustained demand over a specified period of time, under given service conditions.
In other words, capacity is a measure of throughput or system capability. Since an airport system is capable
of operating at varying degrees of congestion and delay, the capacity must always be related to the level of
service being provided. For example, a particular system might be able to process 1,000 passengers per hour
at an optimal level of service, or 1,500 passengers per hour at a suboptimal level of service (i.e., with greater
congestion).
Comprehensive capacity assessments for the terminal building are based on several fundamental
measurements:
• Dynamic capacity;
o Processing and queuing capacity
o Circulation capacity

• Static capacity;
• Sustained capacity;
• Maximum capacity; and
• Declared capacity.
3.4.4.2.1 Dynamic Capacity
Dynamic capacity refers to the maximum processing or flow rate of persons through a subsystem per unit of
time. The actual time unit selected as the measurement index (minutes, hours, etc.) depends on the nature of
the operation. Any excess in passenger demand over the dynamic capacity will lead to increased queuing.
• Processing capacity
Processing capacity relates to the quantity of passengers (and/or bags) that can be processed over a
defined period of time. The demand for a given process needs to be balanced against processing
capacity.
• Circulation capacity
Circulation within a processing area is defined as the area between activities devoted to passenger
movement within that space. Adjacent processes, services, zones or activities also need to be taken into
account when considering circulation capacity.
3.4.4.2.2 Static Capacity
Static capacity is used to describe the holding potential of a facility or area, including the queuing area, and is
usually expressed as the number of occupants that a given area will accommodate at any one moment. It is a
function of the total useable space available and the LoS to be provided (i.e., the amount of space each
occupant may occupy). Static capacity standards are stated as square meters per occupant (m2/occ.) for each
LoS.
3.4.4.2.3 Sustained Capacity
Sustained capacity is used to describe the overall capacity of a subsystem to accommodate traffic demand
over a sustained period within the space and time standards of a particular LoS. It is a measure of the
combined dynamic and static capacities of the processors, lounges and links (corridor spaces, etc.).
The following illustrates the three above-mentioned definitions. When a flight arrives at the terminal building
there is a surge of passengers into the arrival processors. As long as the arrival rate of passengers does not
exceed the dynamic capacity of the various processors, there will be minimal delay and queuing. However,
when demand is greater than the dynamic capacity, a queue will form and delay time grows. Congestion will
occur when the total queue of passengers exceeds the theoretical static capacity of the queuing area (i.e.,
overflow from the designed LoS queue space). It is therefore possible to allow demand to exceed dynamic
capacity of the processors by using buffer areas to hold the surges in traffic. Sustained capacity then

represents the number of occupants per time unit which the subsystem can accommodate without dropping
below a predetermined LoS.
3.4.4.2.4 Maximum Capacity
Maximum capacity refers to the maximum traffic flow that can be achieved for the chosen time unit only, but
not sustained for a longer period, regardless of delay or LoS.
3.4.4.2.5 Declared Capacity
Declared capacity refers to site specific limiting capacities, in numeric terms, of individual facilities and
resources. The declared capacity is used as the basis for Airport Coordination parameters.
When an airport system, or element thereof, cannot be developed further to increase capacity in the short or
long term, it may be necessary to manage demand to limit congestion and delay. This is referred to as Airport
Coordination and the system uses numerical levels to aid in the management of the excess demand situation.
Level 2, or Schedule Facilitation, requires airlines to submit their planned schedules for the next season to a
facilitator who may require small voluntary changes to the schedule in order to better match available
capacity.
Level 3, or Slot Coordination, is only used at the most congested airports where demand exceeds capacity for
the majority of the operation. "Level 3 airports" are unable to meet the unrestricted demand being placed on
them by the aviation market and may therefore be considered under provisioned. The process of Slot
Coordination requires airlines to apply for airport slots which grants them access to the airport facility on a
specific day and time. A coordinator manages the process and works with the airport and airlines as well as
other stakeholders to maximize utilization of the available infrastructure. IATA manages and publishes the
Worldwide Slot Guidelines which details the process of Airport Coordination for Level 2 and 3 airports.
3.4.4.3 Capacity Assessment
The components of the passenger terminal building are made up of three basic types of facilities:
1. Processing facilities, which involve a transaction with a passenger and/or baggage;
2. Holding facilities, which consist of waiting or queuing areas; and
3. Circulation facilities, or links, which allow the movement of occupants from one subsystem to another.

Different methods are used for assessing the capacity of an airport as a complete system or of its individual
processors. The most commonly used methods are:
• Direct observations of the operation;
• Capacity equations to determine theoretical capacity and LoS given the traffic volume and area available;
and
• Simulation modelling.
Recommendation: Simulation Modelling

It is recommended that thorough simulation modelling be undertaken when developing new conceptual
designs and for assessing future capacity through the use of design schedules.
Regardless of which method is used, there are three principal governing factors:
1. The comfort and convenience of the airport users is directly related to the capacity and LoS provided by
the facility;
2. Capacity and LoS are interrelated and must always be considered together; and
3. Designing to a capacity and forecast level of activity that is far into the future can result in overdesign and
wasted capital resources, and will not necessarily result in a better service overall.
3 .4 .4 .4 Factors influencing Capacity, Queuing and Level of Service
The level of service may be expressed in terms of:

• Waiting time per passenger for processing facilities, either as a maximum waiting time during the planning
busy hour or as a percentage (i.e., 90 percent of the design Peak Hour Passenger queue for less than
7 minutes);
• Unit area per occupant for holding facilities; and
• Available cross-sectional area and availability of movement-assisted devices (i.e.: moving walkways,
automated people movers, etc.) for circulation facilities.
Several factors influence airport terminal capacity. For processing facilities capacity is influenced by three
main components:
• The passenger arrival rate (or demand);
• The processing rate (i.e., the number of people processed by a single resource over a given period of
time); and
• The processing time (i.e., the time it takes to perform a transaction or other process for a particular
passenger at a particular resource).
The relationship between demand and capacity is illustrated in Exhibit 3.4.4.4 below. The dotted line
represents the number of passengers processed by the facility over time (the capacity) while the full line curve
represents the number of passengers that arrive at the facility (the demand). Each time the demand exceeds

capacity a queue forms. The grey area represents a situation where the passengers in the queue wait in
excess of 15 minutes.
Exhibit 3.4.4.4: Demand/Capacity Relationship for Processing Facility
Queue exists Queue exists
_ l__________________________________ L_
1 2
Time (hr)
Source: Transportation Research Board, Special Report 215, 1987.
Most of these factors will have different values depending on the type of airport, its size and configuration.
Passenger characteristics also vary according to the region they come from, the purpose of their travel and
their flight destination. For example, a business traveler may travel with fewer bags and may arrive at the
airport later than a leisure traveler. These two factors (amount of baggage and arrival time) will affect the
space requirements for departure processes. Applying general rules-of-thumb (capacity equations) for
assessing capacity is an accepted method to estimate requirements when detailed information is not
available. These methods are also useful in the preliminary planning phase to establish a rough order of
magnitude size for various facilities. It is important to take into account the specificities of local conditions,
including cultural norms, to avoid inappropriate sizing of facilities and design solutions. It is also important to

keep a comprehensive record of all assumptions that have been made. Onsite surveys are recommended
whenever possible to gather data for input in the capacity equations. Detailed design should make use of
simulation modeling techniques to refine the space requirements and to assist with detailed LoS analysis.
Demand also varies by the year, season, month, week and even by the hour of the day. Defining demand for
the purpose of planning/designing airport sub systems is a complex exercise. It not only involves estimating
the number of passengers who will require to complete a given process, but it also needs to address
interdependencies between sub systems and how they affect the flow of passengers across the airport
terminal facilities as a whole. Please refer to Chapter 2.11 Peak Period Forecasts for more information.
3.4.4.5 Service Quality Perception
Service quality perception is a metric that relies on the direct input of passengers. It provides valuable input to
the airport operator, especially in regards to aspects of airport operations that cannot be quantified such as
cleanliness, courtesy of staff, wayfinding, ambiance, etc.).
Although some aspects may relate to the airport as a whole, some evaluation criteria may relate to aspects
that are specific to a stakeholder.
Since perceptions vary broadly between people, it will be challenging to determine a quantitative level to
target without the appropriate references and benchmarks, but some underperforming criteria should at least
be considered for further review in an attempt to enhance customer experience.
3.4.4.5.1 ACI Airport Service Quality (ASQ) Survey
In an effort to kick-start an initiative to measure and benchmark the service quality perceived by passengers,
ACI launched the Airport Service Quality (ASQ) Survey in 2006. The airports participating in this initiative use
the same self-completion paper questionnaire, translated into more than 30 languages.
Passengers fill in the questionnaires while they are waiting for boarding at the gate areas, evaluating 34
service quality indicators on a scale from 1 (poor) to 5 (excellent) related to the following aspects:
• Access to the airport
• Check-in
• Passport and ID control on departure
• Security
• Wayfinding
• Airport facilities and services
• Airport environment
• Arrivals services (based on previous experiences)
• Overall satisfaction with the airport

In addition to the service quality performance indicators, the questionnaire contains demographic fields that
help to determine trends and analysis for specific groups of passengers depending on their needs,
expectations and behavior.
Currently, more than 280 airports worldwide participate in the ACI ASQ Survey initiative, which provide
multiple benchmarking opportunities in terms of airport size, region, traffic patterns, etc...
For those airports participating in the ASQ Survey initiative, it is recommended to include targets and
performance references in the Service Levels Agreements related to those aspects that are influenced by the
various stakeholders.
For more information, please click on ACI ASQ Survey.
3.4.5 Level of Service Concept and Planning Guidelines
3.4.5.1 Framework
The concept of Level of Service (LoS) is an aggregated framework for the design and expansion of facilities
as well as for the monitoring of existing facilities. It may also be used as a benchmark that determines
whether the contractual obligations of airport owners, operators and/or third party service providers are being
met. Waiting time and special requirements must be considered together to provide a balanced LoS. The
objective is to provide a realistic design horizon for passenger facilities without overproviding or
underproviding.
LoS is used to help determine facility requirements for a given design throughput. Plans developed for a
forecast busy hour will provide facilities that operate according to an optimum LoS aligned to the throughput.
Until the airport reaches that forecast level of activity, the facilities will function at a better LoS. Furthermore,
because demand varies over time, the LoS will also vary. Planners should therefore consider targeting an
optimum LoS in the knowledge that during the busiest/peak traffic periods the optimum LoS may not be
achieved. Balancing investment decisions with LoS is a complex management and policy decision.
The LoS framework has been updated in this edition of the ADRM to better reflect the dynamic nature of
terminal operations and throughput. The new LoS framework is based on three levels defined as follows.
Exhibit 3.4.5.1: Levels of Service
Level of Service Space Time

Overdesign Excessive or empty space. Overprovision of resources.
Optimum Sufficient space to accommodate the Acceptable processing and waiting times.
necessary functions in a comfortable
environment.
Suboptimum Crowded and uncomfortable. Unacceptable processing and waiting
times.
Source: IATA

Facilities designed for a planning horizon that is substantially busier than the current situation will operate at a
higher LoS in the immediate to short term. Therefore, the interpretation of the results with respect to the
above table must take into account the planning horizon and the time at which the evaluation is conducted.
3.4.5.1.1 Key Performance Drivers for Service Level Agreements (SLAs) in Airport Terminals
The key performance drivers and indicators that should be directly or indirectly discussed in the context of the
definition of a Level of Service framework agreement are:
• Demand
• Processing and Queuing Capacity
• Holding Capacity
• Circulation Capacity
• Minimum Connection Time
• Service Quality Perception
• Development Triggers
For more information, please click on Airport Service Level Framework Guidelines.
3.4.5.2 Space and Time Variables for LoS Concepts
When planning/designing for processing facilities and corresponding queuing areas, two important variables
will jointly dictate the LoS: queuing space and waiting time.
The following Space-Time concept is used to define the prevailing LoS during a capacity assessment exercise
for processing facilities and corresponding waiting areas. The space axis defines the amount of space
available per occupant while the time axis denotes the maximum waiting time for passengers in queue. Both
axes are required to define the LoS.

Exhibit 3.4.5.2: LoS Space-Time Diagram

_____________________________ Space______________
O verdesign (> Y m 2) O ptim um (X to Y m 2) Suboptim um (< X m 2)

Overdesign ( < A
O ve rde sign
mins)
C o n sid e r im p ro vem e nts

O ptim um (A m inutes
m inutes or seconds)
or seconds to B
O ptim um
Suboptim um (> B
C o n sid e r im p ro vem e nts U nd erp ro vided, reconfigure.

m ins)
Source: IATA
If both space and time LoS axes show optimum service, the facility is offering an acceptable Level of Service
(LoS). Similarly, if both axes show poor conditions, the facility is offering an unacceptable LoS. When one of
the axis functions at an optimum LoS but the other presents unacceptable conditions, then improvements to
the facility may be required. Improvements may be operational in nature, such as increasing staff level and
improving processing rates. Or improvements may be physical in nature, such as eliminating circulation flows
from a queuing area, reorganizing queues to increase spacing or adding processing units. For any facility
falling under the "Suboptimum" condition, major improvements are required and immediate actions need to be
taken.
The boundaries comprising the optimum space allocation and the optimum waiting time represent the limits
that should not generally be exceeded in order to reach an optimum solution. In some cases, however, due in
part to very high demand peaks, an airport owner or airport operator may wish to set its own limits within that
range to better fit the reality prevailing at its airport(s) and the airport users.
When planning/designing a major expansion or new airport, targeted LoS may be considered for initial sizing.
The target value must be within the specified LoS optimum range. Again, the target should reflect the local
realities and be responsive to passenger behavior and needs. As an example, if a new international airport
was to be built in Africa, given the fact that passengers typically travel with a higher ratio of luggage (and with

larger pieces), the space target in the passenger processing area might be higher than for an airport serving
domestic travelers or a high proportion of business travelers.
Again, a corollary can be applied to waiting times. In this case, target waiting times could be determined
based on:
• The operating cost of providing the service and the capital cost of providing the processing facilities
combined with the capital cost of providing the waiting and queuing space per individual.
• The service level agreement between the service provider and the owner of the facility; as long as these
targets fall within the optimum LoS boundaries given in the LoS table in Exhibit 3.4.5.3 below.
The same concept is used to define the prevailing LoS during a capacity assessment exercise for holding
facilities where seating is offered. Gate lounges, departure lounges and public halls are examples of such
facilities. While the space axis defines the overall average space available in the gate lounge per occupant,
the time axis can represent the proportion of seated passengers over the total number of occupants in the
area. Both axes are required to define the LoS. In this case, the presence of seats and availability of space
have an impact on the perceived LoS.
3.4.5.3 Level of Service Guidelines
The table below provides Level of Service (LoS) guidelines for each airport terminal facility. The table shows
the new guidelines to be used when undertaking capacity and LoS analysis as well as their former equivalents
for reference purposes (from the ADRM, 9th Edition). New guidelines have been introduced to include facilities
involving self-service processing. These did not exist in the past editions of the ADRM. The approach to LoS
has been modified to better reflect the current aviation market from a global perspective. Different regions,
countries and markets require modification of the airport environment to match their service needs. The new
updated benchmarks for LoS will now reflect a range of values for space and time to allow an airport to tailor
its service level to the market and region it serves. The appropriate LoS value should always be established in
consultation with all stakeholders, including the airport's airline community, airport management and other
service providers.

Exhibit 3.4.5.3: LoS Guidelines for Airport Terminal Facilities
2.3
Check-in
1.3 -1.8 0-2 0- 2
1.3-1.8 0-5 0-3
1.3-1.8 10-20 3-5
0-3
1.0-1.2 5-10 0-3
1.0-1.2 5-10 0-3
1.5-1.7
1.0-1.2 50%-70% 1
1.0-1.2 10 5
5 0-3
Narrow Body 1.5-1.7 0-15

Wide Body 1.5-1.7 0-25
1.2-1.7 15%-20% 1
4.0
1The lower limit is only t
Source: IATA
3.4.6 Demand-Capacity Assessment
The demand relates to the quantity of persons (passengers and visitors or staff, where applicable) that
undertake a process over an agreed period of time.
Demand varies by the year, season, month, week and even by the hour of the day. The variability of demand
(peaking) will be significantly different from one airport to another. Defining demand for the purpose of
planning/designing airport sub systems is a complex exercise. It not only involves estimating the number of
passengers who are required to complete a given process, but it also needs to address interdependencies
between sub systems and how they affect the flows across the airport terminal facilities.

The range of the peak period definitions is highlighted in the Forecasting section; see Chapter 2.11 Peak
Period Forecasts. The establishment of a planning demand is a key input into establishing the facility
requirements and into monitoring against the current experienced demand. Although demand will be primarily
driven by the aircraft schedules and associated load factors for each flight, the actual concentration of the
demand experienced will vary widely inside the terminal facilities based on considerations such as the:
• Arrival profile of passengers (for each of the terminal processes);
• Time of day;
• Passenger segmentation (i.e., departure, arrival, transfer, business, leisure, age, gender, etc.); and
• Location of the process in regards to other processes (interdependencies).
Demand-capacity assessment is usually conducted on each terminal element for the planning peak hour. In
the following section, an initial approach is given when considering the use of rules-of-thumbs (i.e., capacity
equations). Further capacity equations specific to each processing facility can be found in the subsequent
sections relevant to each individual processor. The following should be considered high-level steps for
undertaking capacity assessments for processing, holding and circulation facilities, either existing or planned.
The methodology will differ if simulation modelling is used.
3.4.6.1 Assessment of Future Facility Requirements
3.4.6.1.1 For Processing Facilities

1. Determine the design Peak Hour Passenger (PHP) demand. Generally, specific PHP demands are
determined for (1) Departing facilities; (2) Arriving facilities and (3) Transfer facilities.
2. Determine the arrival rate of passengers at the facility.
3. Determine the processing time of passengers at the facility.
4. Determine the secondary factors influencing demand and capacity. If these are not available, assumptions
or benchmarks can be used. Secondary factors may include the portion of passengers traveling in first
class, the number of bags per passenger, etc.
5. Using the capacity equation, calculate the number of facility units required to meet the target maximum
queue time.
6. Calculate the number of passengers in the queue resulting from the calculation in step 5.
7. From the results in step 6, calculate the effective queuing area required to meet the target LoS space
standard. The effective area is net of any obstruction or impediments such as circulation corridors,
amenities, etc.
This applies to processing facilities such as:
• Chapter 3.4.11.7 Self-Service Facilities
• Chapter 3.4.11.8 Bag Drop Facilities

• Chapter 3.4.11.11 Departures Requirements (Emigration)
• Chapter 3.4.11.12 Passenger Security Screening
• Chapter 3.4.11.14 Boarding Gates
• Chapter 3.4.13.2 Arrivals Requirements (Immigration)
• Chapter 3.4.13.3 Baggage Claim
• Chapter 3.4.13.4 Customs Processes
3.4.6.1.2 For Holding Facilities

1. Determine the arrival rate of occupants at the facility.
2. Determine the processing (or departure) rate of occupants from the facility.
3. Calculate the maximum number of occupants at any one time during the period under analysis.
4. Using the target proportion of seated versus standing occupants, calculate the number of persons seated
and the number of persons standing.
5. Using the LoS space standard, calculate the required effective holding area. The effective area is net of
any obstruction or impediments such as walls, amenities, etc.
This applies to holding facilities such as:
• Chapter 3.4.11.13 Departure Lounge

• Chapter 3.4.11.14 Boarding Gates
• Chapter 3.4.13.5 Arrivals Hall
3.4.6.1.3 For Circulation Facilities

1. Determine the design passenger flow per hour for travel in one direction and convert into passenger flow
per minute.
2. Calculate the required effective width using LoS standards for circulation facilities.
3. Adjust the required effective width to account for edge effects. Total (net) width equals to effective width
plus 0.5 meters on each side of corridor.
If circulation facilities allow movements in both directions, use total passenger flows for both directions for
step 1 and adjust total width by adding 0.5 meters for each side of corridor plus another 0.5 meters for
counter-flow effect.
Circulation Facilities (or passageways) include:
• Departures Corridor
• Arrivals Corridor
• Transfer Corridor

3.4.6.2 Assessment of Existing Facility Requirements
3.4.6.2.1 For Processing Facilities

1. Determine the existing Peak Hour Passenger (PHP) demand. Generally, specific PHP demands are
determined for (1) Departing facilities; (2) Arriving facilities and (3) Transfer facilities.
2. Determine the arrival rate of passengers at the facility.
3. Determine the processing time of passengers at the facility.
4. Determine the secondary factors influencing demand and capacity. If these are not available, assumptions
or benchmarks can be used.
5. Using the capacity equation, calculate the number of facility units required to meet the target maximum
queue time. Compare the result with the actual number of units.
6. Determine the number of passengers in queue and their maximum queuing time using the capacity
equation and the actual number of units provided by the facility.
7. From the results in step 6, calculate the queuing area per passenger given the total queuing area
provided by the facility and determine the corresponding LoS.
3.4.6.2.2 For Holding Facilities

1. Determine the arrival rate of occupants at the facility.
2. Determine the processing (or departure) rate of occupants from the facility.
3. Calculate the maximum number of occupants at any one time during the period under analysis.
4. Using the target proportion of seated versus standing occupants, calculate the number of persons seated
and the number of persons standing.
5. From the results in step 4, calculate the holding area per passenger given the total space provided by the
facility and determine the corresponding LoS.
3.4.6.2.3 For Circulation Facilities

1. Determine the effective width of the transfer facility.
2. Multiply the LoS standard by the effective width.
3. Multiply the result from step 2 by 60 to convert to an hour.
4. Compare the result from step 3 to the hourly design flow.
Note: The previously mentioned correction procedure needs to be applied for bi-directional facilities.
Additional details on the assessment of facilities are provided in subsequent sections dealing with each
facility.

3.4.7 The “Optimum” Solution and Balanced Capacity
A primary objective of the planning process is to find the correct, balanced capacity and level of service
between facilities, operations, rules & procedures and airline schedules. Balancing capacity is primarily
required to avoid displacing a bottleneck to another critical facility. It often means ensuring the terminal, gate
and apron systems do not limit the overall airport throughput. The capacity of the runway system should
always be regarded as the key capacity element.
The framework of LoS permits comparison between often unrelated subsystems within the airport complex.
This aids management in the evaluation of airport components through the use of common terminology. In
this manner, it is much easier to describe levels of service and achieve capacity balance across the airport
system
Every reasonable effort should be made by airlines, airport operators, and involved government agencies to
identify airport capacity limitations and potential congestion problems during the design development process,
long before problems actually occur. Coordinated efforts (i.e., design modifications, operational procedures,
etc.) can then be undertaken to avoid such problems to the benefit of all concerned. This requires continuing
and open communications and cooperation between all parties involved. Demand/capacity and LoS
investigations at airports where congestion exists or is anticipated should be considered and discussed in a
consultative manner in order to:
• Establish the time, level and cause of congestion.
• Seek to agree on a methodology for determining the capacity of the airport, taking into account the LoS to
be provided, and compare this with typical design peak demand in order to identify capacity limitations.
• Consider means of removing such limitations in the short term, at a relatively small cost, taking into
account the effect of any related delay factor. It is often possible to increase capacities significantly
through relatively inexpensive changes in procedures or personnel deployment.
• Where larger expansion is not possible, consider other temporary expedients, such as minor construction
or lower service levels, pending improvements in capacity in the longer term or significant infrastructure
expenditure.
• Where capacity can only be increased in the longer term or at significant cost, produce estimates of those
measures required to increase capacity to an appropriate level, and consider whether the capacity should
be increased or LoS lowered through either increased delays or the adjustment of schedules.
Due to the dynamic nature of airports all terminal subsystems are interrelated. The operational performance of
one processor impacts the demand for the subsequent one. In other words, the demand of a downstream
facility usually corresponds to the capacity of the upstream one, unless there are amenities or other facilities
diverting the flow of passengers from the main route. For example, the throughput of the arrival immigration
facility will impact the accumulation of passengers in the baggage claim area. In order to reach an optimum
design solution, it is desirable to obtain a balance in the capacity of all facilities.
Determining a LoS for each facility in the terminal building will enable the assessment of capacity shortfalls for
which corrective actions may be identified. A new LoS assessment will be undertaken to ensure that the
solution is indeed appropriate and that the problem is not simply shifted to another facility.

IA TA
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O IL Airport Development Reference Manual
3.4.8 Passenger Process
3.4.8.1 Terminal Flows
Vision
Passenger journeys and flow routes should be as simple and straightforward as possible. Terminal facilities
must not impede the passengers' progress. Interactions should always be at the passengers' choice rather
than imposed by others, thus making the journey simple and enjoyable.
Policy
Passenger flow routes should:
• Be as short, straight and clear as possible;
• Be unimpeded by process obstructions, passenger cross-flows or commercial opportunities;
• Be capable of use by all airlines and not restricted to single operational criteria;
• Permit multiple routings; and
• Be designed to allow passengers to choose their pathways, service options, etc.
Passenger journeys should:
• Be as direct, unobstructed and “straight ahead” as possible;
• Have minimal changes in level; and
• Pass through as few obstructions as possible while providing optional service opportunities.
Air terminals must be designed considering numerous different and functionally separate flow routes. These
include
• Passenger flows (i.e., departures, arrivals, transfer);
• Staff flows (i.e.. air crew, retail and food & beverage support staff, airport maintenance and management
staff, airline and agency ground staff, etc.);
• Vehicle flows (i.e., private vehicles, public vehicles, delivery vehicles, service vehicles, ramp service
vehicles, etc.)

3.4.8.1.2 Passenger Flows
The primary function of ail passenger terminals is to provide comfortable and convenient access to and from
aircraft. Passenger flows are developed for:
(a) Departing (originating);
(b) Arriving (terminating); and
(c) Transferring passengers.
Exhibit 3.4.8.1.2: Simplifying the Business-The 14 Step Passenger Process

D ep artu re
............ ..... D o c u m e n t C h e c k .................

Flight Arrival
08 os 10
H1
12 18
Security Security L- Flight re- ------------------ ► immigration Saggage
S ta rtin g j entry control COlfcCfort
■
■
-Transfer
Source: IATA
This diagram represents the passenger flow along a sequence of passenger journey stations. All of the above
might be represented in a given terminal, however, the order might change depending on specific local
requirements. Some additional functions might be added, or combined.
A number of factors impacting terminal flows should be considered as design goals:
• Walking distances for passengers should be as short as possible. However, airports are by nature large
horizontal structures because distances between parked aircraft must be maintained for safety reasons.
Making the passenger's route to and from the aircraft as simple as possible will generate the most
efficient travel path and help to manage walking distances. Means of assisting passengers to manage
their journeys (i.e., baggage carts, electric carts, moving walkways, etc.) should be an integral part of the
terminal design process.
Greater distances can be accepted, provided a form of mechanical assistance is readily available to
passengers. In all terminals where major expansion is envisaged, incorporation of a people-mover
system, and due provision for the necessary right-of-way and other related factors, must be included in
the original conceptual design. Please refer to Chapter 3.4.10 Vertical and Horizontal Circulation for
more information.
• Separation of international and domestic passenger flows. In line with the requirements and
regulations as described in the emigration (see Chapter 3.4.11.11 Departures Requirements:
Emigration) and immigration (see Chapter 3.4.13.2 Arrivals Requirements Immigration) and customs
sub-chapters (see Chapter 3.4.13.4 Customs Processes), provisions must be made for the separation

of international and domestic passengers on the airside of terminals. However, to address differential
peaks between domestic and international flights, a flexible arrangement (“swing gate”) should be
incorporated whenever possible. This enables all or specific gates to be used as required for either
category of passengers, and allows for regulation evolution. This is particularly true for countries on the
fringes of Europe which may or may not join the common community.
• Separation of arriving and departing passengers. In line with requirements from control authorities
(e.g. Immigration, etc.) international arriving passengers must be separated from departing passengers.
Facial recognition or other biometric controls may be useful.
• All level changes along the passenger flow routes should be provided with escalators and/or ramps.
Stairs may also be included as a contingency measure. The use of elevators to enable passengers (other
than passengers with reduced mobility-see Chapter 3.4.15 Access to A ir Travel for Persons With
Reduced M obility) to change levels has the potential to limit capacity. The termination point of an
escalator must not be in a confined or restricted processing area where “back flow" might occur.
Recommendation: Location of Commercial Opportunities

It is recommended that commercial opportunities in air terminals (e.g., retail, food and beverage, etc.) be
located “on the way; not in the way” of passenger flows.
• Special care should be taken to ensure that concessions are conveniently located and do not interfere
with the passenger flow. While the need to generate additional revenue from commercial opportunities is
appreciated and supported when this revenue is used to offset overall costs (“Making it Pay'’), passenger
flows should not be exclusively routed through concessions areas. Alternate direct routes should also be
provided so that passengers have the choice to either avail themselves of commercial opportunities or
move quickly and efficiently to their departure gate or specific destination within the terminal complex (i.e.,
CIP lounge, arrivals hall, etc.). Please refer to Chapter 3.4.14 Commercial and Retail Opportunities for
more detail.
• In line with the functional requirements of business lounges, CIP lounges should be located airside and
beyond immigration controls, either along or immediately above primary passenger routes.
(a) Departing Passenger Flows
• The forecourt represents the landside interface with the terminal building. Passengers approaching
by private car or any other form of transportation should intuitively be directed to the terminal
building's entrances. Wayfinding (signage), both vehicular and pedestrian, should be used to help
orient passengers and facilitate access to the portion of the terminal from which their flight/airline
operates. This signage may be variable to address different occupancies at different times of the day.
• The departures hall is usually the publicly accessible zone that marks the entrance into the terminal.
It provides orientation opportunities and should therefore be designed as a generous and
unobstructed space that allows an overview of next steps in the passenger journey. The departures
hall must also provide intuitive and logical access to these next steps. Currently, this zone is also
typically the interface where passengers may obtain a boarding pass, if this has not been done
already prior to arriving at the airport, and divest themselves of any checked luggage. This may be
facilitated in different ways and the process continues to evolve rapidly. This zone of the airport needs
to be addressed based on both current and future processes and functions to ensure flexibility.

• Passengers wishing to enter the airside zones of the airport need to pass security and additional
authentication controls. These authentication controls should include boarding pass checkpoints,
but can also include emigration and customs controls where applicable. These processes should be
provided centrally in the most logical and intuitive locations for the passenger journey. They must also
process passengers swiftly and simply, with the least possible disruption and stress. Process
improvements continue to evolve and airports need to be able to adapt quickly and with little
disruption.
• The departure lounge is a common space for passengers to wait comfortably for their flights prior to
moving to the boarding gates. It provides the passengers with adequate facilities such as retail and
food & beverage concessions, toilets, free seating and additional entertainment offerings. Departure
lounges should provide ample views of the airside and utilize natural light to reduce passenger stress.
There should also be logical and intuitive routes to the gates.
• Gate lounges and their associated circulation space are the main components of both finger piers
and satellites. The gate lounge is an assembly area for passengers in transition between the main
processor and the aircraft. Some concessions may be located within the pier or satellite. Gate lounge
areas are designed to serve high-capacity aircraft boarded through more than one door and should be
arranged so as to expedite passenger flow. Differentiation of passengers may also be accommodated
(e.g., Business vs Economy, row numbers, etc.). Conveniently located toilets are required in gate
lounge areas.
• Boarding gates are where passengers usually have access to the Passenger Boarding Bridge
(PBB). They pass through a security door after having their boarding pass checked, either self-served
or by an agent. Ample space must be provided if escalators are used to access the PBB to avoid
congestion problems at the foot of the escalators.
(b) Arriving Passenger Flows
• Upon arrival by aircraft, arrivals corridors can be provided to direct passengers toward immigration
or baggage claim in an intuitive and logical manner. Walking distances to the next steps of the
journey should be optimized as much as possible.
• Where required, for example for international arriving passengers, immigration or other controls
can be required. These must, as much as possible, be provided in centralized locations. Entrances
and exits must be intuitive to passengers.
• In baggage claim halls, passengers and their checked luggage are reunited. Baggage claim halls
must, as much as possible, be provided in centralized locations and must facilitate the flow of
passengers through the claim hall, leading intuitively toward its exit.
• Customs exits from baggage claim can be required (e.g., for international arriving passengers).
These must be clearly visible to passengers and facilitate the passage from baggage claim toward the
landside arrivals hal.
• The landside arrivals hall marks the exit of the passenger from the security-restricted environment
into the publicly accessible landside airport environment. Here, the passenger can be reunited with
waiting “meeters & greeters”, and must find intuitive access to the landside pick-up forecourt as well
as onward travel opportunities. The arrivals hall must also provide facilities for the waiting “meeters &
greeters”, such as retail, food & beverage outlets, toilets and free seating.

• From the arrivals hall, passengers proceed to the forecourt for pick-up or to the car parking location
as well as toward other onward journey ground transportation (e.g., bus and coach stations, metro,
tram or train stations or taxi ranks). The forecourt can also connect, where applicable, to landside
airport city developments with hotels and offices.
These passenger flow descriptions are general and require further detailed definition in each
individual planning case. The flows of departing and arriving passengers must be illustrated for
international and domestic passengers separately, where required, or in any other detailed manner
that suits the individual airport situation. Passenger flow descriptions should be considered in
conjunction with all other terminal flows required, and:
o Be sufficiently flexible to permit the establishment of temporary channels that can be bypassed by
other passengers (e.g., for individual heath control processing of a particular arriving aircraft
passenger load) or to permit regulation evolution;
o Permit processing of passengers individually or in groups; and
o Introduce as few level changes as possible.
(c) Transfers Flows

For a description of airside and landside transfer flows (see Chapter 3.4.12 Transfers).
3.4.8.1.3 Staff Flows
Staff flows should be consicered across all terminal facilities. Careful consideration needs to be given to
different staff access rights to the various terminal facilities, including both front office and back office areas.
3.4.8.1.4 Goods, Servicing and Vehicle Flows
Dedicated routes must be provided or identified for the various delivery and servicing requirements to and
from the terminal, as well as routes for vehicles that might operate within a terminal (i.e., electric buggies,
cleaning and maintenance equipment, display vehicles, segways or scooters, ambulance vehicles or
stretchers). The individual requirements must be established for each airport.
3.4.9 Segregation and Security Requirements in Airport Terminals
3.4.9.1 Terminal Security Zones
Airports and airport terminals deploy security measures to minimize the risk of a security threat to the airport
itself as well as to aircraft and passengers. Most commonly, passengers and their luggage are security-
controlled (see Chapter 3.4.11.12 Passenger Security Screening) within the airport terminal before entering
any aircraft. Once security-controlled, passengers and their baggage are considered "sterile” or “clean”
depending on different terminology used around the world. Airports generally utilize a zoning concept to

manage security within the terminal and the entire airport. Access and egress to and from these zones is
managed and controlled in order to maintain their secured integrity at all times.
Different security concepts and terminologies exist, however, the most common security zones are the
following:
3.4.9.1.1 Public Access
Access to the public access zone is not security controlled, and is granted at the discretion of the airport.
Examples for publicly accessible terminal areas include the arrivals and departures halls.
3.4.9.1.2 Security-Restricted Access
Access to security-restricted zones is not publicly granted. Passengers or staff can only access these areas
with valid authentication. Such authentication can be a boarding pass, entry through a specific secured
location (such as from an aircraft into the arrivals corridor airside), or a staff badge. No unauthorized
passenger or member of staff may enter the security-restricted zones. An example of a security-restricted
zone (depending on local legislation) can be the international baggage claim.
3.4.9.1.3 Security-Controlled Access
Security-controlled areas are utilized for departures areas to ensure that threats to aircraft are minimized. To
gain access to security-controlled areas, passengers, staff, goods and baggage must be security-screened.
Protocols for staff can vary depending on local requirements. As these security controls take time and
represent stress to passengers, airports tend to integrate these directly after processing, so that passengers
can thereafter enjoy a relaxed stay in an airside departure or gate lounge, waiting for their flights (see
Chapter 3.4.11.12 Passenger Security Screening).
Other, more segmented zoning protocols are possible, and are dependent on local legislation. An example is
security screening at the landside entrances to the terminal, whereby even publicly accessible terminal zones
are controlled.
Secured zones can overlap with other protection or segregation zones, such as Customs, and have to be
coordinated in their entirety during the planning process.

3.4.9.2 Terminal Security Requirements
When planning airports, or major redevelopments of existing ones, consideration should be given to the
number of staff, authorized persons and vehicles requiring access to the airside areas in order to reduce the
number of points to airside to a minimum. This can be achieved by:
• Having plant and maintenance facilities landside;
• Providing adequate facilities for staff within the restricted zone to reduce the number of times they need to
enter and leave it in the course of their duties;
• Coordinate landside, non public access and airside access control;
• Keeping suitably located access points for all staff to a minimum; and
• Keeping suitably located access points for deliveries to a minimum.
3.4.10 Vertical and Horizontal Circulation
Vision
Terminals should be configured to provide the shortest possible walking distances with as few changes in
level and direction as possible. Passengers should be able to move freely without obstruction. In cases where
distances exceed walking parameters, the passenger journey should be facilitated by automated transit
systems.
Policy
• Minimize level changes wherever possible;
• Any walking distance in excess of 300 meters should be provided with moving walkways that reduce
unaided walking distances; and
• Where level changes are unavoidable, a combination of ramps, escalators, elevators and stairs will
provide the passenger with the most comfortable journey.
3.4.10.1 Horizontal Circulation Spaces
Passenger journeys should be as straightforward as possible with clear sightlines to approaching decision
points. Simple direct routes are preferred, with adequate width for passengers to move freely. Walking speeds
vary considerably so ample space is required for individuals and small clusters of people to pass each other.
For passengers traveling through airports frequently and/or passengers with wheeled baggage and/or children
in strollers, ample space is required to enable them to move freely and pass each other. Passengers with
Reduced Mobility (PRM) should also be provided with ample circulation space and with rest areas at
appropriate intervals. The circulation route also needs to provide ample space for electric vehicles (passenger
electric carts, etc.) to move freely, back and forth.

Space should be provided for passengers to rest at all major decision points through their journey (e.g.,
wherever they are provided with flight information displays, or FIDs). These resting areas should be located to
the side of the main circulation zone so as not to obstruct the main flows.
Wherever passengers are provided with a large number of options, for example at the entrance to a
departures lounge with many different shops, food & beverage outlets, toilets and other facilities, Orientation
Zones should be provided.
Changes in direction should be avoided wherever possible. Wherever unavoidable, they should be as shallow
as possible with ample maneuvering space for all passengers and, where provided, electric vehicles.
Unsegregated piers (where departures and arrivals flows are not separated) need to be wider than
segregated piers in order to accommodate not only the larger total passenger flows, but also to recognize that
there are counter-flows. Similarly, wherever circulation flows are not direct, for example in departures lounge
retail areas, the general circulation areas need to be more generous.
Cross-flows should always be avoided.
3.4.10.1.1 Moving Walkways
Wherever there are lengthy walking distances, and certainly where they are in excess of 300 meters,
passengers should be provided with moving walkways in addition to the general horizontal circulation space
requirements.
Moving walkways should be sufficiently wide to enable passengers to pass each other.
Appropriate attention needs to be given to planned, and occasionally unplanned, maintenance requirements.
Contingency measures include duplicate parallel moving walkways and/or electric vehicles (see below).
Moving walkways should also be reversible to allow for the potential of dual directional flows during
contingency operations.
3.4.10.1.2 Electric Vehicles
The need to satisfy an ever-increasing percentage of Passengers with Reduced Mobility (PRM) is leading to
increased demands for assistance through the terminal. In general, this is a shared responsibility between
airports and airlines.
Particularly in large airport terminals, electric vehicles are increasingly used to help passengers cover the
longer distances. Additional circulation space is required to enable the electric vehicles to move freely without
obstruction from other passengers, or to passengers.

3.4.10.2 Level Changes
Not only should terminals be configured to provide the shortest possible walking distances, they should also
feature as few changes in level as possible.
Ramps should be at gentle gradients and wide enough to enable Passengers with Reduced Mobility (PRM)
and passengers with wheeled baggage and/or children in strollers to move freely and pass each other.
3.4.10.2.1 Elevators, Stairs and Escalators
Any change of level that cannot be achieved by gentle ramps must be provided with satisfactory modes of
mechanical vertical circulation.
Escalators are the preferred method for moving most passengers quickly from level to level, but they must be
accompanied by elevators to ensure that Passengers with Reduced Mobility (PRM) and passengers with
wheeled baggage and/or children in strollers are provided with an equivalent, speedy and straightforward
method of making the level change.
Wherever mechanical vertical circulation is provided contingency measures are needed to address both
planned and unplanned (breakdown) maintenance.
Combinations of elevators, escalators and stairs (as an alternate and least preferred contingency) will provide
passengers with the quickest, most resilient journeys.
3.4.11 Departures
3.4.11.1 Departures Forecourt
The departures forecourt is accessed by the landside road system that serves the departing flight passenger
flows only. It is the interface between the landside public traffic network and the terminal building. The
landside departing traffic network encompasses the road systems, parking and public transit systems that are
used to access the terminal building.
The term “forecourt” is applied to the departures drop-off area, the road itself and the short-term parking
system that interfaces directly with the terminal building.
For the departures short- to long-term parking provisions, please refer to Chapter 3.4.18.6 Forecourts.

3.4.11.1.2 Departures Forecourt Drop-off
The departures drop-off function can be provided on a single-level forecourt or on a spit-level forecourt.
Exhibit 3.4.11.1.2a: Example of a Single-Level Departures Forecourt
Source: Pascall+Watson

Exhibit 3.4.11.1.2b: Example of a Split Upper-Level Departures Forecourt
Source: Joe Ravi/Shutterstock
The departures forecourt usually reflects a multi-modal transportation system, with passengers using different
modes of transport (modal split) to access the airport. Examples include:
• Private cars;
• Rental cars;
• Taxis;
• Shuttles/coaches; and
• Buses
The order in which these different modes are accommodated (i.e., whether private vs. public vehicles get
closest access to the forecourt) may be a function of regulatory (safety/security) requirements. The drop-off
functions for the above-listed traffic modes should be located in close proximity to the terminal if they cannot
be accommodated directly on the drop-off forecourt.
Passengers that make their way to the terminal from vehicle parking areas, as well as those coming to the
terminal by public transit systems, should ideally enter the terminal on a dedicated route that separates the
passenger flows from those using the drop-off forecourt.
The departures forecourt is just one element of the entire landside access system. It must be considered
holistically with the other elements of the landside access system (see Chapter 3.4.18 Landside Access
Systems and Forecourts).

3.4.11.2 Departures Hall
Vision
The departures hall should be an open, unobstructed and consolidated space, with easy access from
landside. It should provide a calm, naturally lit environment that enhances passenger orientation and provides
adequate space for passenger and baggage processing.
Policy
It is recommended that the departures hall provide a well-organized and welcoming first impression of the
airport terminal The departures hall should:
• Provide ample orientation and circulation spaces for passengers to plan the next steps of their journey;
• Provide signage to assist wayfinding and simplify terminal navigation for passengers; and
• Provide ample public facilities.
The departures hall is the entrance into the terminal building for departing passengers. Depending upon type,
size and airport location, it can consist of various public and non public areas including circulation and waiting
areas, orientation and regrouping spaces, public facilities and airline facilities. In some regulatory jurisdictions
this space must accommodate a segregated zone for well-wishers.

Exhibit 3.4.11.2.1: Heathrow Terminal 5 Departures Hall
(a) Entrance, Orientation and Circulation Space
The circulation, waiting and functional areas extend from the front fagade of the terminal up to the next
stage of processing, generally passenger security screening. The total area includes a general circulation
area parallel to the fagade as well as functional processing zones. The area should be barrier free so that
passengers arriving through the entrance doors have an unobstructed view of the circulation zone and the
functional areas, and can easily locate where they go next. To assist with orientation the view should
extend beyond the functional areas such that passengers can see the next step of their journey toward
the departure gates, or in some cases their final point of departure and/or aircraft.
To minimize the need for circulation inside the terminal that can potentially create bottlenecks, entrance
doors should be multiple and lead directly to the appropriate functional areas. To facilitate passenger
experience functional zones may be grouped by airline/alliances and these should be identified by
signage on the forecourt and next to the entrance doors.
(b) Public Facilities
Public facilities include, but are not limited to:
• Concessions;
• Communications facilities;
• Banking machines;
• Mail facilities;

• Seating
• Information desks;
• Toilets;
• PRM reception areas; and
• Signage/interactive message boards.
Public facilities should be located in areas that do not conflict with functional areas in order to promote the
most efficient and uniform utilization of the space. This policy will also assist in expanding the departures
hall by adding further modules to either side of it. In countries with high visitor-to-passenger ratios,
consideration should be given to controlling access to functional areas. Directional and information
signage should be prominently located in the public areas (see Chapter 3.4.2.1.4 Wayfinding and
Passenger Orientation).
(c) Airline Ticket Sales and Service Counters
These facilities are usually provided within the departures hall. Ticket sales and service counters are
required for passengers who have not purchased tickets prior to arriving at the airport, and for passengers
who wish to change reservations, flight class or pay for excess baggage. Such counters should be
oriented along the normal line of passenger flow, but without inhibiting the flow of passengers. A good
location for ticket sales and service counters is parallel to the front fagade of the terminal between the
entrance doorways, and on the same level within the terminal as the main departures hall. Unlike
common processing counters, airlines usually require their own dedicated ticket sales and service
counters. These counters provide each airline with a sales presence in the terminal.
(d) Airline Offices
Airline passenger processing support offices are required in close proximity to that airline's preferred use
area. The amount of space required by each airline and/or handling agency will vary depending on such
factors as the volume of traffic or the type of handling service performed. Airlines will also require
additional administrative offices, which may be located in other areas of the terminal but with convenient
access to the passenger processing areas. Airline support offices are also required in the airside
concourse close to the aircraft operation areas, usually at the apron level (ramp or apron
accommodation).
(e) Ancillary Functions

The departures hall can also accommodate additional functions, or might safeguard space for additional
future functions. Such requirements should be determined with the relevant stakeholders.

3.4.11.3 Departure Passenger Processing (Check-In)
Vision
The continuous rise in passenger numbers and the increased use of modern technology has changed the way
that airports offer processing capability. The more “traditional” airport processes such as “check-in" and the
acceptance of checked baggage have changed dramatically. The issuing of boarding passes and the issuing
and application of bag tags is ever more frequently being dealt with remotely, giving more control and choice
to the passenger. The advantage for all parties is less congestion at the airport due to quicker processing
times. Removing processing from the terminal building helps to smooth the flow of passengers and improves
the passenger experience as a whole.
Policy
It is recommended that departure processes at terminals be provided in consolidated departures halls, ideally
one single hall only, and that the spaces be:
• Flexible to adapt to future needs and safeguard for expansion or other changes;
• Adequately sized and stress-free; and
• Intuitive, providing easily identifiable direction routings to allow passengers natural orientation.
Processes should be quick and easy, making best use of automation and latest technologies tailored to
passengers' needs.
It is important for airport owners/operators and design professionals to understand that the “traditional
check-in" function at airports is evolving rapidly. As “form follows function”, understanding and accommodating
the changing functionalities in this part of the airport can lead to innovative and cost-effective solutions that
enhance the traveling experience.
On the other hand, providing "more of the same” is no longer a viable option as automation and electronic
features begin to modify the functions that have traditionally taken place in the departures hall. Airports that
simply replicate existing counter configurations (i.e., linear, island, etc.) will soon find that they have wasted
valuable resources creating facilities that are no longer needed or no longer function in the same way.
The traditional “check-in" counter is quickly being replaced by more efficient “bag drop” facilities. It is possible
to process many more passengers using the same volume of space by simply providing passengers with the
opportunity to print their own boarding passes, now often done even before arriving at the airport, and tagging
their own bags. The increased speed of processing at the bag drop facility means that the capacity of the
departures hall can be increased significantly (up to seven times) without requiring any physical expansion of
the space. These new processes offer an important capacity enhancement that requires no more physical
space, thus saving capital investment in built infrastructure. In today's constrained airports, this is a vital new
tool for airport development.

Work is currently taking place on ways for travelers to print their own baggage tags away from the airport,
much as they do now with boarding passes. Opportunities to eliminate the need to carry bags to the airport in
order to pass them to the airline are also being explored. Thus, the traditional processes that take place in the
departures hall will soon be changing again. Airport owners/operators and their design consultants need to
seriously consider what they will do with the left over space once the old “check-in” process is gone from the
airport.
3.4.11.3.2 The Process
The departures hall represents one of the first interfaces of passengers with terminal equipment after entering
the terminal. It also provides a link to the Baggage Handling System (BHS), the largest specialized technical
installation within airports. Both the passenger process concepts as well as the baggage handling strategies
must sit at the heart of the planning of the departures terminal facilities.
Traditionally, the “check-in” process encompasses the airline acceptance of passengers and their checked
baggage, and the separation of checked baggage from the departing passengers in order to security screen
the baggage, consolidate it in the BHS with all other checked baggage for a specific flight in order to
eventually load it onto the aircraft. However, more and more frequently many of these processes are taking
place prior to arrival at the airport, away from the terminal itself, often in the passengers' homes or offices.
The passenger and baggage processes can include:
• Ticket purchase;
• Baggage weighing and overweight payments;

• Handing out of boarding passes;
• Issuing of bag tags;
• Tagging of baggage;
• Injecting checked baggage into the BHS;

• Validation of passenger identification documentation; and
• Out-of-gauge (OOG) and super-OOG baggage acceptance.
The equipment at the airport terminal usually consists of self-service kiosks and bag drop positions with
baggage conveyance facilities. Typically, these facilities are staffed by airline employees or sometimes
subcontracted to airport handling agents.

Exhibit 3.4.11.3.2: Self-Service Kiosk (HAM)
Source: Solomon Wong, InterVISTAS
In recent years, the development and improvement of technologies has seen significant process
enhancements. Many of the processes that were carried out at the terminal in the past are now taking place
away from the terminal building itself. Process improvements are increasing the number of passengers that
can be processed in a given area of the terminal building. These process changes will continue and, as a
consequence, terminal departures hall functionality is changing quickly. Therefore, terminal departures halls
must be designed to respond flexibly to future layout changes without negatively affecting the passenger
experience. When designing and implementing passenger processing and baggage handling facilities, it is
important to consider potential future alternative process scenarios with spatial flexibility within the terminal to
grow or reduce the functional areas, depending on traffic development and deployed technology. The
evolution of technologies and thus functionality cannot be underestimated by planners and operators.
Airlines headquarters, operating departments and handling agents must be consulted in the design and
equipment selection phases of the departures hall planning, as the layout will be influenced by the procedures
they will use for passenger and baggage processing and on overall area allocations.
Functional areas should be organized to provide intuitive and unobstructed passenger flows to and through
the processing facilities. Layouts should minimize the need for passengers to cross-circulate or counter-
circulate to reach the next step in the process.
Simple, straightforward, uninterrupted and unconstrained passenger and baggage flows are the critical
qualities that enable successful airport terminals.
The layouts have to provide fully segregated connections for baggage flows (typically conveyors) from
processing positions toward the checked baggage screening, sortation and makeup positions that comprise
the departures BHS. Specialist engineers should be consulted for the planning and integration of baggage
screening and handling systems.

The layout of the departures hall is largely influenced by the functional concepts and the associated
equipment planned by the airport authority. It is essential that the airlines and handling agents be consulted
during the entire planning process to ensure optimal operational effectiveness and functionality. The allocation
of equipment (i.e., desks, kiosks, bag drops, etc.) to the various airlines and alliances should be considerec
early during the planning process. There should be a logical flow for all passengers and particularly alliance
passengers, from entering the terminal via the departures hall to the departure lounge and gate areas.
The various different functional options that are available to airports, airlines and passengers are described in
the following section.
3.4.11.3.3 The Different Functional Options for Passengers
Passengers have the choice between several different forms of processing, either assisted by handling agents
or without assistance (passenger self-service).
• Using online or mobile apps, remote from the terminal;
• Using self-service equipment at the airport, such as self-service kiosks, bag drops; and
• Using agent-assisted processing at the airport.
The design intent of the passenger/baggage processing area is to provide the most seamless and efficient
products for the many different types of passengers:
• With or without checked luggage;
• Having used pre-airport or in-airport processing options; or
• Traveling in economy or first/business class.
With mobile or online passenger processing becoming more prevalent, airports can provide specialized
equipment to deal with passenger and baggage acceptance separately.
Recent terminal developments have seen more and more self-service opportunities being provided. Bag drop
units provide baggage acceptance processes, issue bag tags and inject the checked baggage into the
Baggage Handling System (BHS). Typically, the bag drop facility takes less process time than a full service
passenger and baggage facility. As a result, throughput is increased, making the most efficient use of space
consuming and costly installations.
Self-service kiosks are becoming well-established in many airports around the world. As the popularity of
Internet and mobile processing increases, it is important to consider the longer term usage of self-service
kiosks.

Exhibit 3.4.11.3.3a: Flow and Process Options- One-stop vs. Two-stop Passenger Processing
At Check-in Hall
Ticket Purchase/
No Hold Baggage, Proceeding straight to Gate
Print Boarding Pass
Self-Service Kiosk:
Ticket Purchase Proceeding to Gate
Print Boarding Pass
Self-Service Kiosk: Bag Drop Counter:

Ticket Purchase Print Boarding Pass Print Bag Tag and Drop
Conventional Check-in Desk:

Ticket Purchase With Hold Baggage
Full Process
The advantages of such a diversified product offering to the different traveler groups:
• Passengers without checked baggage who have printed boarding passes at home bypass service
counters altogether and proceed toward security screening and government controls, creating a most
convenient landside journey.
• Passengers without checked baggage who have not printed a boarding pass at home proceed to a self-
service kiosk with faster processing rates and substantially less queuing time per passenger before
continuing toward security screening and government controls.
• Passengers with checked baggage who have printed a boarding pass at home can proceed directly to
bag drop, an efficient process with less processing time per passenger than a conventional check-in desk,
creating a quicker journey for the passenger.
• Passengers who have not printed a boarding pass at home and have checked luggage can use a two-
stop process, a convenient self-service kiosk available after minimal queuing, followed by a quick bag
drop process. Both processes feel quick, and passengers have to queue less.
• Passenger who need more help or time can still find conventional service desks.
For the airport, split equipment means a better utilization of available space, permitting higher throughput
rates and limiting congestion.

Exhibit 3.4.11.3.3b below illustrates the processing advantages of split processes:
Exhibit 3.4.11.3.3b: Efficiency Advantage of Split Processes
Conventional check-in
Passenger 1
\r
j Passenger 2
/r
C heck-in at S elf-S ervice Kiosk w ith Bag Tag Print
Passenger 1 J Passenger 2 J Passenger 3

/
C heck-in at S elf-S e rvice Kiosk w ith o u t Bag Tag Print
Passenger 1 J Passenger 2 j Passenger 3 j Passenger 4

/■
Fast Bag Drop, assisted
C h e c k - in P r o c e s s T im e H B a g D r o p P r o c e s s T im e
3.4.11.3.4 Types of Processing Equipment
The processing options available to passengers can encompass the following:
(a) Mobile services;
(b) Mobile agent's handheld equipment;
(c) Self-service kiosks (with or without staff support);
(d) Self-service processing and bag drop facilities;
(e) Self-service bag drop belts;

(f) Over sized luggage processing units; and
(g) Ticketing or assistance desks.

(a) Mobile Services
With mobile services, passengers can manage their processing from any remote location. The processes
available via these channels/devices usually range from ticket bookings to boarding pass retrieval and
changing of reservations.
Exhibit 3.4.11.3.4a (i): Mobile Services
Source: Kenishirotie/Shutterstock

Exhibit 3.4.11.3.4a (ii): Boarding Pass on Smartphones
Source: IATA
Passengers who have been processed this way will not require these services in the terminal. They might
use self-service kiosks to print a boarding pass, and proceed to security search with hand luggage only,
or use bag drop counters to hand over their checked luggage to the handling agents.

(b) Mobile Agent's Handheld Equipment
Processing solutions are emerging these days whereby agents can use mobile or handheld equipment to
fulfil most if not all of the processing functions, without being tied to a physical unit inside the terminal.
Handheld devices can deal with bookings, card payments, booking alterations, ID checks, boarding pass
checks, and can also include boarding pass and bag tag printing.
Handheld devices can also be used to read bag tags at bag drop positions. Handheld devices usually
operate via a Wi-Fi network and are therefore less dependent on fixed IT infrastructure or CUTE
networks. Where such handheld solutions are used, the agents can interface more directly with
passengers.
(c) Self-service Kiosk (with or without Staff Support)
Exhibit 3.4.11.3.4c: Example of Self-Service Kiosk
Source: Darq/Shutterstock
Self-service kiosks can provide a variety of processing services, but are used typically to print boarding
passes, check passenger ID and manage ticket payments. Kiosks provide space efficient solutions for
these processes and are convenient to passengers. They can be deployed in numbers that allow for very
short queues at each machine.

Passengers traveling with hand luggage can use the kiosks to print boarding passes and continue toward
government controls (i.e., security screening toward airside and other controls, as required) without
having to use processing or bag drop desks.
Passengers traveling with checked luggage can also obtain boarding passes at the self-service kiosks.
For these passengers, the kiosks can be equipped with weigh scales and excess baggage payment
functions (card readers). Bag tags can be printed at kiosks as well, relying on the passenger to attach
them correctly to the bags. After finishing at the kiosk, the passengers continue to a bag drop counter, be
it agent-assisted or self-service, in order to inject their bags into the Baggage Handling System (BHS).
Kiosks, whether organized in lines or in groups, need to be positioned logically within the context of the
processing areas and flow of passengers. They can be accompanied by an agent desk with full computer
equipment to aid with complicated bookings or to provide other assistance.
Self-service kiosks are often referred to as CUSS kiosks.
They can connect to:
• An airport-wide IT system;
• Airline-specific networks; or
• The Internet.
(d) Self-service Processing and Bag Drop Facilities
Conventional processing facilities can be operated simply as bag drop desks. In this case, only the bag
weighing, tagging and bag injection process are carried out by the agent. This option provides convenient
and quick processing for passengers. Passengers using these facilities will have completed their
processing by other means (i.e., online, mobile app or at a self-service kiosk at the airport). In this way, a
time-consuming part of the process is removed from space-demanding facilities and provided via very
space-efficient self-service kiosks or removed altogether from the terminal. These options have the
following benefits:
• Increase throughput rates at the bag drop facilities;
• Reduce processing time;
• Are convenient to passengers; and
• Make very efficient use of airport infrastructure.
Solutions are also available for airports whereby the traditional bag drop facilities are replaced with self-
service bag drop facilities. These solutions have a similar space demand as the conventional facilities, as
they are usually connected to baggage collector belts in the same way. However, self-service bag drops
do not provide an agent as a passenger interface. They rely solely on the passenger to carry out the bag
tag printing, tagging and injecting process. Two aspects are vital to the successful operation of these
facilities:
1. Correct insertion of the bag onto the conveyor belts; and
2. The correct attachment of the bag tag to the bag so that it can be read by the BHS.

Several different solutions are available. Such solutions can consist of handheld devices that passengers
use manually to scan an attached tag. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology is currently being
implemented by many airports, whereby an RFID chip is attached to each bag tag.
Personalized bag tags may be used in the future, either based on RFID or barcode tag technology,
whereby the tag is reused by the passenger for every individual journey.
Exhibit 3.4.11.3.4d (i): Example Qantas Q Bag Tag
*3 9
0
Source: Qantas
Exhibit 3.4.11.3.4d (ii): Self-service Processing Desks at Munich Airport

Both conventional bag drop processing facilities and self-service units are usually organized along
baggage collector belts, with between 10 and 20 processing positions per belt, depending on predicted
baggage volumes. Collector belts are typically organized in a linear layout.
Exhibit 3.4.11.3.4d (iii): Example of Self-service Bag Drop Station
Source: Solomon Wong. InterVISTAS
Exhibit 3.4.11.3.4d (iv): Example of Self-service Bag Drop Station
Source: Solomon Wong. InterVISTAS

Exhibit 3.4.11.3.4d (v): Example of Self-service Bag Drop Station
Exhibit 3.4.11.3.4d (vi): Example of Self-service Bag Drop Station
Linear-type layouts may be used for centralized processing as well as for gate processing. The unit may
be arranged in an uninterrupted, linear layout or be spaced so as to allow passengers to pass between
the positions after processing (pass-through layout). This type of processing layout may be suitable for
small- to medium-size terminals or for site conditions requiring a minimal depth from forecourt to gate.
(e) Self-service Bag Drop Belts

Self-service bag drop belts enable the passenger to place the bag on a belt to inject it into the BHS. Such
solutions are very space-efficient. The operation relies on the passenger tagging the bags, usually at self-
service kiosks. The passengers then proceed to the bag drop belt, where the bag tag is read by a tag
reader before it is placed on the belt. In many cases, this tag reading process is carried out by a handling
agent with a handheld scanning device.

Exhibit 3.4.11.3.4d: Example of a Self-service Bag Drop Belt
Usually, self-service kiosks and bag drop units are separated in order to increase the baggage throughput
efficiency of the space-consuming counter positions. However, combinations are found where passengers
are offered all the necessary processing elements by self-service equipment in one location.
Payment for overweight or oversize checked baggage must be accounted for in the design of the bag
drop process. This is being handled in a variety of ways and must be confirmed with the airport and airline
operators.
(f) Oversized Luggage Processing Units
Specially designed units are required for the acceptance of oversized, or out of gauge-(OOG), baggage.
This function must be located in clearly identified positions within the processing hall. These processing
positions have wider baggage belts with a straight feed down to the outbound baggage hall. They usually
also have access to a freight elevator or door that will allow large non conveyable items (Super-OOG) to
be placed on a cart and taken to the outbound baggage makeup hall.
(g) Ticketing or Assistance Facilities
Typically, ticketing or assistance facilities do not provide baggage drop functions, but do provide vital
ticket sales and troubleshooting functions. They are usually kept close to the processing areas so that
passengers can easily locate them. Assistance facilities deal with passenger booking processes that
consume more time than average. By dealing with these passengers at dedicated facilities, other
processing areas can function without interruption and at full capacity.

The above only describes the most common types of processing equipment. Other combinations,
operating protocols and solutions are possible. When designing a departures hall, specific requirements
by airlines, the airport or other authorities need to be taken into account and may lead to highly
differentiated and specialized solutions.
3.4.11.3.5 Locations of Processing within the Terminal Context
Processing equipment can be located in various different areas of a terminal and associated buildings, these
can include:
(a) Landside Locations

• Centralized processing in a departures hall;
• Split processing (i.e., decentralized processing in several halls or several other locations within the
terminal). For example, recheck after customs exit on arrivals, or in VIP/CIP terminals;
• Processing or bag drop at the forecourt;
• Remote processing in hotels; and
• Remote processing in ground transportation centers or airport train stations.
(b) Airside Locations
• Bag drop (usually for hand luggage), ticketing and processing in departure lounges;
• Transfer facilities; and
• Gate processing.
Equipment can also be provided in different locations for different flows of passengers (i.e.,
First/CIPA/IP/Business Class passengers separate from Economy passengers). Passengers without
checked baggage can be offered different routes through the departures hall than passengers with
checked baggage.
3.4.11.4 Processing Layout Example
The layout of the departures hall is largely influenced by the functions to be accommodated. It is essential
therefore that the airlines' strategic representatives be consulted early in the terminal planning process to
ensure optimum operational effectiveness.
The allocation of processing facilities to the various airlines and alliances should be considered early in the
planning process. There should be a logical flow for all passengers between processing, security, departure
lounges and departure gates.
The departures hall needs to be designed for flexibility and to facilitate future changes to configurations and
combinations of processing.

Exhibit 3.4.11.4: Schematic Layout Example with Flow-through-type Counters
The diagram shows a process with self-service kiosks and flow-through processing for bag drop. Direct "by
pass” routes to government controls are provided for travelers who do not need to use the processing
facilities. Travelers with hand luggage only are presented with self-service kiosks, and can bypass bag drop
and conventional desks to continue their journey. Passengers with checked luggage can use self-service
kiosks first and then proceed to bag drop desks. Passengers who require assistance for processing will find
this provided at the sides or behind the bag drop desks. Queuing areas are highlighted in blue. Yellow arrows
indicate different passenger flows through the departures hall. Circulation widths between the various
processing functions need to be sufficiently sized to allow for stable flows of passengers.
3.4.11.4.1 Decentralized Processing
Decentralized processing provides processing facilities such as kiosks in more than one location, be it in
several departures halls or at “off-airport” locations like an airport's train station, hotels, cruise ship terminals,
public transport facilities, etc. It is important for passengers to know their processing options. Wayfinding and
signage to the different processing zones needs to permit passengers to find their way quickly and intuitively.
Connections between the processing zones have to be available. Decentralized processing can also include
dedicated processing for specific user groups, such as first-class processing.

Exhibit 3.4.11.4.1a: Amsterdam Processing Zones
G f t U f f 3ft ,
manes 5i M+HSI
IO U O J *
Lotingo ^
lounij*
GH B, 0 *p*tturtft
lo u rt g * / j
O tjnilm r*> -j
“j r ^ E H H E i i i n
Source: Schiphol Group
3.4.11.4.2 VIP Processing
First-class processing usually remains within a common departures hall. However, dedicated services can be
provided as a VIP product, whereby specific passenger groups are served in a dedicated processing zone.
These facilities may also be served by conveyors with members of staff performing the baggage weighing and
bag labeling functions. Checked baggage is then injected either manually or automatically into the main
Baggage Handling System.
3.4.11.4.3 Forecourt Processing
Forecourt processing is popular for the convenience of dropping checked baggage directly at the forecourt
before entering the terminal building. It provides a very direct interface on the forecourt for the passengers,
and usually provides very quick and convenient service. Placement of processing facilities along the forecourt
roadside and the impact this has on traffic flows needs to be carefully considered during the forecourt design
process. Attention also needs to be paid to the potential complexity of connecting the baggage system.
3.4.11.4.4 Processing at Ground Transportation Centers
Many airports offer processing opportunities at their ground transportation center or train station. This service
is convenient to passengers arriving by train or bus as they do not need to carry their luggage into the
terminal.

Exhibit 3.4.11.4.4: Processing at Zurich Airport Train Station/Shopping Center
These facilities adopt the same processes and technology as processing systems within the terminal complex.
The main difference with these facilities is that they are remote from the terminal complex. Therefore, checked
baggage screening is normally only completed once the baggage has been collected and transferred to the
terminal Baggage Handling System. This can be done via a conveyor- or vehicle-based transportation system.
This might include bonded vehicles where required. Some locations include screening facilities at the point of
collection. Careful consideration should be given to the definition of airside and landside zones for such a
process to ensure the integrity of the airport's security.
Checked baggage that has been profiled and deemed to be high-risk should be removed before transfer to
the terminal complex and dealt with locally using secure protocols and equipment. This is not always practical,
however, since some remote areas such as bus stations are not versed in or equipped with the technical
infrastructure required to deal with baggage threat issues.
3.4.11.4.5 Transfers or Airside Processing
Transfer baggage processing facilities are typically located airside. The primary objective is to enable
passengers who are in transit in the airport complex to be processed for connecting flights without having to
go landside and be reprocessed through the departures sequence.
Transfer processing in airside departures areas usually provides:
• Ticketing services;
• New boarding passes;
• Flight changes;

• Bag drop opportunities, usually for hand luggage. This is a service that transferring passengers
sometimes find useful, or in cases where hand luggage restrictions apply; and
• Troubleshooting functions, be it for delayed or cancelled flights, rebooking or other forms of

troubleshooting. Kiosk rebooking options may also be incorporated.
In the context of the baggage system, the objective of the airside processing facility is to confirm the
connecting flight destination and tell the Departure Control System (DCS) how to process the transfer
baggage.
Exhibit 3.4.11.4.5: Airside Transfer Processing Facility
Source: Adam Fraise/Shutterstock
For transferring passengers who are not yet security-controlled, similar facilities can be provided in dedicated
transfer locations.

3.4.11.4.6 High-Security Processing
Processing areas that operate high-security protocols should use the main conventional conveying equipment
and BHS interfaces. It is possible, however, to have high-security processing operations in remote processing
facilities. The high-security elements can involve:
• Passenger profiling;
• Security interrogation of passengers;

• Access to national and international security databases including emigration & immigration; and
• Biometric databases.
The operational protocols fcr high-security operations will vary greatly from case to case and need careful
consideration during the planning process. All relevant stakeholders should be engaged early during the
planning process.
Although recent and significant security advances in self-service processing are evident, it is historically mere
common for high-security operations to use conventionally staffed desks. Baggage that has been checked in
by high-risk passengers should be clearly identified within the BHS. The BHS should be able to link the profile
data captured from processing and provide this information to the baggage control and security systems.
As mentioned, high-security processing areas can be provided in remote or isolated locations. This can
include physical barriers between traditional processing and high-risk processing.
Additional baggage screening equipment might be provided near the high-risk processing desks to scan
checked baggage before entering it into a centralized BHS.
3.4.11.4.7 Remote or Hotel Processing
Baggage services that are provided before the passenger reaches the airport terminal are becoming more
and more common. Examples include baggage services to and from a home destination, cruise ship or hotel.
These facilities adopt the same processes and technology as terminal processing systems for both
conventional and high-security processing. The main difference with these facilities is that they are remote
from the terminal complex and that checked baggage screening is normally only completed once the baggage
has been collected and transferred to the terminal BHS. This can be done via a conveyor- or vehicle-based
transportation system. This might include bonded vehicles where required, or screening facilities at the point
of collection. Careful consideration is to be given to the definition of airside and landside zones for such a
process to ensure the integrity of the airport security. A dedicated baggage in-feed area might be required for
baggage delivery trucks which access the terminal via the landside surface access systems.
Checked baggage that has been profiled and deemed to be high-risk should be removed before transfer to
the terminal complex and dealt with locally using secure protocols and equipment. This is not always practical,
however, since some remote areas such as hotel complexes are not versed in or equipped with the technical
infrastructure required to deal with baggage threat issues.

3.4.11.5 Further Design Considerations
Baggage trolleys and related storage areas need to be provided in and around the processing areas.
Local security protocols can change. Flexibility is important for potential implementation of additional
passenger and baggage security checks.
Commercial areas can be incorporated into the landside departures hall as well as the airside departure
lounge (see Chapter 3.4.14 Commercial and Retail Opportunities for more information).
Local authorities need to be contacted early during the design process to identify all specific requirements
(e g , emergency exiting, etc.) that might influence the layout and design of the processing areas
Toilets need to be provided in the vicinity of the processing areas. Provisions can be shared between the
processing areas and the departures hall (see Chapter 3.4.16 Toilet Provisions for more information).
Airline ticketing counters can be provided in the processing areas. Airlines should be consulted to determine
the requirements.
Queuing areas can be organized in straight queue lines or in “serpentine” queues. Tensile barriers or other
forms of queue management can be deployed. The queuing strategy is to be considered when laying out the
processing areas.
Seating should be considered in the departures hall for some well-wishers to use while passengers are
processed.
Departure Flight Information Displays (FIDs) must be available within the departures hall. The FID monitors
should show which airlines are operating from which processing areas (please refer to Chapter 3.4.17
Passenger Wayfinding and Signage for more information).
3.4.11.5.1 Baggage Makeup Hall
The interface between the processing equipment and the Baggage Handling System (BHS) requires careful
consideration and planning.
On belted baggage systems, checked baggage is accepted at processing facilities and is then transported on
dedicated routes toward the baggage handling area. These dedicated routes should be fully secured against
public access, especially from the processing side, and are usually considered airside. Maintenance access is
required along the full length of the baggage conveyors. The term “right of way” is often utilized to describe
the routing of baggage belts and refers to the fact that these have to be uninterrupted and segregated from
any other terminal flows, be it services, passengers, staff or goods.

3.4.11.6 Passenger Processing (Check-in)
The departures hall is composed of different areas including kiosks and corresponding baggage conveyors,
queuing areas and circulation areas. Circulation areas must be provided:
1. Between the queue area and the service desks, to allow for easy access and egress to/from the process;
and
2. Between the entrance of the queue and any other obstacle in the public area, to allow for people to reach
other destinations within the terminal building.
It is common to see a single queue for multiple service desks. Also, airlines frequently operate under
“common use” practices. This method of operation is proven to increase flexibility and capacity. Consequently,
and with Common Use Passenger Processing Systems (CUPPS) technologies, airlines are able to process
multiple flights at the same time from one location.
The required footprint for initial processing (“check-in”) facilities and associated queuing areas depends on
their geometrical configuration. A circulation area must be added to the queuing area. The circulation corridor
width will vary with the flow of passengers.
Queuing patterns will usually follow the airline's service frontage area. For example, if an airline uses a total of
20 service desks, the total queue can spread over the width of the 20 desks and split into segments (e.g., bag
drop, business-, first- and economy-class processing). The depth of the queue depends on the waiting time
policy and queue management strategy. However, it is important for airports and designers to remember that
the "traditional” process is under significant transition and the functions and therefore the form of these
services areas will need to be modified to meet changing needs.
Airlines often provide a more personal service to their premium class passengers. These may include
business class, frequent flyers or any other type of passenger requiring special attention. A dedicated queue
will be provided for them and many times the agents will serve premium passengers as soon as they arrive at
the front of the queue. Additional desks will be made available to these passengers so that the maximum
queuing time is kept to a minimum.
Sizing of the passenger processing hall depends on the number of passengers using the facility during the
peak period, the proportion of premium passengers, the processing rate, the space provision per person as
well as the maximum queuing time. Please refer to traffic forecast chapter (see Chapter 2.11 Peak Period
Forecasts) for explanation on how to calculate the peak hour passenger (PHP) volumes.
Because of the nature of the passenger arrival distribution profiles at various service facilities, the peak period
is not simply the PHP evenly distributed over the hour. Peaks occur within shorter time intervals and these
must be considered when calculating requirements. At a minimum, the peak 30-minute volume is required.
The peak 30-minutes factor is usually derived from the flight schedules. When such information is not
available, assumptions may be made.

3.4.11.7 Self-Service Facilities
Variables influencing the sizing of self-service facilities are similar to those utilized for traditional check-in
desks see Chapter 3.4.11.9 Traditional Check-in. The differences lie in the much lower footprint occupied by
the facility and the reduced maximum accepted queuing time.
3.4.11.7.1 Analytical Approach and Capacity Equation
These acronyms are used in the equations that follow:
SSI = Approximate Number of Self-Service Kiosks

PHP = Originating Peak Hour Passengers
Cf = Correction Factor for Demand Variability (see reference table)
PK = Peak 30-minute Factor (in % of PHP)
SSR = Ratio of Passengers Using Self-Service Kiosks
PT = Process Time per Passenger at Self-Service Kiosk (in seconds)
MQT = Maximum Queuing Time (in minutes)
A = Area Required for the Self-Service Kiosks
SS = Total Number of Self-Service Kiosks
SSa = Area Occupied by a Single Self-Service Kiosk, (obtained from typical dimensions)
AA Adjustment Area for a Single Self-Service Kiosk (to account for additional area needed for
layout-obtained from typical dimensions)
QMAX = Maximum Number of Passengers Waiting in Queue
Qf = QMAX Correction Factor (see reference table)
SP = Space per Person (in m2)
CAF = Circulation Area Factor (in %)
Step 1: Calculate the approximate number of self-service kiosks using the following equation:
SSi = (PHP * PK * SSR * PT / 60) / (30 + MQT)
Step 2: Adjust requirements to account for variability in passenger arrival distribution within the peak period
and in processing time using the following equation:
SS = SSi * Cf

Where:
Correction Factor (Cf) for Demand Variability (when less than 30 minute peak)
For MQT CF
3 1.21
4 1.22
5 1.15
10 1.06
15 1.01
20 1.00
25 1.00
30 1.00
The smaller the MQT, the greater the variability in demand over the 30-minute period analysis.
Step 3: Calculate the maximum number of passengers in queue using the following equation:
QMAX = Qf * Peak 30-min
Where Qf equals:
QMAX Calculation Factor (Qf)

MQT Qf
3 0.120
4 0.151
5 0.183
10 0.289
15 0.364
20 0.416
25 0.453
30 0.495
Step 4: Calculate the area required for the self-service process using the following equation:
A = [(SS * SSa * AA) + (QMAX * SP)] * (1 + CAF)
It must be noted that the adjustment factor applies only to the equipment (kiosk) footprint. Since the
equipment is relatively small, it cannot be aligned like traditional desks. Space is needed around it to allow
passengers to make their transaction in a comfortable way. The adjustment factor (AA) depends on the layout
and configuration of the kiosks.
The circulation area factor (CAF) is introduced to provide additional space for circulating through and around
this processing area.

3.4.11.7.2 Sample Calculation
Calculate the self-service kiosk requirements assuming the following variables:
Acronym Definition Values

SSi Approximate number of Self-Service Kiosks Output
PHP Originating Peak Hour Passengers 1700
PK Peak 30-minute Factor (in % of PHP) 82%
SSR Ratio of Passengers Using Self-Service Kiosks 10%
PT Process Time per Passenger at Self-Service Kiosk (in seconds) 120
MQT Maximum Queuing Time (in minutes) 3
A Area Required for the Self-Service Kiosks Output
SS Total Number of Self-Service Kiosks Output
SSa Area Occupied by a Single Self-Service Kiosk 0.36
AA Adjustment Area for a Single Self-Service Kiosk (to account for layout) 3
QMAX Maximum Number of Passengers Waiting in Queue Output
SP Space per Person (in m2) 1.5
CAF Circulation Area Factor (in %) 35%
Note: It is important to always round up in these calculations to ensure adequate supply of facilities.
Step 1: Calculate the approximate number of self-service kiosks.
SSi = (PHP * PK * SSR * PT / 60) / (30 + MQT)
SSi = (1700 * 0.82 * 0.10 * 120 / 60) / (30 + 3)
SSi = 8.44, say 9 kiosks
Step 2: Calculate the adjustment (Cf) to account for variability in demand with respect to the desired MQT.
SS = SSi * Cf
SS = 9 * 1.21
SS = 10.89, say 11 kiosks
Step 3: Calculate the maximum number of passengers in queue.
QMAX = 0.120 * 1700 * 0.82 * 0.1
QMAX = 17 passengers

Step 4: Calculate the required area.
A = [(SS * SSa * AA) + (QMAX * SP)] * (1 + CAF)
A = (11 * 0.36 * 3 + 17* 1.5) * (1 + 0.35)
A = 50.46 or 51 m2
3.4.11.8 Baggage Drop Facilities
BD (Y/J/f) Approximate Number of Baggage Drop Positions for Economy/Business/First Class

Passenger
p (j/o = Proportion of Business/First Class Passengers (in % of PHP)
CR = Ratio of Passengers Using Traditional Check-in Facilities
PT (Y/J/f) Process Time per Passenger at Baggage Drop for Economy/Business/First Class (in
seconds)
MQT(Y/J/f) = Maximum Queuing Time for Economy/Business/First Class Passengers (in minutes)
A = Area Required for the Baggage Drop Facility
BD = Total Number of Baggage Drop Positions
BDd = Depth of the Baggage Drop Process Area (in meters), including a courtesy distance
between desks and queue. Obtained from typical dimensions
BDw = Width of One Baggage Drop Position (in meters). Obtained from typical dimensions
QMAX = Maximum Number of Passengers Waiting in Queue at Baggage Drop
W = Corridor Width (in meters).*
The corridor width will vary with the importance of passenger flows. The planner may obtain corridor width from standard
calculations. A minimum width of four meters should be provided in low volume areas.
Step 1: Calculate the approximate number of baggage drop positions using the following equations:
BDy = (PHP * PK * (1 - Pj - Pf) * (1 - CR) * PTy / 60) / (30 + MQTy)
BDj = (PHP * PK * Pj * (1 - CR) * PTj / 60) / (30 + MQTj)
BDf = (PHP * PK * Pf * (1 - CR) * PTf / 60) / (30 + MQTf)

The peak 30-minute factor is usually derived from the flight schedules. When such information is not
BD = BDy * Cf + BDj * Cf + BDf * Cf
Where:
Correction Factor (Cf) for Demand Variability (when less than 30 minute peak)
For MQT CF
3 1.21
4 1.22
5 1.15
10 1.06
15 1.01
20 1.00
25 1.00
30 1.00
The smaller the MQT, the greater the variability in demand over the 30-minute period analysis. The correction
factor will apply to each desk type.
Step 3: Calculate the maximum number of passengers in queue using the following equation:
Where Qf equals:

MQT Qf
3 0.120
4 0.151
5 0.183
10 0.289
15 0.364
20 0.416
25 0.453
30 0.495
Step 3a, b or c: Calculate the number of economy OR business OR first-class passengers in the queue by
looking at the individual Peak 30-minute Factor for that particular segment, as used in Step 1.

Note: Calculate the number of economy, business and first class passengers in the queue by looking at the
individual Peak 30-Minute Factor for that segment and then add the segments together to calculate the total.
Step 4: Calculate the area required for the baggage drop facility using the following equation:
A = (BD * BDd * BDw) + QMAX * SP + (BD * BDw * W)
The corridor width will vary with the importance of the passenger flows. The planner can obtain corridor widths
from standard calculations. A minimum width of four meters should be provided in low-volume areas.
Estimate the LoS of the baggage drop facility (with an available area of 1375 m2) given the following
variables.

BD (Y/J/f) Approximate Number of Baggage Drop Positions for Output
Economy/Business/First Class Passengers
p (j/o Proportion of Business/First Class Passengers (in % of PHP) J = 15%/f = 0%
CR Ratio of Passengers Using Traditional Check-in Facilities 30%
PT (Y/J/f) Process Time per Passenger at Baggage Drop for Economy/Business/First Y = 110/J = 100
Class (in seconds)
MQT(Y/J/f) Maximum Queuing Time for Economy/Business/First Class Passengers (in Y = 10/J = 3
minutes)
A Area Required for the Baggage Drop Facility Output
BD Total Number of Baggage Drop Positions Output
BDd Depth of the Baggage Drop Process Area (in meters), including a courtesy 2.5m
distance between desks and queue
BDw Width of One Baggage Drop Position (in meters). Obtained from Typical 2m
dimensions
QMAX Maximum Number of Passengers Waiting in Queue at Baggage Drop Output
SP Space per Person (in m2) 1.3-1.8
W Corridor Width (in meters). 4
Step 1: Calculate the approximate number of baggage drop positions required for each type of passenger.
BDy = (PHP * PK * (1 - Pj - Pf) * (1 - CR) * PTY/ 60) / (30 + MQTY)
BDy = (2500 * 0.60 * (1 - 0.15 - 0) * (1 - 0.30) * 110 / 60) / (30 + 10)
BDy = 40.9, say 41 baggage drop positions for economy class passengers

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IA TA OIL Airport Development Reference Manual
BDj = (PHP * PK * Pj * (1 - CR) * PTj / 60) / (30 + MQTj)
BDj = (2500 * 0.60 * 0.15 * (1 - 0.30) * 100 / 60) / (30 + 3)
BDj = 7.95, say 8 baggage drop positions for business class passengers
Step 2: Adjust requirements to account for variability in demand.
BD = BDy * Cf + BDj * Cf + BDf * Cf
BD = 41 *1.06 + 8*1.21
BD = 53.14, say 54 baggage drop positions in total
Step 3: Calculate the number of passengers in queue.
Step 3a: Calculate the number of economy/business class passengers in queue.
QMAXY = 0.289 * 2500 * 0.60 * (1 - 0.15 - 0) * (1 - 0.30)
QMAXy = 257.8, say 258 economy class passengers
QMAXj = 0.120 * 2500 * 0.60 * 0.15 * (1 - 0.30)
QMAXj = 18.9, say 19 business class passengers
Step 3b: Calculate the total number of passengers in queue for baggage drop
QMAX = 258 + 19 = 277 passengers in queue for baggage drop
Step 4: Verify under which LoS conditions the baggage drop facility operates.
Step 4a: Estimate the area requirements for providing a lower boundary Optimum LoS.
A = (BD * BDd * BDw) + QMAX * SP + (BD * BDw * W)
A = (54 * 2.0 * 2.5) + (277 * 1.3) + (54 * 2.0 * 4.0)
A = 1062.1 m2

Step 4b: Estimate the area requirements for an upper boundary Optimum LoS.
A = (54 * 2.0 * 2.5) + (277 * 1.8) + (54 * 2.0 * 4.0)
A = 1200.6 m2
The available area for the bag drop is 1375 m2. The facility can therefore comfortably fit within the space
available, however it would appear that the given area is slightly over designed for the level of demand tested.
3.4.11.9 Traditional Check-In (Not Recommended)
CD(Y/J/f) = Approximate Number of Check-in Desks for Economy/Business/First Class Passengers

p (j/o = Proportion of Business/First Class Passengers (in % of PHP)
PT(Y/J/f) Process Time per Passenger at Check-in Desks for Economy/Business/First Class
Passengers (in seconds)
MQT(Y/J/f) = Maximum Queuing Time for Economy/Business/First Class Passengers (in minutes)
A = Area Required for the Check-in Desks Facility
CD = Total Number of Check-in Desks
CDd Depth of the Check-in Process Area (in meters), including a courtesy distance between
desks and queue. Obtained from typical dimensions
CDw = Width of One Check-in Desk (in meters). Obtained from typical dimensions
QMAX = Maximum Number of Passengers Waiting in Queue at Check-in Desks
W = Corridor Width (in meters)*
Step 1: Calculate the approximate number of desks using the following equations:
CDy = (PHP * PK * (1 - Pj - Pf) * CR * PTy / 60) / (30 + MQTY)
CDj = (PHP * PK * Pj * CR * PTj / 60) / (30 + MQTj)
CDf = (PHP * PK * Pf * CR * PTf / 60) / (30 + MQTf)

The peak 30-minute factor is usually derived from the flight schedules. When such information is not
CD = CDy * Cf + CDj * Cf + CDf * Cf
Where:
Correction Factor (Cf) for Demand Variability (when less than 30 min. peak)
For M QT CF
3 1.21
4 1.22
5 1.15
10 1.06
15 1.01
20 1.00
25 1.00
30 1.00
The smaller the MQT, the greater the variability in demand over the 30-minute period analysis. The correction
factor (CF) will apply to each desk type.
Step 3: Calculate the maximum number of passengers in the queue using the following equation:
Step 3a. Calculate the number of economy OR business OR first class passengers in the queue by looking at
the individual Peak 30-minute demand for that particular segment, as used in Step 1.
Note: Calculate the number of economy, business and first class passengers in the queue by looking at the
individual Peak 30-Minute Factor for that segment and then add the segments together to calculate the total.
Where Qf equals:
Q M A X C a lc u la tio n F a c to r (Q f)
MQT Qf
3 0.120
4 0.151
5 0.183
10 0.289
15 0.364
20 0.416
25 0.453
30 0.495

Note: When designing a queue area at a processing facility, the planner should choose either a single or
snake queue layout. The typical width of a queue should be between 1.4 and 1.6 meters.
Step 4: Calculate the area required for the passenger processing element of the departures hall using the
following equation:
A = (CD * CDd * CDw) + QMAX * SP + (CD * CDw * W)
Remember that the passenger processing hall is composed of the process area (CD * CDd * CDw), plus the
queuing area (QMAX * SP), plus a circulation area (CD * CDw * W).

Note: Provision of traditional “check-in” facilities is NOT recommended.
Calculate the check-in desk (traditional) requirements assuming the following variables:

CD(Y/J/f) Approximate Number of Service Desks for Economy/Business/First Output
Class Passengers
p (j/o Proportion of Business/First Class Passengers (in % of PHP) j = 10%/f = 5%
PT(Y/J/f) Process Time per Passenger at Service Desks for Y = 140/J = 150/f = 150
Economy/Business/First Class Passengers (in seconds)
MQT(Y/J/f) Maximum Queuing Time for Economy/Business/First Class Y = 20/J = 5/f = 3
Passengers (in minutes)
A Area Required for the Service Desks Facility Output
CD Total Number of Service Desks Output
CDd Depth of the Check-in Process Area (in meters) 2.5
CDw Width of One Service Desk (in meters) 2
QMAX Maximum Number of Passengers Waiting in Queue at Desks Output
W Corridor Width (in meters) 4
Step 1: Calculate the approximate number of desks for each type of passengers:
CDy = (PHP * PK * (1 - Pj - Pf) * CR * PTy / 60) / (30 + MQTY)
CDy = (3600 * 0.50 * (1 - 0.10 - 0.05) * 0.50 * 140 / 60) / (30 + 20)
CDy = 35.7, say 36 economy class service desks

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IA TA OIL Airport Development Reference Manual
CDj = (PHP * PK * Pj * CR * PTj / 60) / (30 + MQTj)
CDj = (3600 * 0.50 * 0.10 * 0.50 * 150 / 60) / (30 + 5)
CDj = 6.42, say 7 business class service desks
CDf = (PHP * PK * Pf * CR * PTf / 60) / (30 + MQTf)
CD, = (3600 * 0.50 * 0.05 * 0.50 * 150 / 60) / (30 + 3)
CDf = 3.40, say 4 first class service desks
Step 2: Adjust requirements to account for variability in peak demand.
CD = CDy * Cf + CDj * Cf + CDf * Cf
CD = 36 * 1.00 + 7 * 1.15 + 4 * 1.21
CD = 48.89, say 49 service desks
QMAXY = 0.416 * (3600 * 0.50 * (1 - 0.10 - 0.05) * 0.50)
QMAXy = 318.2, say 319 economy class passengers
QMAXj = 0.183 * (3600 * 0.50 * 0.10 * 0.50)
QMAXj = 16.4, say 17 business class passengers
QMAX, = 0.120 * (3600 * 0.50 * 0.05 * 0.50)
QMAX, = 5.4, say 6 first class passengers
Step 3b: Calculate the total number of passengers in queue for check-in desks.
QMAX = 319+ 17 + 6

Step 4: Calculate the required area for the complete service area*.
A = (CD * CDd * CDw) + QMAX * SP + (CD * CDw * W)
A = (49 * 2.5 * 2.0) + (342 * 1.4) + (49 * 2.0 * 4.0)
A = 1115.8 m2
* This can be worked out separately for each passenger processing area as required, by passenger type or
airline.
This is assuming that the depth of processing (including provision for counter depth, a conveyor belt and the
process area for passengers and a small privacy area) is 2.5 meters, the width of a check-in desk is
2.0 meters and a circulation corridor behind the queue is 4 meters.
3.4.11.10 Emigration and Immigration
Vision
Emigration and immigration should be provided as an automated service, making best use of modern
electronic passport and biometric control technologies.
Policy
It is recommended that emigration and immigration functions be implemented in centralized, consolidated

locations within airport terminals.
Facilities should be adequately sized and include generous queue spaces including buffer or overflow queuing
to manage contingency operations, and should be expandable to cater to future traffic increases or
technological changes.
Passport or border control services (generally referred to as “Emigration” and/or "Immigration”) are provided
by governments in order to examine passengers and crew on arrival/departure at/from ports of entry in order
to establish whether they are properly documented and that they have the right to enter or exit the respective
territory. These government agencies will typically require a review and approval process for all design
solutions. On departure, the authorities track when the passenger departs the territory, and verify that the
passenger is not departing for reasons of law enforcement. Passengers and crew should present the required
travel documentation on arrival at primary inspection points. Some countries may also inspect documentation
on exit from the territory.

Emigration and immigration agents use dedicated national and, where possible, international databases to
validate bona fide travelers. Some authorities emphasize pre-entry and on-entry control, while others
concentrate on after-entry activities.
However, there has been a shift toward international cooperation on emigration and immigration issues and
many states are moving toward a multilateral approach to passenger processing. This approach has been
facilitated by the increase in the use of machine-readable passports and the capture and verification of
biometric data.
3.4.11.10.2 Passenger-Type Separation
In accordance with ICAO Annex. 17, clause 4.3.3, the separation of departing and arriving passengers is
essential where departing passengers have entered the airside environment after undergoing security and
emigration inspections. It is subsequently recommended that all departing international airside passengers not
be permitted to mingle with arriving passengers in common areas.
Passengers must be separated by means of physical barriers, which must not be capable of being breached
by passengers. The structure must be considered to be permanently fixed and of sufficient height and
structure to prevent cross-filtration of flows of passengers and/or goods between departing and arriving
passengers. Where physical barriers are not possible, passengers must be segregated by means of airport
security staff, assigned to stations proportionate to traffic flow. Carefully developed security protocols need to
be developed in this regard.
In order to assess the number of required emigration and immigration desks or channels, the passenger
segmentation policy must determine if desks are to be provided equally to all passengers, or whether
dedicated channels will be provided (i.e., Fast Lanes, Family Lanes or other premium lanes).
3.4.11.11 Departures Requirements: Emigration
Emigration staff located at ceparture points need to have access to dedicated databases to validate the
identity of outbound travelers. Passengers who are improperly documented will be stopped by staff and may
be taken off line for further scrutiny.
Where required, terminal planners should provide suitably sized departure emigration control desks/kiosks. In
addition to the main outbound emigration processing channels, common administration offices should also oe
provided.
Departing passengers interview rooms should also be provided in a landside location and should be
considered as secure rooms. The layout should be determined following consultation with the local emigration
and immigration government body.
Each government has its ov/n domestic legislative provisions regarding outbound controls of passengers and
their baggage. Many governments, in light of perceived threats to border integrity, require routine inspection of
some or all baggage of departing passengers. Screening baggage for explosive material is also

commonplace, and permanent but flexible infrastructure should allow airlines to carry out such inspection
where required.
3.4.11.11.1 Centralized or Decentralized Emigration
Emigration desks or channels can be centralized to make best use of resources, be it the number of channels
or desks, or the number of emigration staff required to control the passengers. Depending on government
regulations, emigration may occur before or after passenger security screening checkpoints. This location is
critical in certain conditions where an airport may be able to benefit from the ability to “mix” domestic and
international departing passengers within a combined departures hall.
Emigration control can also be carried out in a decentralized manner, with control booths or desks at the
gates, or a group of gates. In this case, the gate (or group of gates) is designed as an enclosed zone. After
passport control, passengers are not allowed to leave the enclosed gate area without an immigration passport
check.
3.4.11.11.2 Sizing Emigration
Sizing of these facilities greatly depends on the passenger throughput coming out of the various initial
processing facilities, as well as on the number of passengers who obtained their flight documents via web
technologies. The analysis period is over the peak 30 minutes.
If departure emigration control is located before the security checkpoint, the passenger volume to consider
corresponds to the peak 30-minute throughput from the initial processing facilities with the addition of those
passengers who by-pass initial processing (i.e., web/mobile). If emigration is situated after security the
passenger volume corresponds to the peak 30-minute output from security.
PK30MIN = Throughput Demand from Initial Processing

CD = Number of Service Desks Open
PTcd = Process Time for Service at Desks
BD = Number of Baggage Drop Positions Open
PTbd = Process Time at Baggage Drop
BR = Ratio of Passengers Using Baggage Drop Facilities
PDi = Approximate Number of Departure Passport Control Desks

= Process Time per Passenger at Departure Passport Control (in seconds)

PTpd
A = Area Required for the Departure Passport Control Facility
PD = Total Number of Departure Control Desks
PDd = Depth of One Departure Control Desk (in meters). Obtained from typical dimensions
PDw = Width of One Departure Control Desk (in meters). Obtained from typical dimensions
SP = Space psr Person (in m2)
W = Corridor Width Behind Desks (in meters)*
calculations. A minimum width of foui meters should be provided in low volume areas.
Step 1: Calculate the demand output from the previous processor. The demand includes passenger volume
from:
• The service desks (CD);
• The self-service booths (SSCB); and
• Web/mobile processing
PK30MIN = (CD * 60 / PTcd * 30) + (BD * 60 / PTBD * 30) + (PHP * PK * (1 - (CR + BR))
Step 2: Calculate the approximate number of emigration control desks using the following equation:
PDi = (PK30M.N* PTpd / 60) / (30 + MQT)
PD = PDi * Cf
Where:
For MQT CF
3 1.2 1
4 1.2 2
5 1.15
10 1.06
15 1.0 1
20 1.0 0
25 1.0 0
30 1.0 0

Step 4: Calculate the maximum number of passengers in queue using the following formula:
Where Qf equals:

MQT Qf
3 0.120
4 0.151
5 0.183
10 0.289
15 0.364
20 0.416
25 0.453
30 0.495
Note: When designing a queue area at departure emigration control facilities, the planner should consider a
single or snake queue layout. Typical width of a queue at departure emigration control should be between 1.0
and 1.2 meters.
Step 5: Calculate the area required for the departure emigration control using the following equation:
A = (PD * PDd * PDw) + QMAX * SP + (PD * PDw * W)
The area consists of the processing area, the queuing area and a circulation area after process to allow
passengers to get to the next facility.
The corridor width will vary with the importance of the passenger flows. The planner may obtain the corridor
width from standard calcula:ions. A minimum width of three meters should be provided in low volume areas.
Calculate the departure passport control facility requirements assuming the following variables:

PK30MIN Throughput Demand from Initial Processing Output
CD Number of Processing Desks Open 60
PTcd Process Time for at Desks 135
BD Number of Bagcage Drop Positions Open 20
PTbd Process Time at Baggage Drop 130
BR Ratio of Passengers Using Baggage Drop Facilities 15%


PDi Approximate Number of Departure Passport Control Desks Output
PTpd Process Time per Passenger at Departure Passport Control (in seconds) 60
A Area Required for the Departure Passport Control Facility Output
PD Total Number of Departure Control Desks Output
PDd Depth of One Departure Control Desk (in meters). 3
PDw Width of One Departure Control Desk (in meters). 2.2
SP Space per Person (in m2) 1
W Corridor Width Behind Desks (in meters) 3.5
Step 1: Calculate the demand throughput from initial processing.
PK3oMIN = (CD * 60 / PTcd * 30) + (BD * 60 / PTBD * 30) + (PHP * PK * (1 - (CR + BR))
PK30M,n = (60 * 60 / 135 * 30) + (20 * 60 / 130 * 30) + (2450 * 0.65 * (1 - (0.80 + 0.15))
PKsomin = 1156.54, say 1157 passengers
Step 2: Calculate the approximate number of passport control desks.
PDi = (PK30MIN * PTpd / 60) / (30 + MQT)
PDi = (1157 * 60 / 60) / (30 + 7)
PDi = 31.27, say 32 departure passport control desks
Step 3: Adjust the requirements to account for variability in demand over the 30 minute period.
PD = PDi * Cf
PD = 32 * 1.11 = 35.52, say 36 departure passport control desks
QMAX = 0.223 * 1157

Step 5: Calculate the required area for the departure passport control process.
A = (PD * PDd * PDw) + QMAX * SP + (PD * PDw * W)
A = (32 * 3.0 * 2.2) + (258 * 1.0) + (32 * 2.2 * 3.5)
A = 715.6 m2
3.4.11.12 Passenger Security Screening
V is io n
Security screening should become a process that minimizes the physical interface of passengers with
screening equipment, and avoids the need for passenger divesting.
Natural light should be provided to all areas where passengers will be queuing.
It should be designed as a one-stop process, ideally combined with emigration control and boarding pass
check.
Policy
Security screening should be provided as a single facility in a consolidated location, logically located within
the context of other termina facilities and the passenger journey.
It should provide ample pre-check spaces, generous queuing spaces including overflow or buffer queuing, as
well as regrouping and orientation spaces after the search process.
Areas provided should be expandable, safeguarding for technological changes or increased screening
requirements.
It should provide ample information about the process to passengers and prepare them for the screening
process.
The purpose of these facilities is to grant passengers access to secured (security-restricted) airside areas of
the terminal facilities as part of the departures journey. To gain access, passengers and their hand luggage
are security controlled by specific equipment and personnel to ascertain that the passengers do not pose any
threat (such as carrying explosives) to the airport facilities, aircraft, other passengers, staff or themselves.
Passengers' checked luggage is also security screened before being cleared for loading onto an aircraft.
The relevant national and international regulations as well as local procedures for design need to be
considered for the adequate planning of security screening facilities. These have changed significantly over

the past decades, and are likely to change again depending on future security threats and screening
technologies. The relevant government authorities must be consulted early during the planning process to
ensure all security requirements are considered.
The IAT A Fast Travel program emphasizes the importance of reducing the complexity of security screening
and aims to provide the most simple and least invasive search of passengers. However, reality shows that
such a simplified process is as yet unachievable. Nevertheless, every effort should be made to reduce stress
for passengers and provide a most intuitive search process that reduces disruption to the passenger journey
as much as possible.
Exhibit 3.4.11.12.1: Smart Security
Source: IATA
The foreseeable technological trends aim to reduce the amount of divesting a passenger has to undertake jp
to the point where divesting might become unnecessary. At the same time, they aim to increase the safety
provided to passengers by deploying better scanning and detection technologies. Another trend is the
automation of the search process and the installation of efficient remote scanner operating rooms. The
terminal planner must investigate the existing and upcoming technologies in association with relevant security
stakeholders.
As the evolution of future security threats is unforeseeable, it is imperative for the terminal planner to account
for future increases in the size of search equipment, as well as for increases in processing times. It is
therefore paramount to plan for future flexibility and minimize constraints as much as possible (e.g., additional
electrical and other services, increased slab load capacities and expandable footprints).
The location and size of passenger security screening areas will be dictated primarily by passenger volume
and by the spatial requirements of the selected screening equipment. Careful attention should be given to tne
number, type, configuration and positioning of screening areas so as to facilitate the flow of passengers
through the terminal and the search area. Consideration will need to be given to the issues of queuing,
physical search, and passengers requiring additional processing.

3.4.11.12.2 Centralized Facilities versus Decentralized Facilities
Security screening is a resource-intensive process, and is therefore usually provided in a centralized location.
It is not recommended that security screening be carried out at the gate unless there are special regulatory
conditions that require this. However, where security screening is performed at the departure gate, the area
should be secured from adjacent areas that might be considered "landside", or "public", or “non secure”.
3.4.11.12.3 Elements of the Search Process
The following functions should be considered for the planning of the security screening areas:
• Passenger preparation areas;
• Queuing areas;
• Divesting processes;
• Ample space for passengers;
• Provisions of trays for hand luggage;
• Tray return systems;
• X-ray screening equipment or similar for hand luggage;
• Walk-through (archway) metal detectors;
• Full body imaging portals;

• Shoe scanners, where required;
• Onload and offload belts for hand luggage;
• Manual search areas for passengers;
• Inspection areas for hand luggage;
• Seats and desks to repack hand luggage;
• Passenger privacy;
• Regrouping and orientation space after search;
• Ample space for staff;

• Additional search rooms; and
• Staff facilities, observation rooms and general accommodation.
The following provides a typical layout of a search lane pair, with what can be considered ‘best practice’
dimensions for each area and is a function of the search facility tabled below. These are provided for
guidance, based on the IATA Recommended Practice (RP 1701 h) Security Checkpoint Access and Egress.

Exhibit 3.4.11.12.3a: Search Lane Pair
Pre-screening Egress
Divest Composure
+ queuing seating
I
F
Source: IATA
Exhibit 3.4.11.12.3b: Security Checkpoint Function Typical Dimensions
Security Checkpoint Function AVERAGE LOWER LIMIT UPPER LIMIT

cm cm cm
A Pre-screening and Queuing 737 400 1150
B Divest 247 100 450
C Composure 281 100 525
D Egress Seating 375 200 700
E 196 100 300
F 413 400 444
Source: IATA
3.4.11.12.4 Passenger Segmentation
Passenger segmentation describes a process which assigns different search lanes to different passenger
groups based on different processing needs, processing throughput, or queuing standards. Typical
segmentation policies include provisions for fast lanes, or premium lanes, as well as for family or assistance
lanes. Other policies can include segmentation based on the level of preparedness of a traveler for search,
with lanes dedicated to well-prepared/divested passengers, for example.

3.4.11.12.5 VIP Facilities
VIP facilities require careful consideration as the individuals using them may be subject to a high level of
personal threat. Facilities should allow for control of the VIPs and those involved with their reception and
departure procedures. The facilities should incorporate a dedicated screening area for processing, and for
keeping cabin baggage and checked baggage separate from the normal passenger operations.
While typically VIP facilities straddle the airside/landside boundary, the standard of access control should be
no less than at other access points. Arrangements for the use of these facilities should ensure the integrity of
the boundary between the landside and the airside. VIP facilities must be secured when not in use.
3.4.11.12.6 Technical Considerations
In the selection of suitable locations for passenger security search areas at which walk-through metal
detectors and X-ray equipment are to be used, it is essential that sufficient reliable power outlets be provided
It is also necessary to consider the effects of electric fields generated by other types of equipment, such as
elevators and conveyor belts, etc. The mass of structural steel in a building may also have an adverse effect.
It is not possible to recommend minimum distances from such interferences because of variables unique to
each location. Further guidance is best obtained from the equipment manufacturers.
3.4.11.12.7 Future Safeguarding
Threat levels and available technologies can change, as can passenger volumes. Therefore, security
screening areas should always be planned to allow for future adjustments, both in width and depth. Such
flexibility can cater to potential increases in the size of screening equipment, increased screening
requirements or updated technology which can produce different screening processes. This flexibility can be
addressed by providing subfloor electrical capacity and floor-flush outlets to accommodate additional or
relocated equipment. Similarly, mechanical systems need to be designed to accommodate flexibility.
3.4.11.12.8 Sizing of Security Screening Facilities
Processes and procedures may vary greatly between jurisdictions and planners/designers need to understand
the locally applicable processes and procedures in order to provide adequate facilities. If departure emigration
control is present and is located before the security checkpoint, the passenger volume to consider
corresponds to the peak 30-minute throughput from the departure emigration control facility. If there is no
departure emigration control, or it is situated after security, then the passenger volume to consider for the
security checkpoint corresponds to the peak 30-minute throughput from the initial processing facilities with the
addition of those passengers who by-pass initial processing (i.e., use web/mobile processing).

PK30MIN = Throughput 30-minute Demand

CD = Number of Service Desks Open
PTcd = Process Time for Service at Desks (in seconds)
BD = Number of Baggage Drop Positions Open
PTrd = Process Time at Baggage Drop (in seconds)
BR = Ratio of Passengers Using Baggage Drops
PD = Number of Departure Passport Control Desks
PTpp = Process Time for Departure Passport Control (in seconds)
SECi = Approximate Number of Security Lanes
PTsec = Process Time per Passenger at Security (in seconds)*
A = Area Required for the Security Checkpoint Facility
SEC = Total Number of Security Lanes
SECd = Depth of One Security Lane (in meters). Obtained from typical dimensions
SECw = Width of One Security Lane (in meters). Obtained from typical dimensions
W = Corridor Width Behind Lanes (in meters)**
The process time at security is rather a throughput time since the lanes may serve multiple passengers at the same time. The
process time is the number of passengers served per period of time, translated into seconds/passenger. For example, if a facility
can process an average of 40 persons in 20 minutes, the process time is 30 seconds per passenger.
Step 1: Calculate the demand from the previous processor.
Condition A: No departure emigration control facility.
The demand includes that from:

• The processing desks (CD);
• The self-service kiosks; and
• Those who by-passed the processing desks using web/mobile processing.
Use the following formula:
PK30M,N= (CD * 60 / PTCD * 30) + (BD * 60 / PTBD* 30) + (PHP * PK * (1 - (CR + BR))

Condition B: Departure emigration facility exists and is located prior to the security checkpoint; use the
following formula:
PK30MIN = PD * 60 / PTpd * 30
Step 2: Calculate the approximate number of security lanes using the following equation:
SECi = (PK30min * PTsec / 60) / (30 + MQT)
SEC = SECi * Cf
Where:
For MQT CF
3 1.2 1
4 1.2 2
5 1.15
10 1.06
15 1.0 1
20 1.0 0
25 1.0 0
30 1.0 0
Where Qf equals:

MQT Qf
3 0 .12 0
4 0.151
5 0.183
10 0.289
15 0.364
20 0.416
25 0.453
30 0.495

Note: When designing a queue area at a security checkpoint facility, the planner should consider a single or
snake queue layout. The typical width of a queue at a security checkpoint should be between 1.2 and 1.4
meters.
Step 5: Calculate the area required for the security checkpoint using the following equation:
A = (SEC * SECd * SECw) + QMAX * SP + (SEC * SECw * W)
The area consists of the processing area, the queuing area and a circulation area after the process to allow
passengers to get to the next facility. The corridor width will vary with the importance of passenger flows. The
planner may obtain the corridor width from standard calculations. A minimum width of three meters should be
provided in low volume areas Please refer to typical layout and dimension figures
Calculate the security checkpoint facility requirements assuming the following variables:

PK30MIN Throughput 30-minute Demand Output
CD Number of Service Desks Open 60
PTcd Process Time for Service at Desks (in seconds) 135
BD Number of Bagcage Drop Positions Open 20
PTbd Process Time at Baggage Drop (in seconds) 130

BR Ratio of Passengers Using Baggage Drops 15%
PD Number of Departure Passport Control Desks Not Required
PTpc Process Time for Departure Passport Control (in seconds) Not Required
SECi Approximate Number of Security Lanes Output
PTSec Process Time per Passenger at Security (in seconds)* 30
A Area Required for the Security Checkpoint Facility Output
SEC Total Number of Security Lanes Output
SECd Depth of One Security Lane (in meters). Obtained from typical dimensions 6
SECw Width of One Security Lane (in meters). Obtained from typical dimensions 3
W Corridor Width Behind Lanes (in meters)* 3.5

Step 1: Calculate the demand throughput from initial processing.
PKsomin = (CD * 60 / PTCD * 30) + (BD * 60 / PTBD* 30) + (PHP * PK * (1 - (CR + BR))
PK30MIN = (60 * 60 / 135 * 30) + (20 * 60 / 130 * 30) + (2450 * 0.65 * (1 -(0.80 + 0.15))
PK30MIN = 1156.54, say 1157 passengers
Step 2: Calculate the approximate number of security checkpoint lanes.
SECi = (PK30MIN * PTsec / 60) / (30 + MQT)
SECi = (1157 * 30 / 60) / (30 + 7)
SECi = 15.63, say 16 security lanes
Step 3: Adjust the requirements to account for variability in demand over the 30 minute period
SEC = SECi * Cf
SEC = 16 * 1.11 = 17.76, say 18 security lanes
QMAX = 0.223 * PK30MIN = 0.223 * 1157
Step 5: Calculate the required area for the security checkpoint process.
A = (SEC * SECd * SECw) + QMAX * SP + (SEC * SECw * W)
A = (18 * 3.0 * 2.2) + (258 * 1.0) + (18 * 2.2 * 3.5)
A = 515.4 m2
3.4.11.13 Departure Lounge
Vision
The departure lounge should be an open, generous and unobstructed space. It should provide a calm
environment with ample natural light and give passengers the opportunity to see aircraft.

Policy
It is recommended that a single, common departure lounge be provided and contain:
• Adequate space and seating for passengers waiting for their gate to be announced;
• Biometric profiling to allow domestic and international passengers to use the same lounge area;
• Integrated commercial offerings (Making it Pay)',
• A passenger service center for dealing with irregular operations (automated self-service facilities
preferred);
• Easily identifiable direct routings to allow passengers access to the gates;

• Clear and obvious signage with natural orientation.
After proceeding to the secured airside areas of the terminal (by passing all required government controls),
passengers should be provided with restful spaces to wait for their aircraft's departure. These waiting spaces
can be formulated differently, but usually consist of one or several departure lounges, boarding gate areas,
and if required, transit lounges.
In terms of a positive passenger experience at the airport, the departure lounge represents one of the most
important spaces at the airport, as passengers may have to spend substantial waiting time in it.
The routes toward the next steps in the passenger journey should be clearly visible from within the departure
lounge, providing passengers with the most intuitive path to their gates.
Depending on regional expectations and traffic mix, the departure lounge should also provide diverse and
differentiated entertainment and commercial offerings to the passengers.
3.4.11.13.2 Departure Lounge Layout and Functions
Departure lounges, gate lounges and transit lounges may occur in terminals as three separate areas or as
one integrated space. The design layout depends greatly on traffic characteristics, government controls and
airline procedures, as they apply to the three main categories of passengers who use departure lounge
facilities, namely:
• Originating passengers arriving from landside;
• Transferring passengers arriving directly to the airside and transferring to another flight (who should be
processed on the airside);
• Transit passengers arriving directly to the airside and continuing their trip on the same flight (who should
always remain on the airside).

The departure lounge is a space provided to accommodate originating and transferring passengers who have
checked in and cleared government controls, but who are still awaiting their boarding gate. Transit
passengers with long connection times also tend to use this area.
The departure lounge should provide ample waiting space, with seating and resting opportunities. The
following functions should be considered for inclusion in the departure lounge:
(a) Seating
Ample seating should be provided for waiting passengers. Different seating types and arrangements can
be implemented to reflect different qualities and user needs. Seating can be provided as individual
seating, group seating, cluster seating or casual seating. In conjunction with the seating facilities, there
should be power recharging points for passengers to use freely.
Exhibit 3.4.11.13.2: Dublin Terminal 2 Departure Lounge
Please refer to Chapter 3.4.11.14.1 Sizing o f Boarding Gates for seating number calculations and
recommendations. The exact numbers are to be determined in conjunction with the airport authority.
(b) Concessions
Concessions areas in the departure lounge can include restaurants, bars, shops and duty-free outlets.
VIP and CIP lounges can also be provided, depending on airport and airline requirements. The
importance of commercial areas and VIP/CIP lounges can vary greatly by region and from airport to
airport. Commercial areas should be integrated seamlessly into the departure lounge along the passenger
journey for passenger convenience. Where concessions spaces are included in departure lounges,
access should be made easy and unrestricted. For more information, please refer to Chapter 3.4.14
Commercial & Retail Opportunities.

(c) Flight Information Displays
Flight Information Displays (FIDs) should be provided in sufficient numbers at strategic locations
throughout the departure lounge, giving passengers access to flight-time and gate-allocation information.
FIDs can also be provided within concessions.
(d) Airline Information Desks
Airline information and ticketing desks should be provided in all departure lounges. Passengers can be
supplied with information regarding delayed or cancelled flights, and can be issued revised tickets.
Additional troubleshooting services can also be carried out. Bag drop or bag processing facilities can be
provided where applicable. For more information, please refer to Chapter 3.4.12 Transfers.
(e) Toilet Facilities
Ample toilet facilities should be provided within the departure lounge. The facilities should be located on
the same level as the departure lounge, and should be easily accessible from within the lounge. Sufficient
facilities should be provided to allow temporary closure of some facilities for cleaning.
(f) Public Address Systems
A Public AddressA/oice Alarm (PAVA) system should be provided in the departure lounge and the
respective gate areas in order to communicate last minute changes or urgent messages to the waiting
passengers.
(g) Help Desks
Help desks should be provided as service centers within the departure lounge for dealing with irregular
operations. Such facilities can be staffed or automated. Help desks can be provided by the airlines or the
airport. Airline-operated help desks deal with flight operations. Airport-operated help desks assist with the
general management of the airside departures operations.
(h) Child Play Areas
Child play areas are important in serving families, and should be provided near the central departure
lounge. These areas may be located near toilet facilities that include “baby changing” and other family-
focused facilities to enhance convenience.
(i) Entertainment
Additional entertainment offerings should be provided in order to make the passengers' wait as enjoyable
as possible. The offerings should be diversified in order to satisfy frequent travelers. Entertainment
offerings can include:
• Televisions;
• Cinemas;
• Quiet spaces;
• Hotels;

• Spas;
• Exercise rooms;
• Meditation rooms;
• Libraries; and
• Gaming.
(j) Religious Facilities
Consideration should be given to providing quiet space facilities for passengers to rest, pray or
contemplate. Different religions have different facility requirements, and these need to be considered
carefully in conjunction with the relevant stakeholders during the planning process.
3.4.11.13.3 Segregated International Lounge
Segregated lounges may be required if domestic and international departing passengers are not allowed to
mix after this control.
Additional customs controls or specific duty-Free arrangements can also require a segregated international
departure lounge.
Biometric controls with facial recognition technology can provide solutions to allow both domestic and
international passenger groups to share the same lounge. This technology can make sure that, in shared
domestic/international departure lounges, the person given a boarding pass is also the person that uses it,
and that no passenger boards the wrong flight.
3.4.11.13.4 Airside Circulation
Passengers should be provided with dedicated corridors to access the next step in their journey: the contact
or remote gate. Access to the dedicated airside circulation corridors should be clearly visible from the
departures lounge, assisted by directional signage.
Please refer to Chapter 3.4.10 Vertical and Horizontal Circulation for more information.
Airside circulation has to cater to the required passenger flows, either unidirectional or bidirectional, as
required. Ample space should be provided for moving walkways and electric vehicles for passengers and
airport staff, as required.
Walking distances, assisted or unassisted, should not exceed the recommendations of this document.
Please refer to Chapter 3.4.8.1.2 Passenger Flows for more information.

3.4.11.14 Boarding Gates
3.4.11.14.1 Sizing of Boarding Gate Lounges
The sizing of gate lounge areas is influenced by two main factors:
1. Seating requirements as they relate to the capacity of aircraft being accommodated in the area; and
2. The areas occupied by concessions (food & beverage as well as retail).
For pier/finger-type terminals, where aircraft can park on both sides of the pier, sizing of the gate lounges will
involve determining the length and depth of the pier and aircraft parking requirements The pier's depth must
provide for:
• The required depth of gate lounges (on both sides of the pier);
• Concessions along the pier; and
• Circulation corridors, which sometimes also include assisted moving devices.
This approach also applies to the linear terminal concept where the depth required by gate lounges is
calculated on one side only.
For satellite-type terminals, the sizing of gate lounges will be driven by the maximum number of aircraft
served by the satellite (in terms of seating capacity) as well as by the concessions available in the lounge.
For the purpose of sizing a gate lounge, the largest aircraft is the one that offers the largest seating capacity.
When multiple aircraft can be accommodated on a single stand (MARS), the highest seating requirement may
be generated by two smaller aircraft parked at the same time rather than one single large aircraft. The planner
must verify which configuration requires more seating capacity.
Consideration must also be given to the aircraft boarding process, where passengers are called forward to
present their documentation for final checks against the airline departure control system. Airlines may wish to
differentiate by aircraft class for their premium passengers. Sufficient space must be provided for queuing and
the processing equipment at the head of the gate lounge.
Gate lounges require more space if they are enclosed and less space if they are within an open environment.
This is because passengers have the flexibility to seat themselves further away from the gate boarding area in
an open-area gate concept.

A (1/2) — Area of the Gate Lounge under an open-gate configuration, serving one or two sides of the
pier (1/2) (in m2)
AS(1/2) = Total Number of Seats offered by all aircraft serving one or two sides of the pier (1/2)
LF = Aircraft Load Factor
SR = Seat Ratio
SRf = Adjustment Factor to Seat Ratio
Gf = Open Gate Lounge Factor
S(S/ST) = Space per Seated/Standing Person (in m2)
X = Additional Space Ratio to account for boarding operation, in % of global gate area*
GLd(1/2) = Gate Lounge Depth of one or two sides of pier (1/2) (in meters)
PL = Pier Length (in meters)
Pw = Pier Width (in meters)
W = Width of the circulation corridor including moving devices (in meters)
This ratio may vary at the end of piers where parking stands are concentrated, resulting in the need for additional boarding bridges
and gate lounge processing elements (e.g., podiums, service desks, gates, doors, etc.).
When a gate is operated under an open-area gate concept, the gate lounge area requirements are
determined as follows:
Step 1: Determine the maximum seating capacity offered by the aircraft serving one side of the pier. Then
repeat the operation for the other side of the pier, if applicable (AS1/2).
Step 2: Calculate the area required for the gate lounge area using the following equation:
A(1/2) = [(AS(1/2) * LF * SR * (1+SRf) * Gf * Ss) + (AS(1/2) * LF * (1 - SR) * SST)] * (1 + X)
The seat ratio adjustment factor (SRf) accounts for the loss of capacity caused by seated passengers who
use an available seat next to them to put their personal belongings and thus prevent standing passengers to
sit. The open gate lounge factor accounts for the increase in capacity offered by the concept.
The additional space ratio (X) takes into consideration the boarding process, and includes areas for the
boarding pass check podium and queuing as well as for the service desk.
Step 3: Repeat the Step 2 calculation for the other side of the pier, if applicable.
Step 4: Calculate the depth of the gate lounge using the following formula:
GLd(1/2) = A<1/2) / Pl

Step 5: Repeat the Step 4 calculation for the other side of the pier, if applicable.
Step 6: Calculate the total pier width using the following equation:
Pw = GLd1 + GLd2 + W
Determine the gate lounge requirements given the following conditions:
Double sided pier serving five B737 800 on each side and one additional at the end, as per the illustration
below.
&737SOQ
B737-800
Aircraft seating capacity = 180 seats per aircraft

A (1/2) Area of the Gate Lounge under an open-gate configuration, serving one or two Output
sides of the pier (in m2)
AS(1/2) Total Number of Seats offered by all aircraft serving one or two sides of the pier Output
(1/2)
LF Aircraft Load Factor 0.83
SR Seat Ratio 70%
SRf Adjustment Factor to Seat Ratio 10%
Gf Open Gate Lounge Factor 90%
S(S/ST) Space per Seated/Standing Person (in m2) S=1.5/ST =1
X Additional Space Ratio to account for boarding operation, in % of global gate 15%
area.
GLd(1/2) Gate Lounge Depth of side 1 and 2 of the pier (in meters) Output
PL Pier Length (in meters) Output
Pw Pier Width (in meters) Output
W Width of the circulation corridor including moving devices (in meters) 10

Pier length is determined by the number of airside stands and their dimensions.
PL = 155 meters
Step 1: Determine maximum aircraft seating capacity for sides 1 and 2 of the pier.
AS1 = (5 * 180) + (1/2 * 180) = 990 seats
AS2 = (5 * 180) + (1
/ 2 * 180) = 990 seats
Step 2: Calculate the area required for the gate lounge area, side 1.
A(1/2) = [(AS(1/2) * LF * SR * (1 + SRf) * Gf * Ss) + (AS(1/2) * LF * (1 - SR) * SST)] * (1 + X)
A t = [ (990 * 0.83 * 0.70 *(1 + 0.10) * 0.9 * 1.5) + (990 * 0.83 * (1 - 0.70) * 1.0)] * (1 + 0.15)
Ai = 1265.77, say 1266 m2
Step 3: Calculate the area required for side 2 of the pier:
A2= [ (990 * 0.83 * 0.70 * (1 + 0.10) * 0.9 * 1.5) + (990 * 0.83 * (1 - 0.70) * 1.0)] * (1 + 0.15)
A2 = 1265.77, say 1266 m2
Step 4: Calculate the depth of the gate lounge for side 1.
G Ld^) = A(1/2/P,l
GLd, = 1266/155
GLd1 = 8.17, say 9 meters
Step 5: Repeat for side 2.
GLd2 = 1266/155
GLd2 = 8.17, say 9 meters
Step 6: Calculate the total pier width.
Pw = GLd1 + GLd2 + W
Pw = 9 + 9 + 10
Pw = 28 meters

3.4.12 Transfers
Vision
Control processes for transfers should be simple and provided in consolidated facilities, where all controls are
undertaken at the same control point, thus minimizing processing time and complexity for passengers.
Policy
The transfer process, particularly at major hub airports is fundamental to building and maintaining passenger
throughput and associated revenues. A smooth and hassle-free transfer process is fundamental. In line with
the changing face of passenger processing, self-service transfer facilities should be a feature of future transfer
concepts.
3.4.12.1 General Considerations
Upon arrival at the airport terminal by aircraft, transferring passengers continue their journey to another
destination without leaving the airport terminal.
In their simplest form, transfer processes can take place landside. However, landside transfers are only
appropriate for low numbers of transferring passengers. The preferable option is for passengers to connect
through airside transfer facilities.
3.4.12.1.1 Landside Transfers
Landside transferring passengers complete the appropriate arrivals processes in the same way as all other
arriving passengers:
• Passengers with checked luggage (when the originating airline has not checked it through to the next
flight or where regulatory authorities do no permit through-checked luggage) retrieve their bags, exit to the
landside arrivals and departures halls, check baggage in again, and enter the departure lounge via the
control facilities in order to board their connecting flight like any other departing passenger.
• Passengers without checked luggage exit to the landside arrivals, go to the departures hall, and enter the
departure lounge via the control facilities in order to board their connecting flight.
3.4.12.1.2 Airside Transfers
Passengers with or without checked luggage do not retrieve their luggage, but proceed to dedicated transfers
facilities that provide access to the departures lounge and/or gates. Transferring checked baggage is
processed by the Baggage Handling System and is loaded onto the departing aircraft. Dedicated baggage
infeed positions are necessary, as is an early bag store for longer connections.

Depending on the specific processing requirements at the individual airport terminal, transfer arrangements
can vary greatly from one airport to another. All relevant stakeholders should be consulted to determine the
exact requirements for each process point and for the order in which the passengers will pass through them.
Transfers processes need to be considered for passengers as well as for checked baggage.
The following concepts and policies can have an influence on the specific transfer facility and processes:
• The application of specific airside and landside concepts, such as security-restricted and security-
controlled access to the various zones of the terminal;
• The geometries and layout of the terminal facilities should be considered at an early stage so as to not
preclude a transfers options, or its growth at a later stage;
• The application of national emigration and immigration controls, including definitions of point of entry into
the relevant country. Please refer to 3.4.11.11 Departures Requirements: Emigration and 3.4.13.2
Arrivals Requirements: Immigration for more information;
• The application of specific customs regulations, such as specific local requirements or other bilateral
agreements. Please refer to Chapter 3.4.13.4 Customs Processes for more information;
• Baggage handling requirements;
• Baggage screening and control requirements; and
• Other checkpoint or cortrol authority requirements such as quarantine and health checks.
Exhibit 3.4.12.1.2: Transfer Options
Airside Security-controlled access
Landside Public access

3.4.12.2 Passenger Processes (Control Points)
Space and equipment provisions for each processing point are similar to those described in Chapter
3.4.11.12.8 Sizing o f Security Screening Facilities. Please refer there for sizing and Level of Service
formulas.
3.4.12.3 Boarding Pass Checkpoints
Boarding pass checkpoints are required at all transfer points to check the passenger's travel documentation
for validity. Boarding pass checks can be automated or staffed.
When accessing airside departure lounges or gates from landside, boarding pass checks should be provided
at the transition zone between landside and airside. These should be located at the first control point for
accessing airside passenger zones.
For airside transferring passengers, boarding pass checks should be provided at each individual transfer
facility. They can be located before the dedicated transfer control points.
In both cases, the validity of the travel documentation (boarding pass) will be checked before entering airside.
3.4.12.4 Emigration & Immigration and Visa Check
Emigration & immigration and visa checks can be required for passengers arriving at the airport from
domestic destinations and continuing to international destinations, and vice versa. It can also apply to
passengers arriving from international destinations and continuing to other international destinations.
Usually, passengers transferring landside use the centralized emigration and immigration facilities before
proceeding to the airside departure lounges.
Dedicated emigration and immigration facilities for transferring airside should be provided at each transfer
control point where passport or visa validation is required (i.e., for passage from domestic to international
destinations or for international-to-international flights).
Please refer to 3.4.11.11 Departures Requirements: Emigration and 3.4.13.2 Arrivals Requirements:
Immigration for more information. Customs checks with access from landside take place at the exit from
baggage claim, usually only for international arriving passengers. Landside transferring passengers as well as
all other arriving passengers will pass through customs and continue toward the departure lounge for their
outbound flights.
For airside transferring passengers, customs checks might be required before gaining access to the airside
departure areas.
Please refer to Chapter 3.4.12.1.2 Airside Transfers and Chapter 3.4.13.4 Customs Processes for more
information.

3.4.12.5 Quarantine and Health Checks
Quarantine and health checks can take many different forms, from checks upon aircraft arrival to centralized
facilities at transfer control points. The type of investigation can also vary from case to case, and can change
over time. The relevant stakeholders must be consulted to determine design and processing capacity
requirements.
3.4.12.6 Reject Protocols
Passengers can be rejected at any of the above control points. A passenger rejection strategy should be in
place to define how these passengers are to be treated. Dedicated facilities might be required for these
passengers. The relevant stakeholders should be consulted to determine design and capacity requirements.
3.4.12.7 Transfer Baggage Process Options
Dedicated bag drop or processing facilities can be provided in the airside departure lounge (or transfer
lounge) to give passengers the opportunity to drop luggage (usually hand luggage) when transferring from
one flight to another. This facility would usually be coupled with transfer ticketing.
Where customs regulations stipulate transfer baggage be reconciled with passengers before being permitted
onto the next flight, service desks can be provided in the direct vicinity of the customs exit. Passengers can
recheck their baggage at the earliest opportunity without having to go to the departures hall.
3.4.13 Arrivals
3.4.13.1 Arrivals Corridors
Vision
Arrivals corridors should be welcoming and guide passengers intuitively toward the arrivals facilities.
Policy
It is recommended that arrivals corridors be sufficiently sized, well lit with natural light, and that travel
distances be minimized as much as possible for passengers.
Arrivals corridors are circulation areas provided for passengers upon disembarkation, leading toward baggage
claim, government controls (i.e., Immigration) or transfers facilities. Arrivals corridors can be fully segregated

from other passenger circulation routes if required by security protocols (e.g., to segregate international from
domestic arrivals).
Arrivals corridors represent the first point of contact arriving passengers have with an airport terminal,
sometimes after a long journey. Arrivals corridors should therefore aim to provide a pleasant first impression
of the terminal facilities. They should have simple and clear wayfinding as well as unobstructed routes for
passengers. Where possible, passengers should be provided with natural light in these corridors.
For an enhanced passenge' experience, passengers should be given opportunities to orientate themselves
within the airport environment (e.g., by providing views to aircraft or into the terminal building).
3.4.13.1.2 Further Design Considerations
Arrivals corridors should be large enough to accommodate forecast volumes of arriving passengers. Displays
or advertising that distract from pertinent arrivals information should be minimized. Where applicable,
corridors must be sized to allow for bidirectional flows of passengers. Spaces should be sufficiently sized to
accommodate walking passengers with baggage trolleys, wheelchairs and vehicular traffic. Arrival corridor
space should be calculated in detail for every project.
Circulation areas should allow for moving walkways where walking distances exceed 300 meters (see
Chapter 3.4.10 Vertical and Horizontal Circulation for more information). Where level changes are
required, appropriate means of vertical circulation should be provided. The design of the appropriate number
of exits to government control or other areas should form part of arrivals corridor planning.
Regulations for Passengers with Reduced Mobility (PRM) should be considered when planning the arrivals
corridors. Seating should be made available at regular intervals to provide resting opportunities. Vehicular
traffic, such as electric vehicle transportation, should also be considered (see Chapter 3.4.15 Access To Air
Travel For Persons With Reduced M obility for more information). Other important points to consider when
designing arrivals corridors include:
(a) Toilet Provisions
Toilets should be provided in arrivals corridors. They should be sized and in intervals according to local
legislation and international best practice. Consideration needs to be given to “peaking” characteristics
(e.g., post aircraft arrival, etc.) Sufficient facilities should be provided to allow the temporary closure of
some facilities for cleaning. See C h a p te r 3 .4 .1 6 T o ile t P ro v is io n s fo r m o re in fo rm a tio n .
(b) Wayfinding and Signage
Directional guidance should be provided where required to assist passengers in finding their way (see
Chapter 3.4.17 Passenger Wayfinding and Signage for more information). The signs should be clear
and visible to all passengers, and include all traffic flows (i.e., arrivals and transfers).

3.4.13.2 Arrivals Requirements: Immigration
Vision
Immigration should be provided as an automated service, making best use of modern electronic passport and
biometric control technologies.
Policy
It is recommended that immigration functions be implemented in centralized, consolidated locations within the
airport terminal.
Facilities should be adequately sized and include generous queue spaces, including buffer or overflow
queuing, and should be expandable in the future to cater to traffic increases or technological changes.
Passport or document control checks for arriving passengers are required in every international terminal.
Occasionally, pre-inspection takes place at the departure airport or at an intermediary airport. In these cases,
passengers can be treated as domestic. Consideration should be given to the availability of multiple channels
based on nationality or traveler status (i.e., economy passenger, premium passenger, staff, crew, diplomat,
etc.). Another factor is the availability of Advance Passenger Profiling or biometric data. Seating should be
provided for Passengers with Reduced Mobility and the elderly to ease the waiting times.
Health controls for arriving passengers are a feature of arrivals processing in only a few countries, however
flexibility is required in this regard in case of a medical emergency of international concern. Terminal
designers should account for the provision of medical examination rooms for this purpose, and these should
be sized according to the perceived flow rate of passengers that will be required to use these facilities on an
ad hoc basis. Health or quarantine control points adjacent to the immigration facilities should be integrated in
the design, and the relevant government authorities must be consulted in this matter.
Immigration staff located at the arrival point need the same information technology as provided at the
departure emigration points namely the use of dedicated databases to validate the identity of inbound
travelers.
Terminal planners should provide suitably sized arrivals immigration facilities for the current traffic demand at
an agreed Level of Service (LoS). In addition to the main inbound arriving passenger immigration processing
channels, arriving passenger interview rooms should be provided. These should be located airside and should
be considered as secure rooms. The layout of the interview rooms should be determined following
consultation with the local government immigration department.
It is advisable for terminal planners to provide suitably sized toilet facilities before the immigration queue area.
Sufficient facilities should be provided to allow temporary closure of some facilities for cleaning.

3.4.13.2.2 Diplomatic Immigration Channels
Airports that experience higher than average volumes of diplomatic or state official passengers should
develop dedicated passenger routes and facilities, more applicable equipment infrastructure as well as
operational protocols to permit the efficient processing of this category of traveler. The planner should seek
clarification from local government departments in this regard.
3.4.13.2.3 Technological Advancements
Airports and immigration departments should strive to improve the efficiency of immigration channels where
possible to provide faster and more effective processing for travelers. Automated Immigration/Border
Clearance solutions can reduce the overall space needed to perform this function. New technologies such as
machine-readable passports, biometric data capture and processing as well as the resultant database links
and encryption requirements are now being implemented around the world as more stringent immigration
checks are required. Terminal planners should give consideration to the growing demands these technolog es
place on the airport's IT systems.
3.4.13.2.4 Sizing of Immigration Facilities
In large airports, where arriving passenger flows are relatively constant, the sizing of arrival immigration
facilities is influenced by the number and size of arriving flights during the peak hour, the proximity of the
arriving flights to the arrival immigration process, the processing time, the space provision per person and the
maximum queuing time.
In smaller airports, where peak periods are composed of a limited number of flights, the arriving flows of
passengers at the immigration facility will occur in very short periods of time.
Deplaning an aircraft usually takes about three to five seconds per passenger. For large flights (e.g., over 200
passengers), passengers will deplane in less than 15 minutes. For medium- and small-sized flights, this may
take six and three minutes, respectively. These rates were derived from passenger surveys and represent
average rates, no matter if the deplaning is done with one or two exits.
In the absence of a detailed planning flight schedule, the planner may consider peak hour passenger volumes
(PHP) to determine the facility requirements.

PCi = Approximate Number of Arrival Passport Control Desks

PHP = Terminating Peak Hour Passengers
PT = Process Time per Passenger at Arrival Passport Control (in seconds)
A = Area Required for the Arrival Passport Control Facility
PC = Total Number of Arrival Passport Control Desks
PCd = Depth of One Arrival Passport Control Booth (in meters). Obtained from Typical dimensions
PCw = Width of One Arrival Passport Control Booth (in meters). Obtained from Typical dimensions
W = Corridor Width Behind Desks (in meters)*
The corridor width will vary with the importance of passenger flows. The planner can obtain corridor widths from standard
calculations. A minimum width of three meters should be provided in low volume areas. Please refer to typical layout and
dimension figures.
Step 1: Calculate the number of desks using the following equation:
PCi = (PHP * PK * PT / 60) / (30 + MQT)
PC = PCi * Cf
Where:
For MQT CF
3 1.21
4 1.22
5 1.15
10 1.06
15 1.01
20 1.00
25 1.00
30 1.00

Where Qf equals:

MQT Qf
3 0.120
4 0.151
5 0.183
10 0.289
15 0.364
20 0.416
25 0.453
30 0.495
Note: When designing a queue area for the arrival immigration facility, the planner should consider a single
or snake queue layout. The typical width of a queue at arrivals immigration should be between 1.2 and 1.4
meters.
Step 4: Calculate the area required for the arrival immigration process using the following equation:
A = (PC * PCd * PCw) + (QMAX * SP) + (PC * PCw * W)
Determine the facility requirements for the arrival immigration process, given the following:

PCi Approximate Number of Arrival Passport Control Desks Output
PHP Terminating Peak Hour Passengers 3200
PT Process Time per Passenger at Arrival Passport Control (in seconds) 60
A Area Required for the Arrival Passport Control Facility Output
PC Total Number of Arrival Passport Control Desks Output
PCd Depth of One Arrival Passport Control Booth (in meters). 3
PCw Width of One Arrival Passport Control Booth (in meters). 2.2
W Corridor Width Behind Desks (in meters) 3.5

Step 1: Calculate the number of arrival immigration desks.
PCi = (PHP * PK * PT / 60) / (30 + MQT)
PCi = (3200 * 0.70 * 60 / 60) / (30 + 10)
PCi = 56 desks
Step 2: Adjust requirements to account for variability in demand over the 30-minute analysis.
PC = PCi * Cf
PC = 56* 1.06
PC = 59.36, say 60 desks
QMAX = 0.289 * 3200 * 0.7
QMAX = 647.36, say 648 passengers.
Step 4: Calculate the area required for the arrival immigration process.
A = (PC * PCd * PCw) + (QMAX * SP) + (PC * PCw * W)
A = (60 * 3 * 2.2) + (648 * 1.0) + (60 * 2.2 * 3.5) 396 + 648 + 462
A = 1506 m2
3.4.13.3 Baggage Claim
Vision
A homogenous, unobstructed, single baggage claim hall, with ample circulation spaces and a central
circulation strip leading logically from entrance to exit, taking into consideration not only passengers with
baggage, but also passengers without baggage.
Policy
A single, consolidated baggage claim facility is recommended with ample circulation and queuing spaces to
take into account additional requirements for late delivery of baggage. Belt lengths should be planned to suit
aircraft sizes and clear/logical signage should be provided to clearly identify the correct belt by arrival flight

number. Additional facilities for passengers such as lost baggage claim and baggage enquiry desks as well as
toilets should be provided.
The purpose of baggage claim is to reconcile passengers with their checked baggage after their flight.
Checked baggage is transported in the hold of the aircraft, not in the passenger cabin.
Baggage halls should provide:
• Circulation space for passengers with trolleys;

• Space for the baggage claim belts and their accompanying dedicated waiting areas;
• Dedicated Out-of-Gauge (OOG) claim facilities;
• Lost baggage services and baggage inquiry services;
• Trolleys and trolley parking spaces;
• Exits toward customs or other government controls and the landside arrivals hall;
• Seating; and
• Toilets (sufficient facilities should be provided to allow temporary closure of some facilities for cleaning).
In addition, the baggage claim hall can provide:
• Concessions (i.e., duty-free, currency exchange or cash dispensing);

• Information points;
• Onward travel information;
• Access to transfer facilities; and
• Access to recheck opportunities or transfers, depending on customs protocols.
3.4.13.3.2 Baggage Claim Belts
Checked baggage is usually delivered to the claim hall on closed loop baggage claim carousels or on free
roller conveyors.
Closed loop carousels can be provided as linear-type belts, L, T or U shaped belts. These can be fed through
walls, from below or from above. Free roller conveyors are usually fed through a rear wall. The separations
between onloading and passenger spaces should be secure boundaries in accordance with the security
strategy concept. (See Chapter 3.4.9 Segregation and Security Requirements in A irport Terminals for
more information).
Every claim carousel is associated with a belted infeed device, where baggage is loaded from the baggage
vehicles or from an automated arrivals baggage system. All belts on both the loading and passenger sides

should run at a constant speed. The belts should be designed to function safely in the passenger environment
with all the necessary mechanical and electrical protection (i.e., start-up and shut-down warnings and
emergency stops). The conveying surface can be either semi-inclined or horizontal and should have a velocity
of 0.15 to 0.3 meters per second (m/s).
Free roller conveyors are used for processing baggage at small airports, or at large airports alongside claim
units, where the roller conveyor is used for processing large volumes of oversized baggage. Set down areas
should be provided next to the conveyors. These units are not favored by passengers or airports, as they are
an inefficient use of space and require suitable entrapment guards and safety supervision when in use. Under
no circumstances should powered rollers be used. The more common use for this type of belt is to
accumulate smaller volumes of oversized baggage.
Claim belts should be dimensioned according to the formulas provided in this section to suit aircraft sizes as
well as passenger and checked baggage volumes. Where possible, baggage from one flight should not be
split onto multiple claim carousels; all bags should be delivered on the same belt. In some cases, multiple
small flights may find their baggage combined onto a single belt.
Please refer to Chapter 3.4.13.3.10 Analytical Approach and Capacity Equation below for sizing of belts,
presentation length, waiting area and number of belts.
The space around a baggage claim unit serves distinct functions. The baggage claim unit frontage provides
the required positions or channels for passengers to wait for and collect their luggage. The retrieval area is
effectively the space required for the motion of retrieving a suitcase. The peripheral area is used to wait, park
a trolley, or circulate into and out of the retrieval area.
Exhibit 3.4.13.3.2: Baggage Claim System
The retrieval and peripheral area is a roughly 3.5 meter wide band around the unit. This area is used to
ensure the level of service for passengers at the carousel and the static capacity (accumulation) of the unit.

An 11 to 13 meter separaticn between claim units is recommended to process passengers and store carts. If
seating is also placed in some areas, additional space will be needed.
3.4.13.3.3 Non standard Baggage Equipment
The definition of oversized Out-of-Gauge (OOG) and Super-OOG baggage depends on the baggage handling
equipment used and on operational protocols at each individual airport. While OOG items can be delivered on
standard or dedicated belts such as free roller belts, Super-OOG items should always be delivered to the
baggage claim hall through dedicated doors, with direct access for baggage handling staff from airside. Door
access should be secured in line with the terminal security strategy. (See Chapter 3.4.9 Segregation and
Security Requirements in A irport Terminals for more information).
Other specialized belt types are possible, but rare. Any specific need for specialized belts should be based on
airport traffic and discussed with the airport and its users.
3.4.13.3.4 Trolleys
Baggage trolleys should be provided for passengers to transport checked luggage once it has been retrieved
from the baggage claim belts.
Exhibit 3.4.13.3.4: Example of Trolleys Located Near Baggage Claim Belts
Source: Denis Babenko/Shutterstock

Storage areas for trolleys should be located near the claim belts, adequate in number and size to suit the
projected numbers of trolleys, bags and passengers. Trolley storage areas should be clearly marked and
should not obstruct passenger circulation routes or waiting areas.
A trolley management strategy should be in place to determine the operational requirements of handling the
trolleys. Dedicated trolley recirculation routes should be provided, allowing trolleys to be restocked in the
baggage claim hall without obstructing passenger circulation routes from the arrivals hall, etc.
Provision of trolleys should be free of charge.
A porter service can be provided where required. Porter staff numbers are to be considered for the sizing of
the baggage claim facilities Porter access to the baggage claim hall is to be considered in line with the
terminal's security strategy. (See Chapter 3.4.9 Segregation and Security Requirements in Airport
Terminals for more information).
3.4.13.3.5 Wayfinding and Signage
The organization of the baggage claim hall should be intuitive and spaces should be organized in an open
and clear manner so that passengers can easily orientate themselves from the entry to the exit of the hall.
Belts should be clearly numbered or otherwise labeled so as to be easily identified by passengers. Signage is
to be provided to clearly identify important facilities, such as toilets and the exits.
A dynamic signage system should indicate flight allocations to belts. Such information should be provided
prior to entering the baggage claim hall and within the hall.
See Chapter 3.4.17 Passenger Wayfinding and Signage for more information. Where it is necessary to
separate “meeters and greeters” from the baggage claim area, consideration should be given to using glazed
partitioning to aid wayfinding and orientation.
3.4.13.3.6 Toilets
Ample toilets should be provided in the baggage claim halls, as passengers can wait for considerable time
before retrieving their baggage. Sufficient facilities should be provided to allow temporary closure of some
facilities for cleaning. Access to the toilets should be clearly signed and unobstructed.
3.4.13.3.7 Exit Provisions
Separate or combined channels can be provided as exits from the baggage claim hall. The provision of exit
channels not only depends on the layout of the terminal building, but also on requirements for government
controls, such as customs. (See Chapter 3.4.13.4 Customs Processes for more information). Additional
security checks, such as bag ownership controls, are possible at the exits. Exact requirements are to be
agreed to with the relevant stakeholders.

Exit widths should be designed to comfortably suit the projected passenger volumes. Where trolleys are
provided, the trolley traffic is to be considered for the exit width sizing.
The exit (or exits) must give access to customs and other control points where required. The access control of
these exits is to follow the security strategy concept for the individual terminal.
See Chapter 3.4.9 Segregation and Security Requirements in A irport Terminals for more information).
3.4.13.3.8 Additional Baggage Services
“The following additional baggage services should be considered when planning the baggage claim area:”
(a) Lost Luggage and Bagcage Inquiries
Storage and handling facilities should be provided for checked baggage that cannot be retrieved
immediately by the passengers. Airline baggage service offices also need to provide storage space for
new replacement luggage that is used to supplement lost luggage claims. Overnight kits and vouchers
may also be used to supplement claims. Passenger access to these storage facilities can be required
from within the baggage claim hall or from the landside arrivals hall, depending on the individual case.
The relevant stakeholders are to be consulted to determine the exact requirements.
(b) Remote Delivery of Checked Baggage
Remote delivery of baggage describes a process whereby the reconciliation of bags and passengers
takes place after the passengers have left the airport terminal. Reconciliation can take the form of:
• Home delivery of baggage via a delivery service; or
• Delivery of baggage to a hotel or similar accommodation.
Delivery agents can act on behalf of the airport or the passenger, depending on the individual type of
service.
Remote baggage delivery services can vary from one airport to another, and are to be discussed with the
relevant stakeholders on an individual basis. Where applicable, provisions are to be safeguarded for such
functions.
(c) Dedicated VIP/CIP Claim Facilities

Dedicated VIP or CIP baggage claim facilities can be provided. Dedicated access routes for passengers
are required for such provisions. Waiting lounges can be provided in combination with the claim facilities,
with dedicated exits to the arrivals hall or even dedicated forecourts.
Separate access for baggage handling vehicles to the dedicated belts is required.

3.4.13.3.9 Sizing of Facilities and Equipment
The dimension of the baggage claim hall is mainly driven by the space occupied by the baggage claim belts
as well as by the distances separating these devices from each other, from walls or from any other obstacle
(e.g., baggage trolley areas). Effective baggage claim clearance will vary according to the type of carousel
and type of aircraft. Another factor that must be taken into consideration when designing the baggage claim
hall is passenger accumulation behavior around the carousels. Passengers will naturally position themselves
in front of the baggage drop points (in the case of inclined carousels) and/or near the exit (to avoid
backtracking).
Exhibit 3.4.13.3.9: Sizing of Facilities and Equipment

Aircraft Type and Passenger Claim Loader Staff Claim Comments/Recommendations
Flight Serviced Presentation Length Loading Length
Wide-Body Aircraft 70 to 90 meters 20 to 40 meters Upper limits should be used where
the bag-to-passenger ratios are
often >1.5 bags/passenger
Narrow-Body Aircraft 40 to 70 meters 20 to 30 meters Upper limits should be used where
the bag-to-passenger ratios are
often >1.5 bags/passenger and
where two business-type flights
are allocated to a single claim belt
Source: ADRM, 9th edition
The size of the baggage claim device is driven by: the flight size, the total number of passengers terminating
their journey during the peak period and the flights assignment strategy on the carousels. An airport operator
may wish to serve multiple flights on a single carousel to maximize capacity.
Coordinating the arrival of bags on the carousels and that of the passengers in the hall minimizes facility
requirements. However, this ideal situation is difficult to encounter. If baggage arrives too early on the
carousel, their accumulation will require longer or additional devices. On the other hand, the size of the
required baggage claim area will be reduced since passengers will not have much time to accumulate around
the device. If passengers arrive too early in the hall, their accumulation will call for additional space around
the device. However, in this case, the length of the device may be reduced even further since baggage will be
retrieved almost instantly.
In order to cover all possible situations, the facility requirements will consider maximum accumulation of bags
on the device, and maximum accumulation of passengers around the device.

d-(NS/WB) = Carousel frontage for passenger line up (in meters)

PAX(NB/WB) - Number of passengers in the design aircraft (Narrow Body/
Wide Body)
SP = Claim frontage per passenger (m)
PR = Ratio of passengers collecting bags
RR = Recirculation rate
b c (NB/WB) = Number of Narrow Body/Wide Body baggage claim units
PHP Peak hour number of terminating passengers, international/domestic transfer
passengers, where applicable
P(NB/WB) = Proportion of passengers arriving by narrow body/wide body aircraft.
OT(NB/WB) - Average claim device occupancy time per narrow body/wide body aircraft (minutes) or
assume 20 minutes for narrow body and 45 minutes for wide body
a c (NB/WB) = Area of a carousel for narrow body/wide body aircraft
Cw = Carousel width (m)
SB — Side buffer to allow passenger movement around the reclaim belt (total meters, allowing
for both sides)
EB — End buffer to allow passenger movement around the reclaim belt (total meters, allowing
for both sides)
A = Area of the baggage reclaim hall (m2)
Step 1: Determine the claim frontage length required to accommodate passengers from a specific aircraft
served by the reclaim area. Please note, it is recommended to accommodate even the largest flight on one
belt, to avoid splitting a flight onto two carousels,
Determine the claim frontage length required using the following formula:
CI-(nb/wb) = PAX(nb/wb> SP PR RR
Step 2: Determine the number of baggage claim devices using the following formula:
BC(NB/Wb) = (PHP * P(nb/wb) * OT(NBWB)) / (60 * PAX(NB/WB))
Step 3: Determine the baggage claim area:
AC(NB/wb) = (BDCwidUl + SB) * (( CL(NB/WB) / 2) + EB)
This calculation should be repeated for all the different kinds of carousels (i.e., for wide body, narrow body
aircraft). This is a generic calculation considering linear double-sided carousels. Different shapes will have
different geometric calculations and possibly improved area requirements.

Step 4: Once we have the area for the different types of carousels:
A=BCnb ACnb + BCwb ACwb
Determine the facility requirements for the baggage claim area considering the following variables:

CL(NB/WB) Carousel frontage for passenger line up (in meters) Output
PAX(NB/WB) Number of passengers in the design aircraft (Narrow Body/Wide NB = 180/WB = 280
Body)
SP Claim frontage per passenger (m) 0.85
PR Ratio of passengers collecting bags 50%
RR Recirculation rate 50%
BC(NB/WB) Number of Narrow Body/Wide body baggage claim units Output
PHP Peak hour number of terminating passengers, international/domestic 3200
transfer passengers, where applicable.
P(NB/WB Proportion of passengers arriving by narrow body/wide body aircraft. NB = 70%/WB = 30%
OT(NB/WB) Average claim device occupancy time per narrow body/wide body NB = 20/WB = 45
aircraft (minutes)
AC(NB/WB) Area of a carousel for narrow body/wide body aircraft Output
Cw Carousel v/idth (m) 6
SB Side buffer to allow passenger movement around the reclaim belt 5
(total meters, allowing for both sides)
EB End buffer to allow passenger movement around the reclaim belt 10
(total meters, allowing for both sides)
A Area of the baggage reclaim hall (m2) Output
Step 1: Determine baggage frontage for the wide body aircraft carousels.
CL(nb/wb) = PAX(NB/WB) * SP * PR * RR
CLwb = 280 * 0.85 * 0.5 * 0.5
CLwb = 59.5 meters of effective claim length
Determine baggage frontage for the narrow body aircraft carousels.
CLNB = 180 * 0.85* 0.5 * 0.5
CLnb = 38.2 meters of effective claim length

ia t a
,n|
Step 2: Determine the number of baggage claim devices.
BC(NB/w8) = (PHP * P(NB/WB) * 0 T (NB/WB)) ^ * P^^(NB/WB>)
BCwb = (3200 x 0.3 x 45) / (60 x 280)
BCwb = 2.57, say 3 wide body claim devices
BCnb = (3200 x 0.7 x 20) / (60 x 180)
BCnb = 4.15, say 5 narrow body claim devices
Step 3: Determine the baggage claim area.
Assume the following baggage claim device shape and dimensions:
r BDCL/2
Area occupied by claim w idth :

BDCv.um
(8DCl/2)+8DCwnJth
V EB/2
S B/2
J
Area for each claim unit for wide body aircraft:
AC(NB/Wb) = (BDCwkJth + SB) * (( CL(NB/WB) / 2) + EB)
ACwb = (6 + 5) *((59.5/ 2) + 10)
ACwb = 437.25 m2
Area for each claim unit for narrow body aircraft:
A —BCnb * ACnb + BCwb * ACWB
ACnb = (6 + 5) *((38.2/2)+ 10)
ACnb = 320.1m2

The area of the baggage claim hall is therefore:
A = 3 *437.25 + 5 * 320.1
A = 2912.3 m2.
3.4.13.4 Customs Processes
Vision
Customs facilities should be joined with other control authorities on the arrivals journey in order to minimize
disruptions to the passenger.
Policy
It is recommended that customs facilities be:
• Provided in a single, centralized location;
• Sufficiently sized for the projected passenger flows;
• Logically located and easy to identify for passengers; and
• Designed in a way that they allow for an unobstructed flow of passengers through the facility.
At most international airports, government clearance requirements are in force for international passengers
The requirements of the respective inspection agencies must be taken into account during the earliest stages
of the terminal planning process. Some agencies publish their own extensive design guidelines based on the
specific functionality requirements of that agency.
Government facilities should not be regarded as unchangeable; a certain degree of flexibility will always be
required, dependent upon the perception of the level of threat to border integrity. Even if a control requirement
remains unchanged, the technique used to enforce it may change, with corresponding changes in related
spaces and facility requirements.
3.4.13.4.2 Legislation and Recommended Practice Requirements
Airport planners should observe the following legislative requirements, as applicable, when planning the
functional areas associated with customs processes:
• National government legislation (i.e., DfT (UK), CATSA (Canada), DHS (USA), etc.);
• European Union (EU) directives;
• ECAC document 30;

• ICAO Annexes 9,17;
• ICAO Security Manual;
• IATA Security Manual; and

• IATA Guide to Facilitation.
The relevant protocols can vary greatly from country to country.
3.4.13.4.3 Customs Control Facilities and Equipment
In addition to international arriving passengers themselves, their checked and hand luggage require customs
control and clearance of imported items.
The airline operator must provide customs checking facilities, check goods and provide appropriate customs
documents at the checkpoint. Customs facilities may be located at the following airport passenger processing
points:
• Customs control checkpoints in airside passenger arrival facilities; and
• Publicly accessible customs declaration offices located in landside passenger pre-departure facilities. This
allows passengers to document goods being re-exported or for which local excise duty has been paid,
etc.
Exhibit 3.4.13.4.3: Typical Customs Facility Layout

Baggage Claim Hall
10 0 D I
Landside Arrivals Concourse

All customs clearance procedures occurring within the terminal facility must comply with specific national
regulations. These include, but are not limited to, requirements for the:
• Safeguarding of goods in the operator's custody;
• Keeping of transport records; and
• Transfer of goods to other airlines and other delivery consignees.
The terminal facilities planner should work with local customs representatives to establish an inventory of
necessary infrastructure to be provided by the airport operator and other handling entities (such as airlines).
The following should be used as a checklist for terminal planners to verify customs requirements:
• Inspection tables;
• IT specifications;
• Securable interview/detailed search room;
• Administration offices;
• Staff accommodation areas;
• Duty payment facilities;
• Security screening equipment specifications and spatial requirements to accommodate X-ray machines,
metal detectors, particle analysis machines and other specialized equipment; and
• Kennels for sniffer dogs used to detect narcotics and general contraband in passengers' luggage.
3.4.13.4.4 Customs Bonded Storage
Bonded storage facilities are used to hold goods that must be accessed by authorized airside personnel on a
regular basis, and for which national customs duties are not normally applicable or collected. Examples of
goods falling into this category are cigarettes and alcohol for sale on aircraft and within duty-free airside
shops. Additionally, bonded storage facilities are frequently used for the temporary controlled storage of
goods in transit to another country or another airport within the same country where customs formalities will
occur.
3.4.13.4.5 Transfer Passenger Baggage Customs Clearing
Regulations in some countries require that customs authorities inspect and clear transfer passengers and
their accompanied goods (i.e., hand-carried or checked luggage) in the same manner as controls applied to
persons entering the country. Where such inspection of transfer passengers and their possessions is
required, the airport must make provision for the passengers to be reunited with their checked luggage prior to
physical presentation before a customs official. Provision must also be made for the airline to return that
baggage to the aircraft, taking into consideration any screening requirements.

The degree of customs inspection of terminating passengers will vary from country to country and from case
to case. Terminal planners should liaise with customs representatives to confirm the inspection methodologies
to be employed, and establish required processing times at inspection. This information will allow terminal
designers to calculate the flow of passengers and the resultant spatial requirements of customs facilities. (See
Chapter 3.4.13.4.8 Sizing of Customs Facilities for more information).
3.4.13.4.7 Customs Channels
Random sampling of passengers is usually applied in multi channel customs facility layouts. The typical
passenger customs clearance area is situated immediately after terminating passengers (and transferring
passengers where required under national customs regulations) have claimed their checked luggage.
The dual channel (red/green) system is, in some regions of the world, expanded to provide a third (blue)
channel that may be used for special regulations.
Red channel:
Passengers with articles to declare proceed through a channel indicated by a red sign, where their baggage is
inspected and appropriate duties assessed.
Green channel:
Passengers with nothing to declare proceed through a channel marked with a green sign, where they are
generally not inspected, although customs normally reserve the right to make spot checks of passengers
proceeding through this channel.
Blue channel:
A separate customs channel is used in certain circumstances, and where national regulations allow, to further
segregate arriving passengers clearance processes. For example, the blue lane process has been used to
facilitate the clearance of persons traveling between two airports located within the European Union, and for
whom customs inspections are not required.
The number of processing lanes in each of the colored categories should vary in accordance with the type
and volume of passenger traffic being handled, and local regulatory requirements.
The airport planner must determine with the relevant stakeholders whether or not views into the customs area
from landside or airside are allowable. If not, the design of the customs processing areas has to take these
requirements into account.
Customs office space and additional search or investigation rooms should be provided in close proximity to
the customs channels. The exact requirements can vary greatly and should be determined early in the
planning process with the relevant authorities.

3.4.13.4.8 Sizing of Customs Facilities
Sizing of customs facilities is influenced by the number of passengers terminating their journey at the airport
as well as by the inspection strategy.
When a green/red channel concept is used, the green channel facility consists of a circulation corridor, where
the majority of international passengers go through. The red channel requires X-ray inspection.
In certain countries, the green channel is replaced by a customs document check position and the X-ray
inspection is replaced by manual search rooms or facilities.
Planners are invited to consult local government authorities to take into account all facility requirements
However, from a capacity standpoint, the following approach may be used for document check positions and
X-ray inspection.
PI = Number of Primary Inspection Booths (single units)

PT(PI/XR) Process (throughput) Time per Passenger at Primary Inspection Booth/X-ray Facility
= (in seconds)
XR = Number of X-ray units
IR = Ratio of passengers to be inspected
Pld = Depth of One Primary Inspection Booth Lane
Plw = Width of One Primary Inspection Booth Lane
MQT(PI/XR) = Maximum Queuing Time at Primary Inspection Booth/X-ray Facility (in minutes)
A(PI/XR) = Area Required for the Primary Inspection Booth/X-ray Facility
XRd = Depth of One X-ray Lane (in meters).
XRw 2 Width of One X-ray Lane (in meters). Includes X-ray Equipment, Circulation and
Operator Position
W = Corridor Width Before/Behind Desks (in meters)*
When there is specific need for all arrival passengers to be processed by a customs agent on exit from the
reclaim area, follow steps 1 to 3.

Step 1: Calculate the number of customs check positions using the following equation. It is considered that all
passengers go through this facility when in place.
PI = ((PHP * PK * PTPl / 60) / (30 + MQT)
Step 2: Calculate the maximum number of passengers in the queue
Where Qf equals:
Q M A X C a lc u la tio n F a c to r (Q f)
MQT Qf
3 0.120
4 0.151
5 0.183
10 0.289
15 0.364
20 0.416
25 0.453
30 0.495
Step 3: Calculate the area required for the customs check facility.
API = (PI * Pld * Plw) + QMAX * SP + (PI * Plw * W)
Actual search facilities for customs can be estimated using the following equation, but should be verified with
specific local border/custom requirements (i.e., proportion of passengers searched or type of check/search).
Step 4: Calculate the number of X-ray units required using the following equation.
XR = [(PHP * PK * IR * PTxr/60) / (30 + MQT)] * Cf
Where Cf equals:
For MQT CF
3 1.21
4 1.22
5 1.15
10 1.06
15 1.01
20 1.00
25 1.00
30 1.00

Step 5. Calculate the maximum number of passengers in the queue.
Step 6: Calculate the area required for the X-ray process using the following equation.
AXR = (XR * XRd * XRw) + QMAX * SP + (XR * XRw * 2 * W)
The corridor width will vary with the importance of passenger flows. The planner may obtain corridor width
from standard calculations. A minimum width of three meters should be provided in low volume areas.
3.4.13.4.10 Sam ple Calculation
Determine the facility requirements for the customs area considering the following variables:

PI Number of Primary Inspection Booths (single units) Output
PK Peak 30-minjte Factor (in % of PHP) 60%
PT(PI/XR) Process (throughput) Time per Passenger at Primary Inspection Booth/X-ray PI = 10/XR = 20
Facility (in seconds)
XR Number of X-ray units Output
IR Ratio of Passengers to be Inspected 10%
Pld Depth of One Primary Inspection Booth Lane 3
Plw Width of One Primary Inspection Booth Lane 2.2
MQT(PI/XR) Maximum Queuing Time at Primary Inspection Booth/X-ray Facility (in PI = 5/XR = 3
minutes)
A Area Required for the X-ray Facility Output
XRd Depth of One X-ray Lane (in meters). 4m
XRw Width of One X-ray Lane (in meters). Includes X-ray Equipment, Circulation 3m
and Operator Position
W Corridor Width Before/Behind Desks (in meters) 3
When there is specific need for all arrival passengers to be processed by a customs agent on exit from the
reclaim area, follow steps 1 to 3.
Step 1. Calculate the number of customs check positions using the following equation. It is considered that all
passengers go through this facility when in place.
PI = ((PHP * PK * PTPI / 60) / (30 + MQT)
PI = ((2200 * 0.6 * 10 / 60) / (30 + 5))
PI = 6.28, say 7 booths

ia t a
,n|
Step 2. Calculate the maximum number of passengers in the queue.
QMAX = 0.183 *(2200 * 0.6)
QMAX = 241.56, say 242 passengers in queue
Step 3. Calculate the area required for the customs check facility.
API = (PI * Pld * Plw) + QMAX * SP + (PI * Plw * W)
API = (7 * 3 * 2.2) + 242 * 1.3 + (7 * 2.2 * 3)
API = 407 m2
Step 4. Calculate the number of X-ray units.
XR = [(PHP * PK * IR * PTxr / 60) / (30+MQT)] * Cf
XR = [(2200 * 0.6 * 0.1 * 20/60) / (30+3)] * 1.21
XR = 1.61, say 2 X-ray units
Step 5. Calculate the maximum number of passengers in queue for X-ray.
QMAX = (0.120) * (2200 * 0.6 * 0.1)
QMAX = 15.84, say 16 passengers in queue
Step 6. Calculate the area required for the X-ray facility
AXR = (XR * XRd * XRw) + QMAX * SP + (XR * XRw * 2 * W)
A = ( 2 * 4 * 3 ) + 16* 1.3 + ( 2 * 3 * 2 *3)
A = 80.8 m2

3.4.13.5 Arrivals Hall
Vision
The arrivals hall should:
• Create a connection between the facility and the geographical setting, city or region it serves;
• Communicate a sense of place;

• Be inviting and welcoming;
• Provide natural light to waiting visitors and arriving passengers; and

• P r o v id e v ie w s to w a r d th e la n d s id e e n v ir o n m e n t o f th e a ir p o r t te rm in a l.
Policy
It is recommended that the arrivals hall provide facilities for both passengers and waiting visitors in a single
location. It should be welcoming and inviting to both groups.
For passengers, it should provide the required facilities, such as toilets, information kiosks, dedicated onward
journey information, and booking opportunities for travel into the region.
For visitors, it should provide waiting spaces and entertainment opportunities in order to make the wait as
pleasant and enjoyable as possible.
Lastly, it should create connections to the landside arrivals forecourt and landside access systems, where
applicable.
The arrivals hall provides a short-term waiting area for visitors (meeters and greeters) waiting for arriving
passengers. It is located between the baggage claim hall and the forecourts, providing dedicated circulation
and waiting areas that should be dimensioned to accommodate the expected flows of passengers and
visitors. It should also cater to the use of trolleys.
Passengers will enter this facility through a dedicated exit from baggage claim or customs.
At the exit from baggage claim or customs, a presentation line should be considered to define the interface of
the circulation route for passengers and the meter/greeter waiting zones. This presentation line should be
clearly visible to both passengers and visitors, and can include, for example, half-height balustrades to
maintain space and flow.
Visitors will access the arrivals hall from the landside forecourts. The number of meeters and greeters is often
influenced by the local/regicnal culture. So, specific information should be sought for each airport project.
A connection to the departures processing area should be provided for landside transferring passengers.

Exhibit 3.4.13.5.1: Typical Landside C oncourse
Source: Nikada/iStock
3.4.13.5.2 Arrivals Hall Layout and Functions
“The airport planner, in consultation with all stakeholders, should ensure that the arrivals hall includes the
following features and facilities in sufficient size and number to meet passenger demand.”
(a) Concessions
Concessions within the landside arrivals hall can include:
• Food & beverage outlets;
• Retail stores;
• Facilities for car rentals;

• Hotel reservation desks;
• Currency exchange kiosks; and

• Cash withdrawal machines.

(b) Additional Facilities
An information and “meeting point" should be provided for meeters/greeters and passengers requiring
assistance and/or a place to meet. It should be centrally located yet not obstruct circulation routes even
when occupied by large groups.
Ample seating should be provided for visitors and passengers. Provisions should be provided in line with
general IATA guidance on seating for waiting visitors and passengers (see Chapter 3.4.13.5.3 Sizing of
the Arrivals Hall for more information).
Toilet facilities should be provided and located so that they are easy to access for passengers and
visitors. Sufficient facilities should be provided to allow temporary closure of some facilities for cleaning.
Provisions should be sized to suit the expected amount of waiting visitors and passengers.
Lost and found baggage and baggage inquiry facilities can be provided in the baggage claim hall, but can
also be provided with access from the arrivals hall. The relevant stakeholders are to be consulted during
the design process to determine exact requirements.
All facilities provided should cater to the needs of passengers with reduced mobility (see Chapter 3.4.15
Access To A ir Travel For Persons With Reduced Mobility).
(c) Wayfinding and Signage
Orientation within the arrivals hall should be intuitive. Spaces should be organized in an open and clear
manner so that passengers and visitors can easily orientate themselves. Signage should be provided
where required to facilitate wayfinding.
Dynamic flight information displays should be provided to inform visitors about arriving flights and
potential delays.
(See Chapter 3.4.17 Passenger Wayfinding And Signage for more information)
(d) Onward Journey

Ticketing facilities for onward travel should be provided for passengers requiring such services.
Exits to the forecourts, car parking, ground transportation and other onward journey facilities provided
should be accessible from the arrivals hall.
3.4.13.5.3 Sizing of the Arrivals Hall
The public arrivals hall is a portion of the terminal where access is unrestricted. This area must accommodate
sufficient space for passengers and their meeters/greeters. The public concourse also provides areas for
concessions and other amenities to satisfy users' needs and contribute to a satisfying experience while at the
airport.
Sizing of the arrivals hall is calculated separately from concession areas. The size of the arrivals hall depends
on the number of persons during the peak hour, the amount of time passengers and visitors spend in the

public area, the space they require as well as the number of seats to be provided. It is assumed that
passengers carry their bagcage while moving in this area.
p = Persons Present in Arrivals Hall

T(P/V) = Dwell Time for Passengers/Visitors (in minutes)
VR = Ratio of Visitors per Passenger
A = Area of the Arrival Hall
SR = Seat Ratio
SP(S/ST) = Space per Seated/Standing Person
Step 1: Calculate the number of person present in the arrivals hall using the following equation:
P = (PHP * TP) / 60 + (PHP * VR * Tv) / 60)
Step 2: Calculate the area to provide in the arrivals hall using the following equation:
A = (P * SR * SPs) + (P * (1 - SR) * SPST)
3.4.13.5.5 Sam ple Calculation

P Persons Present in Arrival Hall Output
T(P/V) Dwell Time for Passengers/Visitors (in minutes) P = 5/V = 15
VR Ratio of Visitors per Passenger 1
A Area of the Arrival Hall Output
SR Seat Ratio 20%
SP(S/ST) Space per Seated/Standing Person S = 1.7/ST = 1.2
Step 1: Calculate the number of persons present in the arrivals hall.
P = (PHP * TP) / 60 + (PHP * VR * Tv) / 60)
P = (3200 * 5) / 60 + (3200 * 1 * 15)/ 60)
P = 1066 persons

Step 2: Calculate the area of the arrivals hall.
A = (P * SR * SPs) + (P * (1 - SR) * SPST)
A = (1066 * 0.2 * 1.7) + (1066 * (1 - 0.2) * 1.2)
A = 1385.44 m2
3.4.13.6 Arrivals Forecourt
The arrivals forecourt is defined by the landside road system that serves the arriving flight passenger flows
only. It is the interface between the terminal building and the landside public traffic network. The term
“forecourt” describes the road and parking directly linked to the terminal. It will also encompass a link to the
landside departing traffic network (i.e., the road and rail systems as well as parking lots used to access the
terminal building). However, the landside access systems themselves do not form part of the forecourt.
In contrast to the departures forecourt, one of the main functions of the arrivals forecourt is to enable arriving
passengers and accompanying visitors to be picked up by private vehicles, as per one of the following
categories:
• Private car;
• Rental car;
• Taxi;
• Shuttle/coach; and
• Bus.
The provisions made for each of the above individual traffic modes will vary from airport to airport. The
forecourts usually only provide short-term parking opportunities (pick up only) for the above modes.
3.4.13.6.2 Arrivals Forecourt Pick-up
The arrivals pick-up function can be provided on a single-level forecourt) or on a spit-level forecourt.

Exhibit 3.4.13.6.2: Dublin Terminal 2 Arrivals Forecourt
Pick-up functions for the above-listed traffic modes should be located in close proximity to the terminal, if they
cannot be accommodated directly on the arrivals forecourt.
Passengers who make their way from the terminal to the vehicle parking areas and rail systems should exit
the terminal on a dedicated route that separates the passenger flows from those using the pick-up forecourt.
The arrivals forecourt is only one element of the complex landside access system. All planning consideraticns
described in the landside access systems chapter should be considered during the planning of the arrivals
forecourt (see Chapter 3.4.18 Landside Access Systems and Forecourts for more information).

3.4.14 Commercial and Retail Opportunities
3.4.14.1 Types of Concessions and Planning Concepts
3.4.14.1.1 Why Concessions are Important
Providing passengers with a variety of high-quality retail, food and beverage (F&B) and personal service
concessions is important. Departing passengers often perceive a higher quality travel experience if they have
diverse opportunities to shop, eat or receive personal services while waiting for their departing flight. As in
flight food services continue to be reduced, preflight access to F&B offerings is becoming increasingly
important.
Arriving passengers may also seek opportunities to purchase duty-free products or gifts before leaving the
terminal.
Revenues that flow from concessions sales can provide significant income. The aviation community as a
whole can benefit financially from the proceeds.
It is of paramount importance that diverse concessions be wholly integrated into the terminal design from the
beginning of the terminal planning process. Planning considerations may include:
• The variety of retail and F&B services offered;
• The amount of concessons lease space to be provided;
• Integration of commercial signage with airport informational and passenger wayfinding signage; and
• Concentration of concessions along the major passenger flow routes.
Concessions are very specific to each terminal and to diverse local socio-economic factors. Consequently,
there is no single standard solution. This section highlights issues to be addressed during terminal planning
and design, and outlines general guidelines that can be used as rules of thumb for planning.
Recommendation: Retail Planning Expertise

It is recommended that airport owners and operators consider retaining professional airport retail planning
expertise at the early stage of the airport planning and design process to work with the airport owner and the
consultant design team to define the most appropriate concessions program that will drive value for money.
3.4.14.1.2 The Passenger Experience Anxiety Curve
Air travel has become increasingly stressful in recent years due to changing concerns over security and the
increased number of passengers traveling. As passengers leave home and travel to the airport, their anxiety
about the trip tends to increase. This anxiety level tends to decrease once the passenger has negotiated the
initial processing elements and entered the secure airside portion of the terminal. Here the passenger is able

to relax somewhat and focus on additional service offerings and opportunities. It is of major importance in
terminal planning that the layout of the concessions takes these issues into account.
3.4.14.1.3 Amount and Types of Concessions Spaces Required
There is no single formula for organizing concessions within an airport terminal. Each airport will have a
different profile of passengers:
• Type (i.e., origin-destination, transfer, etc.);
• Cultural focus; and

• Distribution of passengers within the terminal.
All of these factors should be used to determine the most appropriate concession mix.
3.4.14.1.4 Total Amount of Terminal Area Required for Concessions
Commercial revenues are often an important source of financing for airport operations, maintenance and
infrastructure development. At some larger airports, up to 20 percent of the terminal area may be dedicatee to
retail shops and other concessions, although from eight to 15 percent is more typical.
Determining the total amount of terminal area to be dedicated to various types of concessions spaces, and
the proper mix of retail, food & beverage, and other personal services, is an important aspect of terminal
planning.
3.4.14.1.5 Supportable Concessions Space Calculations
During initial terminal planning it is important to identify the general amount of concessions sales floor space
that will likely be required in the terminal. This projection should recognize that total concessions sales will
increase in the future as passenger enplanements increase over time. Optimum terminal planning provides for
the phased growth of future concessions space to allow for additional tenant space to be added as growth in
passenger volumes dictate. This can be accomplished by either locating nonessential functions adjacent to
concessions that may be expected to grow, and relocating the nonessential functions when the adjacent
concessions need to grow; or, by developing a terminal plan that anticipates future building additions in
strategic locations to allow for growth in concessions space.
While every airport will be different based on its passenger profile, a general rule-of-thumb for preliminary
planning is to provide total concessions floor space at the following ratios:
• 0.8 to1.5 square meters x each 1,000 annual enplaned passengers
This ratio should be customized carefully depending upon the overall concessions planning concept (i.e.,
whether concessions are concentrated in specific zones or dispersed throughout the terminal). The type of

activity occurring in any zone within the terminal will influence the type and amount of concessions space
required for that zone.
3.4.14.1.6 Peak Hour Sizing of Airside Retail
Another method to determine the supportable amount of concessions during the peak hour operation is to
calculate the sizing of retail based primarily on the Busy Hour Rate. Normally such calculations do not include
seating, public toilets, circulation or other areas. Generic formulas usually take into consideration the
following:
• Busy Hour Rate (from the passenger forecast);

• Penetration is based on the size of the commercial unit (depth times shop front width). For a typical unit a
maximum depth of 10 meters is advised. For a larger unit with a wider shop front, the depth can be
increased;
• Dwell time is the time that passengers spend in the concessions area and differs for Domestic,
International and New Model terminals;
• Time spent on shopping, eating and other activities is an estimate based on data collected for that
specific airport, but can be altered depending on the concessions offered; and
• The area per passenger is generally 4.8 m2 for retail and 3.6 m2 for F&B
Retail and F&B are typically split approximately 60 percent retail and 40 percent F&B.
3.4.14.1.7 Concessions Program Mix
With an understanding of the future passenger profile and their anticipated spending preferences, an estimate
can be developed of the mix of types of retail, F&B and personal service offerings to be provided. Surveys at
airports have shown that passengers want, and expect to see, a variety of high-quality retail and F&B
concessions where they can browse, shop and dine. For planning purposes, concessions are typically
categorized into five groups and the proportion of each type to the total concessions space is as follows.
Exhibit 3.4.14.1.7a: Typical Mix of Total Terminal Area for Concessions by Type (%)
Concessions by type Percentage

Duty-Free 5%-15%
Specialty Retail, Duty Paid 25%-40%
Convenience Retail 10%-20%
Food and Beverage 40%-60%
Personal or Business Services 5%-10%
Source: IATA
The specific types of stores and products offered will vary at each airport. The following are typical types of
concessions found at major airports.

Exhibit 3.4.14.1.7b: Typical Types of Concession Shops, Food and Beverage Services, and
Personal and Business Services
DUTY-FREE SERVICES
SPECIALTY RETAIL • Banks, ATMs*
• Gifts • Insurance sales
• Clothing • Post Office
• Shoes • Barber shop/beauty salon
• Personal care products* • Massage
• Books • Nursery
• Wine/liquor (duty paid) • Day rooms
• Greeting cards • Fitness center, pool, sauna
CONVENIENCE • Currency exchange*
• Newsstands, books and magazines • Observation area
• Snack food and drinks • Pay phones*
• Souvenirs • Baggage wrapping, storage*
FOOD & BEVERAGE • Medical services*
• Coffee bars, snack shops* • Shoe shine
• Restaurants* • Business center*
• Cocktail lounges • Common use CIP lounges*
• Cafeterias • Video arcades, casinos
• Food courts* • General information, tourism information*
PERSONAL OR BUSINESS SERVICES
• On-line shopping where food can be ordered and delivered to the passenger in the terminal
• “Buy and Collect” where the passenger buys on the outbound journey and collects on the inbound
• Children's play areas and day cares (which may be free or funded by the operator, passenger or airline)
• Internet (Wi-Fi) areas, business services
• Cinemas
• Relaxation and spa areas
Denotes recommended
3.4.14.1.8 Restricted Goods
Some products should not be sold within the airport terminal due to security concerns. Potentially harmful
goods can include pen-knives, scissors, letter openers, and other products not allowed within the secure
airside portion of the terminal. Reference should also be made to ICAO, ACI guidelines and the IATA
Security Manual, which defines products that are inappropriate to be sold within airports. No goods that
could be used in a harmful way should be sold in airport shops, landside or airside. Particular attention should
be given to those products sold airside, as these products usually won't be screened.
It is recommended that retail concessionaires be required, as a condition of their lease, to submit their list of
products to the local security division for approval in order to ensure that no potentially harmful goods are
sold. If in any doubt, see guidance from ICAO, ACI and IATA. Consultation between individual concessions
tenants and the airport security management authorities should occur prior to stocking each specific shop.

3.4.14.1.9 Advertising Considerations in Commercial Planning
Advertising within terminals, on the exterior of terminals and on the landside entrance road system is
becoming an increasingly lucrative source of airport revenue. Within terminals, advertising displays can take a
variety of forms: static and dynamic, wall-mounted and floor-mounted, and special displays.
The increase in social networking on personal devices has many opportunities to provide interactive
advertising displays where passengers can directly interact with the advertising media.
3.4.14.2 Landside and Airside Concessions Space Distribution
With a summary of the desired overall concessions program in mind, it is important to determine what amount
of concessions space is appropriate in the pre-security Landside area and what amount is appropriate in the
secure Airside portion of the terminal. That decision will need to be made on a case-by-case basis at each
airport based on its passenger profile and other local considerations.
3.4.14.2.1 Landside Concessions and Airside Concessions Serve Different Customers
As noted previously, travelers tend to wait until they have reached the secure airside area (departures lounge)
before they consider concessionary offers. However, well-wishers and airport personnel will make more use of
landside concessions. The proportional distribution of these spaces is dependent on local and cultural trends.
Typically, only about five to 15 percent of total concessions space will be provided on the landside of the
terminal in order to serve airport employees, limited numbers of departing passengers, and meeters/greeters
that accompany passengers to and from the terminal. The remaining approximately 85 to 95 percent of all
concessions space will typically be provided on the airside of the terminal where departing passengers are
more likely to linger and shop prior to their flight.
Nevertheless, airports throughout the world place great importance on providing a variety of shopping and
dining opportunities on the landside. Indeed, in some cultures, the airport terminal can become a destination
for the local community to come to eat or shop. At many airports hotels, business conference centers, sit-
down restaurants, grocery markets as well as a variety of retail and personal services are provided on the
landside of the terminal. Employees working at the airport also represent a significant shopping and dining
population that potentially access both landside and airside concession areas.
Airside concessions attract passengers to spend time shopping prior to boarding their flight, thereby reducing
space demands at the gate lounges.
Careful consultation with airport management at each airport is essential in determining the proper amount
and type of concessions spaces required throughout the terminal. Facilities should cater to both domestic and
international passengers. Comfortable airside retail areas are well illuminated, heated and ventilated.
Successful concessions provide a suitably wide spectrum of desirable products for sale. However, it is
essential that airside retail sales do not impair the functional characteristics of the passenger terminal.

3.4.14.3 Location of Concessions Facilities and Design Continuity
3.4.14.3.1 Passenger Flow
It is extremely important that concessions be arranged along the path of travel of passengers to maximize foot
traffic. Product marketing is governed heavily by the principles of passing trade, merchandising and the
"impulse buy”. Concession tenants look to maximized foot traffic and offer unobstructed views of their
merchandise (or food menu). It is fairly common for departing passengers to locate their assigned boarding
gate and then return to concessions areas once they have a clear understanding of the time needed to reach
the gate. Information and wayfinding signage can also reinforce the travel time to gate message.
3.4.14.3.2 Centralized versus Distributed Concessions
Centralized and distributed concession arrangements both have merit and should be considered given the
specific conditions at each airport.
(a) Centralized Departure (Concessions) Lounges
To maximize foot traffic, high-value retail shops are best concentrated in a single major location just after
passengers emerge from the security screening area into the airside portion of the terminal. Passengers
can be encouraged, or even required, to wait for their flight in the main concessions hall until shortly
before the flight boarding process begins. As flight information systems are updated, passengers are able
to proceed to the appropriate boarding gate.
At many airports the main duty-free shop is located immediately after security and is made available to all
travelers as they make :heir way toward the piers/concourses and gate lounges. Passengers are also
provided with other high-value retail offerings and food & beverage options. The typical “shopping center
model” concentrates most concessions and provides a unique shopping opportunity. The centralized
model can generate very significant sales-per-enplanement revenue. However, the design needs to be
sensitive to the needs of some travelers to move quickly through the area, unimpeded by the concession
offering. As a result, "short-cuts” for frequent flyers who are familiar with the airport layout are often
provided.
Even terminals with major centralized concessions that operate a “call-to-gate” process directing
passengers to gate lounges shortly before boarding of the aircraft should consider providing some food
and beverage outlets in the piers and at the gates. The appropriate amount of gate lounge concession
services will depend on the distance of the gates from the main departures lounge.
(b) Distributed Concessions Opportunities
It is important to consider a variety of concessions offerings distributed throughout the boarding gate
areas. As terminals grow larger, piers/concourses become increasingly longer requiring that passengers
walk greater distances to their assigned boarding gate.

The distributed concessions model usually includes a series of "concessions nodes” that concentrate
concessions within close and easy walking proximity to sets of boarding gates. While this model implies
that there will be repetition of certain types of shops and food & beverage concessions throughout the
airside terminal, the convenience for passengers can extend their time devoted to shopping or dining right
up to the time that their flight begins boarding. If passengers can see their gate, and know that they will
not miss their flight, they will be more likely to linger and shop.
There are some simple design guidelines that can be followed in the planning of a distributed concession
area:
• Locate an orientation and information area after security and before any retail concessions;
• Site the toilets to augment passenger flow and circulation. For example, place toilet facilities at both ends
of the departures concessions hall and toward any piers/concourses;
• Locate essential retail (e.g., pharmacy and newsagents) early on in the passenger circulation;
• Locate prominent duty-free and other “anchor” retail stores at key locations in the departures concession
hall to attract travelers and maximize foot traffic at adjacent outlets;
• Locate very high-end retail offerings where they will enjoy maximum foot traffic;
• Consider locating food and beverage offerings concentrated in a separate area;
• Create a retail area where all outlets are visible from any point in the passenger circulation zone, and
consider locating seating in the center of the departures hall so that the full range of retail offerings is
visible;
• Create seating areas near and within the food and beverage outlets; and
• Consider all passenger flows and segregation (i.e., Domestic/lntemational).
In airports where arriving and departing passenger may mix within the concourse, there is significant potential
concessions income to be gained by bringing inbound arriving passengers back through the departure
concessions hall prior to baggage claim.
Concession areas that complement efficient and operationally successful terminals usually:
• Have a clear distinction between directional signage and concession signage/advertising;
• Have flight information displays at frequent intervals in the concession areas so that passengers can
judge their travel time appropriately and not ‘panic’ that their flight has been called; and
• Cluster concessions.
In addition to the centralized and distributed concession provisions, consideration should be given to providing
additional space to allow for the deployment of mobile kiosk concessions.

3.4.14.3.3 Design Continuity, Branding and Tenant Guidelines
As is typical in many major -etail malls, airports tend to instruct their commercial retail and food & beverage
tenants to abide by some common guidelines. Comprehensive tenant design guidelines should be published.
The guidelines should establish:
• A design review and development process that needs to be followed;
• Airport-wide design standards that must be met; and
• Clear delineation of responsibilities for the airport and the tenant in construction or connecting to terminal
infrastructure.
The guidelines will typically address the parameters for each outlet “store front” while making allowances for
individual brand expression.
3.4.14.3.4 Public Seating and Circulation within Concessions Areas
Seating and circulation requirements are very specific to individual airports, but the following rules-of-thumb
can be applied:
• Public seating should allow for 1.0 to 1.5 m2 per passenger; and
• Seating in the F&B concessions should allow for a minimum of 2 m2 per passenger.
Circulation space (including orientation space) should occupy from 20 to 25 percent of the total floor area and
circulation zones should be a minimum of 10 meters wide, subject to the Busy Hour design flow.
3.4.14.4 Concessions Storage, Servicing and Waste Disposal
3.4.14.4.1 Servicing and Security
Terminal planners should consider storage, servicing and waste removal for the concessions during terminal
planning and design, including:
• Secure airside truck bays for the delivery of supplies and stock to concessions and for the removal of
waste;
• Security screening points at landside truck bays to screen concession goods;
• Waste storage and compaction facilities at or near all truck bays;
• Secure landside and airside storage areas for concession goods that can be subdivided by concessions
tenant;
• Back-of-house service corridors and service elevators so that supplies, food waste and retail stock are not
moved through the public circulation areas used by passengers; and
• Waste removal and goods delivery routes that are completely separate.

Goods can arrive via any of the following routes:
• Direct to the service yard for storage, scanning, airside storage and distribution. With this arrangement it
is preferable that vehicles be pre-booked and pre-cleared for security reasons;
• Via a landside bonded logistics center for airside distribution. This reduces storage requirements in the
terminal building; and
• Via a landside unbonded logistics center for storage, scanning, airside storage and distribution.
It should be noted that some goods cannot be cleared for airside consumption (e.g., knives, toxic chemicals,
fireworks, etc.)
Goods are distributed from storage areas via landside or airside back-of-house corridors and elevators.
3.4.14.4.2 Waste Disposal and Removal
Current best practice is to separate waste into recyclable, compostable and non recyclable elements in order
to minimize the impact on landfills.
Waste is transported to airside or landside storage and compacting areas. After compaction, waste is then
transported to the outbound service yard for removal from the airport. It is very important that, wherever
possible, a separate back-of-house route be provided for the removal and pickup of waste, so that waste is
not moved through any of the public areas of the terminal.
3.4.15 Access to Air Travel for Persons with Reduced Mobility
Vision
Airport terminals should fully respect the needs of passengers with reduced mobility (PRM) and offer the
greatest possible traveling comfort to them. Terminals should also provide suitable workplaces to employees
with reduced mobility (ERM).
Airport planning should not only be based on today's requirements, but should take into account ageing
populations with increasing numbers of passengers potentially requiring assistance.
Whenever possible, terminal facilities should enable PRMs to use the same facilities as passengers who do
not have reduced mobility.
Policy
It is recommended that airport terminals have a PRM strategy in place that provides facilities to people with
reduced mobility that are:
• Suitably determined and sized to suit the needs of the various user groups;
• Located and distributed logically throughout the terminal;

,n|
ia t a OJkSU Airport Development Reference Manual
• Fully compliant with relevant legislation;
• Provisioned with staff to support and assist PRMs; and
• Provisioned with reception desks or other assistance points.
All people with reduced mobility should have the same opportunities to use air travel everyone else.
There are many forms of disabilities, and people can have more than one type. A person with reduced
mobility (PRM) is understood to mean any person whose mobility is reduced due to a-
• Physical incapacity (sensory or locomotory);
• Learning deficiency;
• Age;
• Illness; or
• Any other cause.
In order to avail themselves of air transportation, these individuals require services that are adapted to their
special needs.
Persons with reduced mobility include, but are not limited to, the following categories:
• Wheelchair users;
• People with walking diff culties;
• People who are deaf or hard of hearing;
• People who are vision impaired or totally blind;
• People with impaired speech;
• People with learning difficulties;
• People with invisible disabilities;

• Elderly persons;
• Passengers with young children or infants;
• Passengers with illness authorized to travel by medical authorities (mobility impaired due medical
pathology in progress); and
• People unable to stand or walk due to injury.
Note: PRMs have complex needs and require specifically designed facilities. The “Changing Places”
initiative is indicative of these requirements.

3.4.15.2 Design of Infrastructure
The airport environment should be designed to be ‘user-friendly’ and easy to navigate for persons with
reduced mobility. The needs of persons with reduced mobility should be central to the design and should
include early involvement of local access/disability groups and an access consultant. The guiding principle for
airport planners and designers is that persons with reduced mobility should be allowed to exercise self-
reliance wherever possible.
3.4.15.3 Pre-Journey
Information should be made available in accessible formats, providing both general and specific information
about the services or arrangements for persons with reduced mobility available at the airport.
To ensure improved pre-notification, passengers should be able to make bookings either by telephone or over
the Internet. Consideration should be given to the provision of text-phones.
Easily accessible links should be made available on the home page of websites and any pages dedicated to
persons with reduced mobility. Websites should clearly indicate to the user how they should communicate
their requests for assistance. Information about the layout and facilities at the airport, including specific
facilities and services for passengers with reduced mobility, should also be available on airports' websites for
PRMs to consult before their journey.
3.4.15.4 Arrival at the Airport
Regardless of how a passenger with reduced mobility arrives at the airport, the aim should be to provide
seamless service.
When passengers with reduced mobility arrive at the airport, signage should be clear and unambiguous to
enable them to find their way easily to the correct part of the airport. Design of signage and wayfinding
systems should take into consideration the needs of people with reduced mobility, including those with
learning disabilities or vision loss, to ensure that all passengers, regardless of disability, can easily understand
the signage. Wherever possible, universal signage (pictograms) should be used.
Designated points of arrival should be defined within the airport boundary or at a point under the direct control
of the airport managing body. Persons with reduced mobility should be provided with the ability to easily
announce their arrival at the airport and request assistance, both inside and outside terminal buildings. The
points of arrival should be clearly signed and should offer basic information about the airport in accessible
formats. At minimum, these points should be designated at the terminal's:
• Main entrances;
• Processing counters;
• Train, light rail, metro and bus stations;

• Taxi ranks and other drop-off points; and
• Car parking lots.
“Arrival point” should be taken to mean the point where passengers arrive at the airport to take flights.
Public transport interchanges are not always under the direct control of the airport managing body. In cases
where they are not and it is not feasible to include a designated arrival point at the interchange, a procedure
should be agreed to with the interchange operator to ensure that assistance is provided to the nearest arrival
point at the airport boundary, and ideally to the processing area or beyond.
3.4.15.4.1 Car
In all car parking facilities, the design of entry equipment should allow use by drivers who have reduced
mobility, including wheelchair users as well as deaf and hearing impaired people, and should consider
positioning, height, and ticket issue. An easy to operate help button should be provided at the entrance.
A vertical clearance of 2.6 meters from ground level is required to allow high-top conversion vehicles access
into car parking garages. Payment machines should be accessible to people with reduced mobility, or a
convenient alternative arrangement should be in place to facilitate payment.
Spaces reserved for people with reduced mobility should be clearly signed from the car parking lot entrance.
The spaces should be near to terminal access points and payment facilities and should be designed to
facilitate access from the side and rear of the vehicle.
3.4.15.4.2 Taxi
Taxi ranks should be well signed. They should allow people with reduced mobility to get in and out of the
vehicle on the nearside or rear. They should provide unobstructed, step-free access to/from the terminal
building. Where access requires passengers to cross other lanes of traffic, footways at those crossing points
should be flush with the road surface (dropped curb or raised carriageway) and incorporate tactile paving.
3.4.15.4.3 Rental Car
The drop-off points should be clearly signed and premises should be accessible to people with reduced
mobility.
Where pedestrian links are available between the car rental premises and the airport, these should be fully
accessible to persons with reduced mobility.
Where transfer to the airport is required, an accessible shuttle service should be available to transfer persons
with reduced mobility from the car rental premises to the airport terminal building. Alternatively, a system to
allow people with reduced mobility to drop off close to the airport terminal building should be provided.

3.4.15.4.4 Bus or Train
Bus, train or tram stations should be fully accessible. A procedure should be in place to ensure that persons
with reduced mobility receive assistance between the station and airport terminal building. Ideally, the
assistance should be given from the station to processing (or beyond) so as to provide a seamless service.
A designated point should be provided at the exit/entrance and on platforms to allow a person with reduced
mobility to summon assistance. It should be clearly signed and should contrast with its surroundings.
3.4.15.4.5 Routes to the Terminal
Drop-off points for passengers brought by another driver should have the same characteristics as the taxi
rank environment. All pedestrian routes between drop-off points and the terminal should be well signed and
fully accessible to persons with reduced mobility.
3.4.15.5 Moving through the Airport-Landside
Signage should be clear and unambiguous. Pictograms should be used wherever appropriate. Tactile
symbols should be used where the sign is within reach of passengers, for example at toilet facilities.
3.4.15.5.1 Processing Facilities
Processing facilities should be designed to be accessible to passengers in wheelchairs as well as ambulan:

passengers with reduced mobility. For example, some service desks/counters should be designed with a
lower height to allow those in wheelchairs to speak to service associates at an “eye-to-eyen level. Provision
should be made to ensure that staff can communicate with deaf and hearing impaired passengers.
3.4.15.5.2 Self-service Equipment
A number of the self-service processing facilities should be adapted for use by PRMs. For example, the height
of some self-service units should be reduced to enable access at wheelchair height. In addition, a clear and
easily beatable designated point should be provided for those who may experience difficulty with the self-
service equipment. Similarly, automatic ticket machines should be adapted for access from wheelchair height.
3.4.15.5.3 Reserved Seating Areas
Seating areas reserved for persons with reduced mobility should incorporate signage to discourage others
from using them. These areas should be close to a staffed desk or designated point, and be reasonably close
to essential facilities, such as toilets and refreshments. Seating areas for PRMs should be discreet and
consideration given to special privacy requirements.

3.4.15.5.4 Access to Information
All equipment provided for use by the general public (i.e., telephones and Internet terminals) should be
accessible to people with reduced mobility, including those with sensory impairments. For people who are
deaf or hard of hearing, the equipment needs to be compatible with hearing aids, have variable amplification
for those who do not use a hearing aid, and some kind of visual indication to confirm requests for assistance
have been received.
3.4.15.5.5 Public Facilities
All areas and services in the terminal building that are open to the public should be accessible to people with
reduced mobility. Where facilities are provided expressly for the use by people with reduced mobility, they
should be appropriately signed using pictograms. Toilet facilities for passengers needing assistance should be
provided throughout the terminal, sized so as to allow for full access by PRMs and a second person for
assistance. Specially designed facilities that address the special needs of those who are unable to stand or
walk should be located at sufficient intervals. More information is available at “Changing Places”.
Embossed tactile markings should be used where appropriate, such as on the wall adjacent to door handles
at accessible toilets.
3.4.15.5.6 Assistance Dogs
Provision should be made for a well-maintained dog relief area for guide dogs and other assistance dogs
used by people with reduced mobility. The route to this area must be signed, with level access, and be well lit.
Assistance from staff should be available upon request. Appropriate relief areas should be available, where
practicable, both landside and airside.
3.4.15.6 Moving through the Airport-Airside
3.4.15.6.1 Security
Security checks can be a particular source of concern for people with reduced mobility, because of issues
such as sensitivity around physical searches or handling of specialized mobility or medical equipment.
All facilities should, as far as practicable, be accessible to persons with reduced mobility and should explain in
simple terms what PRMs are required to do before entering. Aisle widths and security archways should permit
the passage of passengers using wheelchairs.
A private area should be available upon request for physical searches or where a passenger has personal
medical equipment that they do not wish to expose in public. As a minimum, these search areas should be
capable of accommodating a passenger in a standard wheelchair (ISO standard 700 mm x 1200 mm) and the

security personnel. Where an airport allows larger powered wheelchairs to the gate, the area should be able
to accommodate such wheelchairs.
3.4.15.6.2 Customs and VAT Reclaim
As with all other desks in the airport, the customs and value-added tax (VAT) reclaim desks should be
accessible to wheelchair users (lower in height) as well as ambulant people with reduced mobility and provide
for ease of communication with deaf and hearing impaired people.
3.4.15.6.3 R eserved Seating Areas
As with landside facilities, any reserved seating areas for persons with reduced mobility should be in close
proximity to a staffed desk or designated point and be reasonably close to essential facilities. Privacy
screening in these areas should be considered.
Departure lounges should display information about average walking times to gates so that passengers can
assess whether or not they need assistance to reach their gate. Even if passengers have not requested
assistance beforehand, they should be able to seek assistance from the staffed desk or designated point in
the departure lounge.
3.4.15.6.4 Shopping, Catering and Other Public Facilities
All areas and services that are available to the public should be accessible to PRMs (e.g., with counters/desks
specially designed to accommodate wheelchair users).
3.4.15.6.5 Information
Flight information should be available to passengers seated in reserved seating areas. Attention needs be
given to the design and positioning of the visual displays to ensure that they are easily readable by people in
wheelchairs and people with visual impairments. Alternative means of communication for those unable to use
visual displays should be provided.
3.4.15.7 Boarding
3.4.15.7.1 Gate Facilities
Priority seating should be installed at the gate. Seating should be provided for at least one caregiver who may
be traveling with the PRM. Priority boarding should also be provided to allow special needs passengers
additional time to board the aircraft prior to other groups.

Where aircraft are on remote stands, the transport links to and from these stands should be accessible to
PRMs.
3.4.15.7.2 Loading Wheelchairs and Other Mobility Equipment
Wheelchair users should be able to remain in their own wheelchair all the way to the gate. Wheelchairs are
often specifically designed for the user and it can be difficult for them to use ‘standard’ wheelchairs that do not
meet their needs. For this reason, the general rule should be to allow people with reduced mobility to remain
in their own wheelchairs until they reach the door of the aircraft.
Where the aircraft is on a remote stand, wheelchair users will generally have to transfer out of their
wheelchair on the ground outside the aircraft, or in the vehicle that has transported them to the aircraft.
Personal wheelchairs should be the last items to be loaded in the hold and the first to be unloaded. They
should then be returned to their owner with minimal delay. Wheelchairs should not be sent to baggage claim.
3.4.15.7.3 Boarding Wheelchair Users
Suitable equipment should be provided to facilitate boarding and minimize risks to staff and passengers.
Where passenger boarding bridges are not present or not in use, there are a number of methods for
passengers with reduced mobility to board an aircraft:
• Scissor elevator or ambulift;
• Battery powered wheelchair;
• Stair climber or stair elevator; and
• Boarding chair.
A boarding chair should be used as a last resort.
3.4.15.8 Disembarkation, Transfer Arrangements and Leaving the Airport
Passengers requiring assistance should normally be the last passengers to disembark, and assistance should
be available with the minimum delay.
For wheelchair users, their own wheelchair should be available as soon as is practical upon leaving the
aircraft. Wheelchairs should not be taken to the baggage claim hall unless specifically requested by the
passenger.

3.4.15.8.1 Transfers
Arrangements for transferring passengers should be accessible and accommodate passengers with reduced
mobility. Where the distances to be covered by foot are too great, specialized, accessible transport or other
assistance should be provided.
3.4.15.8.2 Baggage Retrieval, Immigration and Customs
Baggage claim, immigration and customs areas should allow for the passage of wheelchair users and
passengers being transported in airport buggies.
If required, assistance should be provided from the aircraft all the way to the designated departure point (e.g.,
car parking lot, shuttle bus, bus station, railway station or taxi rank). Where assistance is provided, staff must
also assist PRMs with the transportation their baggage.
3.4.15.8.3 Facilities for Assistance Dogs
Airports should ensure that they have facilities to receive incoming assistance dogs (including dogs in transit)
under the Pet Travel Scheme. As a minimum, these facilities should comprise:
• A caged area;
• Microchip readers;
• A service level agreement with a quarantine kennel (in case of dogs that fail health tests or with
paperwork that is not in order);
• A minimum number of staff trained in the procedures;
• Access to clean water and food; and
• Access to suitable toilet facilities.
3.4.16 Toilet Provisions
Vision
Terminals should be equipped with toilet environments that:
• Are pleasant and generous;
• Are easily accessible to all passengers;
• Consider the needs of all passengers, including babies, the elderly and passengers with reduced mobility
(PRM); and
• Take into account privacy and religious requirements.

Policy
• Ample toilet provisions should be made in all terminal facilities for passengers and staff.
• Sufficient facilities should be provided to allow temporary closure of some facilities for cleaning.
• Toilets should be provided near all main passenger waiting areas, and should be well distributed for
passenger comfort.
Toilet provisions play an important role in airport facilities for passenger and staff convenience and passenger
perceptions regarding their overall experience at an airport. Passengers and staff should be provided with
adequate toilet facilities near all main waiting zones and workplaces.
The design, as well as the sizing of toilet facilities, should recognize international best practices since the
facilities will be used by many nationalities with varying perceptions. Design parameters should also address
the service levels that a specific airport wants to provide to its passengers and an assessment of the peak
traffic volumes that are expected for the various zones where toilets are to be provided.
Sufficient facilities should be provided to allow temporary closure of some facilities for cleaning.
Ample width in toilet circulation areas should be provided.
Trolley provisions should be considered for the sizing of toilet blocks, particularly in landside areas where use
of trollies is prominent.
Toilet facilities should be easy to locate for passengers. Signage should support passenger wayfinding where
required. Please refer to Chapter 3.4.17 Passenger Wayfinding and Signage for more information.
Special attention should be paid to the sizing of cubicles and circulation spaces for toilets where checked
luggage and/or hand luggage may be taken into the toilets.

Toilets should always be planned in a way that prevents views from the public concourses or lounges into the
toilet area. Doors are not a mandatory provision at entrances to toilets as long as the entrances are designed
to completely obscure views into the facilities.
3.4.16.3 Special Needs Provisions
Passengers with reduced mobility (PRM) should be provided with toilet facilities designed to suit their needs.
Toilet layouts should consider the various different forms of reduced mobility and provide accessible solutions
to all passengers. See Chapter 3.4.15 Access To A ir Travel For Persons With Reduced Mobility.
3.4.16.4 Religious and Cultural Considerations
Where required, toilet details should consider religious and cultural aspects, such as the orientation of toilet
facilities, or the provision of specific toilets types, lavatories, wash basins and/or urinals. Privacy between
appliances should also be considered.

3.4.16.5 Distances between Toilet Blocks and Areas without Toilet Provisions
Distances between toilet blocks should take maximum walking distances into account. Passengers should
have easy access to the nearest toilet block. Where applicable, local regulations for distances between toilet
blocks need to be considered, but practical levels of comfort should always be taken into consideration as
well.
Where toilet provisions are restricted to certain areas only, with minimum provisions only in other zones such
as boarding gate areas, signage should clearly inform passengers that they are entering zones where no
toilets are provided.
3.4.17 Passenger Wayfinding and Signage
Vision
The wayfinding and signage systems should make an airport easier to understand and navigate while
promoting a public image of distinction that is coherent and welcoming to all.
Policy
Wayfinding and signage systems should be designed to:
• Provide seamless and consistent information about the airport environment;
• Simplify the context of the terminal environment to its users (i.e., make the terminal easier to understand);
• Separate the decision-making requirements in order to allow the passengers to focus on specific
decisions without being distracted or overloaded with information;
• Wherever possible, limit decision making to either an “a” or “b” option;
• Utilize different channels and make best use of latest technologies; and
• Inform not only about the terminal flows, but also about additional subjects, such as news, entertainment
or retail offers.
A consistent and easy-to-use wayfinding system should be adopted at terminals to help link together and
reveal the physical aspects of the airport. It will provide a seamless thread to, through, around and out of the
airport. It should also communicate the benefits of the airport's relationship with the city.
Today's airports face the challenges of being complex, multi-function destinations set within transparent
boundaries with multiple points of entry and exit. The experience of getting to and around the airport
contributes significantly to the overall impression of the airport.

Proper wayfinding and signage should make an airport easier to understand and navigate while promoting a
public image of distinction that is coherent and welcoming to all.
3.4.17.2 Wayfinding
Wayfinding is the action of navigation throughout a journey. Journeys are experienced through a sequence of
orientation and navigation points-critical encounters-that take place on the way from A to B. At these decision
points wayfinding information is used to understand and experience a place and to help inform travel
decisions.
Wayfinding information is provided through a variety of communication channels, including web based
information, mobile technologies, printed products, on-route signs as well as people services.
Wayfinding technology interfaces are now becoming integrated with smartphones for terminal and concourse
navigation to provide wayfinding assistance for passengers. Users of an app can determine their current
location in the terminal and find directions to a desired destination. Passengers can also register their flight
number to automatically receive any updates to their flight information, such as delays and gate changes.
The environment and its architecture, landmarks, colors, materials, lighting, and furniture also play an
important role in influencing journeys. These visual clues can provide guidance and a sense of welcome.
However, they also have the potential to confuse and distract; this places even more importance on the role
of information as an “overlay" to aid interpretation.
3.4.17.3 Signage
Signage encompasses all visual or contextual aids that inform about navigation requirements and provide
wayfinding information.

Exhibit 3.4.17.3: Heathrow Terminal 5 Signage
3.4.17.4 Strategies
The way people access and use information is changing, requiring new concepts and approaches to providing
information. Fully integrated airport information systems can deliver exemplary information that improves the
experience of all users:
• Any information system should consider its users first, provide information to meet user needs, and make
information available to all users;
• Wayfinding and signage information should entice along the entire airport journey and provide seamless
information;
• Wayfinding should provide information through all appropriate channels: digital, real-time, signage and
people,
• Information systems should, wherever possible, link the airport terminal with the city via all available
interfaces (i.e., public transport, road networks, commercial opportunities);
• Information should be relevant and provided through a single system to the airport and its users.
Information should be tailored to specific decision-making requirements only;
• Wherever possible, the need to make different decisions should not overlap, but should be separated in a
way to allow a passenger to focus on a single decision-making process at a time. Where several decision
steps are required, these should be sequenced;

• Wayfinding and signage should be coherent across all airport terminal facilities to improve the user
experience and link together all elements of the passenger journey;
• Information is given both formally, by signs, dynamic information screens, guides and maps, and
informally by the airport itself and its activities;
• Wayfinding and signage should support airport objectives and its brand values as well as embrace the
vision of a coherent airport experience;
• Information should always be of the highest quality ensuring a robust, long-lasting system that reflects the
status of the airport; and
• Wayfinding should be based on best practice guidance and legislative compliance for ergonomic and
functional performance.
3.4.17.5 Products
The wayfinding and signage strategies discussed above can encompass a range of products and services,
such as
• Real-time flight information;
• Web-based airport and terminal information;
• Terminal maps and guides;
• Welcome points;
• Passenger navigation points;
• Route markers;
• Temporary sign systems; and
• Improved people services.
Information products and services require a range of resources (i.e., data, colors, systems, typography,
pictograms, materials) to help build a robust system that shares a consistent identity.
Planning and design should ensure these elements are fit for purpose:
• Able to create a connected system;

• Flexible enough to deliver products and services that are contextualized; and
• Relevant to the airport and its users.
An airport information system should rely on the visual and structural consistency that the various resources
will bring. The information journey should be seamless, whether delivered through digital media, print, signs or
people.

3.4.18 Landside Access Systems and Forecourts
Vision
Landside access systems should logically link the city traffic networks, the airport city (where applicable) and
the airport traffic networks in a coherent and expandable way, with specific, dedicated and well separated
provisions for the various functions and user groups. The landside access should be embedded in a strategy
to provide a sense of place on the landside campus, not only managing traffic, but also creating places of
interest and visual appeal.
Policy
Landside access systems should:
• Be clearly organized and consider all applicable traffic flows;
• Separate vehicle and pedestrian flows;
• Be expandable;
• Put focus on public transportation for sustainability and its capacities;
• Allow an intuitive and welcoming approach to the airport terminal; and
• Integrate seamlessly into landside airport cites where these exist, and safeguard for these where they are
not yet present.
Landside access to and from the airport is typically either via road systems or by rail systems. Both access
forms need to be considered when planning the landside access to terminal facilities.
Most passengers, visitors, cargo operators and employees use road vehicles to gain access to airports.
However, public means of transport such as rail or metro systems are becoming more and more attractive as
road congestion and environmental awareness increase. For this reason, public transport systems should
always be considered during landside access planning, and expansions to these systems should always be
safeguarded.
The planning of airport landside access systems and facilities, particularly for high-volume airports, is a
specialized subject and expert advice should be sought. Airport planning should include specific consideraton
of transportation on and off airport boundaries. Coherent coordination of the airport-based planning with the
regional traffic planning is critical to achieving efficient door-to-door trips. Roads should always be designed to
accommodate projected peak traffic volumes and have adequate expansion capacity.
The landside access system consists of a variety of different functions that are accessible to various vehicle
types and collectively serve a variety of different destinations. Each function serves a specific purpose from
primary movement, transition, collection, distribution and termination of individual journeys. These are used by
passengers, visitors and staff.

Exhibit 3.4.18.1: Example of a Forecourt
Source: ssguy/Shutterstock
The landside access system is the landside interface with the terminal that is defined by the landside road
systems, landside parking areas and rail access systems, where these are provided.
3.4.18.2 Landside Road Systems
The landside road systems serve different categories of traffic. These categories include:
Passenger vehicles
• Private cars;
• Rental cars;
• Taxis;
• Shuttle/courtesy bus services for hotels, car rental agencies and long-term car parking lots;
• Shuttle buses between terminals at multi-terminal airports;
• Public transport buses, including mini-buses, carrying passengers to and from individual home addresses;

• Charter/Tour buses; and
• Limousine services.
Delivery, cargo, mail or service vehicles
• Light vans;
• Pick-up trucks; and
• Trailer trucks.
Airline/airport personnel vehicles

• Crew buses; and
• Staff transport vehicles, such as shuttle buses.
Airport service vehicles
At large airports, it is preferable to separate service-related traffic from passenger traffic in order to reserve
the terminal forecourt area for passengers and visitors only.
3.4.18.3 Main Access Roads
The main access road provides a connection between the external road network system and the terminal
complex. It should be designed for uninterrupted flow of vehicles with intersecting roads and access control to
adjacent land use developments.
3.4.18.4 Terminal Approach Roads
The terminal approach road provides a transition function between high-speed road operations, as on the
main access roads, and low-speed operations in the terminal area. The terminal approach road is normally a
one-way operation, and is characterized by frequent, but well-placed, decision points which should account for
the lower traffic speed. It provides the combined functions of moving traffic and serving adjacent land,
community and/or commercial facilities.
A recirculation road should link the inbound and outbound terminal frontage roads. A direct access is
preferable.
Access roadways should, wherever possible, provide exit ramps and associated flyovers so as to preclude or
minimize the need for signaled intersections which impede traffic flow.

3.4.18.5 Terminal Frontage Roads
The terminal frontage road provides direct access to the passenger terminal. It includes the passenger
loading/unloading forecourt (drop-off and pick-up functions). The terminal frontage road is characterized by
frequent interruptions of flow, with vehicles stopping and maneuvering. It should be designed for one-way flow
only.
3.4.18.6 Forecourts
The forecourt is an interface on the terminal frontage road where vehicular flows become pedestrian flows
and vice versa. It serves both departing and arriving passengers and staff flows.
The forecourt area consists of sidewalks, covered or partially enclosed, bordering the terminal road system
with an adjacent paved area to permit vehicles to pick up or drop off passengers. The road in front of the
terminal includes load/unload (pick-up and drop-off) lanes, maneuvering lanes to access and leave the
load/unload lanes, and through-traffic lanes. The load/unload lane must be designed so that vehicular
through-traffic can pass by uninterrupted.
Forecourts can be provided on a single level or on split levels.
Where departing and arriving traffic is organized on a single level, vehicular and pedestrian traffic conflicts
might occur and disturb the stable flow of traffic. Safe crosswalks, with appropriate traffic protection and traffic
management equipment and systems, should be provided.
On split level forecourts, departures and arrivals functions are separated.
The departures forecourt is usually provided on the upper level due to geometric constraints within the
terminal building. See Chapter 3.4.11.1 Departures Forecourt for more information. Some airports do
provide arrivals on the upper level, and there is currently a trend toward this flipped situation as dependence
on processing functionality within airports declines, and as reliance on public transit and rail increases.
The arrivals forecourt is similar to the departures forecourt, but larger volumes of passengers will peak over
shorter periods of time and will arrive at the forecourt in greater numbers. A wider sidewalk may be required
and should be sized according to expected/projected capacities. Additional area is required for baggage
services, (staff and trolleys) and for concessions-handling ground-transportation services. See Chapter
3.4.13.6 Arrivals Forecourt for more information.
At larger terminals, special lanes should be reserved for buses and taxis, and the forecourt should segregate
these from private traffic in order to increase capacity.

An important item to consider in planning the forecourt is signage, both for public information and airline
identification. This is particularly important for the decentralized linear passenger terminal concept, as the
vehicle stop at the forecourt should correspond with the correct departure/arrival area.
Planning of taxi loading and unloading areas requires careful consideration, especially if the taxi service is to
be operated on a self-help basis. Additional provisions for dispatch services should be safeguarded.
Security requirements must be considered during forecourt planning. The relevant stakeholders must be
consulted during the planning process. These requirements should consider all relevant legislation and can
include stand-off distances for bomb-blast requirements and additional checkpoints.
3.4.18.8 Parking
Public, employee and car rental parking lots are used by originating and terminating users of the road
network. Airport car parking lots will usually occupy important and valuable airport real estate. Parking
facilities can be single level or multi-story parking garages. Parking spaces should be available in close
proximity to the terminal, near workplaces or close to public transport stops. The proximity of parking facilities
to the terminal should align with security requirements as described above.
3.4.18.8.1 Public Parking
Designing public parking facilities must consider user characteristics. Short-term parking users are usually
meeters/greeters picking up or dropping off passengers. The parking duration is typically below three hours.
The inbound and outbound traffic volume at short-term parking is usually high, but the number of provided
spaces is low due to the short parking durations (high turnover). Short-term parking lots typically have a
turnover of four to six cars per space per day. Short-term parking requirements can be based on a typical
busy day. The layout and dimensions of the short-term lot stalls must be generous to account for the high
turnover. Short-term lots should be located near the terminal.
Long-term parking lots are intended for passengers leaving their cars at the airport for the duration of their
journey. The parking duration can vary from 24 hours to up to two weeks at some airports. The inbound and
outbound road volume is low, but the peak accumulation of vehicles is high. Long-term lot requirements can
represent up to 85 percent of the total public parking provision. Peak long-term accumulation requirements
should be based on 7- or 14-day surveys, depending on the airport. A shuttle service or similar connection
should be considered for long walking distances and at airports with bad weather conditions. Clearly marked
and lit passageways to terminal entrances should be provided.

3.4.18.8.2 Staff Parking
Staff parking can be provided further away from the terminal building. A shuttle service or similar connection
should be established between the parking areas and the workplaces. Staff parking provisions should be
based on relevant staff numbers and shift patterns.
3.4.18.8.3 Car Rental Parking
Smaller airports can usually accommodate the peak parking demand for rental cars at or near the main
terminal. The space requirements may become very demanding at medium or large airport terminals, and can
conflict with the demand of public parking. Larger remote and off airport lots should then be considered.
Consolidated rental car areas and shared shuttle services or other connections to the terminal buildings
should be provided, relieving congestion on airport roads. A limited number of parking spaces at walking
distance from the terminal can be provided, especially for rental car pick-up.
3.4.18.8.4 Taxi and Bus Parking
Accommodation for buses and taxis waiting for arrivals passengers should be provided near the forecourt.
Direct and short access to the forecourt from the taxis and buses is recommended.

Exhibit 3.4.18.8.4: Typical taxi rank
Source: Starflamedia/iStock
3.4.18.9 Rail Systems
Several rail systems can be implemented at an airport in order to supply public transportation functions.
These can be train lines, metro lines, tram lines or other rail-based systems.
Stations can be provided as end stations or through-stations, above or below ground.
The planning of rail access systems and facilities, particularly for high-volume airports, is a specialized subject
and expert advice should be sought. Coherent coordination of airport-based planning with regional traffic
planning is critical. Rail systems should always be designed to accommodate projected peak traffic volumes,
have adequate expansion capacity, and access to maintenance facilities.
Beyond the rail track geometries, consideration must be given to passenger ticketing and waiting concourses,
as well as platform dimensions and connectivity to the other landside access systems.

Where rail access systems are provided, they should be combined in ground transportation centers (GTC)
with other forms of landside access (e.g., bus and coach traffic).
Exhibit 3.4.18.9: Example of Ground Transportation Signage
Source: Pincasso/Shutterstock
3.4.18.10 Planning and Sizing of Forecourts and Landside Access Systems
For the sizing of forecourts, the following need to be addressed for all modes of transportation:
• Road and lane throughput capacities;

• Parking; and
• Pick-up and drop-off capacities.
Traffic and parking studies are required to determine user characteristics and to estimate existing and future
demand for landside vehicular facilities. The studies should provide dynamic planning information on the

vehicle mode choice selected in each case, circulation patterns, parking needs and traffic volumes associated
with the following four basic categories of landside users at airports:
• Originating/terminating passengers;
• Visitors;
• Staff; and
• Air cargo and delivery staff.
The following modes of access for passengers and staff must be included in the landside planning:
• Private vehicles;
• Rental cars;
• Taxi/limousines;
• Schedule bus/train service; and
• Courtesy or shuttle van.
Traffic counts and trip generation studies should be used to determine the peak vehicle flows and the
circulation patterns on the airport road, rail and parking networks. The studies should include the traffic
generated outside and on the airport, including recirculation between the terminal forecourt and parking lots.
Volume road traffic and parking accumulation studies must be used to determine the hourly distribution of
vehicles and the peak demand (hourly or peak-15 minutes) at roads and parking lots. The use of traffic
simulation studies is recommended to evaluate the effectiveness or airport road networks.
3.5 Cargo Terminal

Under development. To be released in future roll-out
3.6 Airport Support Elements

3.7 Surface Access Systems


Glossary
Glossary
Air bridge: See passenger boarding bridge.
Aircraft movement: An aircraft takeoff or landing at an airport. For airport traffic purposes, one arrival and
one departure is counted as two movements.
Airfield: The network of rurways and taxiways at a given airport, the configuration of which is selected based
on a wide range of criteria, including future development considerations, the direction of prevailing winds,
average monthly temperatures, altitude from sea level, natural obstacles, local surface transportation
networks, neighboring airport facilities, etc.
Airline capacity: Seats available, often referred to as Available Seat Kilometers (ASKs) operated by an
Airline.
Airline Operators Committees (AOC): Committees concerned with the day-to-day operation of the airport
for which they are established. Usually, information concerning a proposed airport development is first
received from the airport authority at AOC meetings.
Airport catchment area: The geographic region where the majority of originating passengers (or goods for
cargo) begin their journey prior to arriving at the subject airport.
Airport Consultative Committee (ACC): A committee developed by IATA in the event of an airport
expansion proposal or new airport development. The purpose of the ACC is to consolidate the views of those
airlines who use or will make use of the facility in question and provide a focal point for consultation with the
airport authority.
Airport Operational Database (AODB): The central repository for all flight-related operational data to feed
various real-time functions that support the operation.
Airside: The aircraft movement area of an airport, including adjacent terrain and buildings or portions thereof,
access to which is restricted to operational employees and (in specific enplaning and deplaning areas)
members of the traveling public who have been security screened.
Apron: A defined airport area intended to accommodate aircraft for purposes of loading or unloading
passengers, baggage, mail or cargo, fueling, parking or maintenance (ICAO Annex 2, 4, 11, 14, Vol. I,
PANS-ATM). Synonymous with ramp and tarmac.
Available Seat-Kilometers/Miles (ASK)/(ASM): A seat-kilometer or seat-mile is available when a seat is

flown over the distance of one kilometer or one statute mile. Available seat-kilometers/miles are equal to the
sum of the products obtained by multiplying the number of passenger seats available for sale on each flight
stage by the stage distance expressed in kilometers or statute miles, based on airport-to-airport great circle

distances. Seats not actually available for the carriage of passengers because of the weight of fuel or other
load should be excluded in the calculations. Synonymous with capacity passenger-kilometers/miles
(CPK)/(CPM) and seat-kilometers/miles available (SKA)/SMA).
Available Ton-Kilometers/Miles (ATK)/(ATM): A metric ton of available payload space flown over the
distance of one kilometer or one statute mile. Available ton-kilometers/miles are equal to the sum of the
products obtained by multiplying the number of metric tons of capacity available for the carriage of revenue
load (i.e., passengers, baggage, freight and mail), on each flight stage by the stage distance expressed in
kilometers or statute miles, oased on airport-to-airport great circle distances. The same method of calculating
available payload capacity is used for both scheduled and charter flights for statistical reporting purposes.
Synonymous with capacity ton-kilometers/miles (CTK)/(CTM) and ton-kilometers/miles available (TKA/TMA).
Note: The term production ton-kilometers/miles (PTK)/(PTM) normally refers to the total number of metric
tons of capacity available on both revenue and non revenue flights.
Baggage, Cabin: Baggage that the aircraft passenger retains custody of and carries aboard an aircraft (IATA
RP 1008). This covers personal belongings, such as briefcases, handbags and other non bulky baggage
conforming to specified dimensions to permit stowage aboard the aircraft. Synonymous with carry-on
baggage.
Baggage Check: Those portions of a ticket which provide for the carriage of a passenger's checked baggage
and which are issued by the carrier as a receipt for same (IATA RP 1008).
Baggage, Checked: Baggage of which the carrier takes sole custody and for which the carrier has issued a
baggage check (IATA RP 1724).
Baggage Handling System (BHS): A BHS is a system used to collect, screen, sort, store, transfer and
deliver bags to aircraft on departures, and on arrivals to unload and deliver bags into the terminal for
redistribution back to passengers.
Biometrics: The systems and ideologies associated with a form of passenger identification which utilizes the
measurement of exclusively self-identifying physical attributes. Examples of biometric devices and systems
include but are not limited to facial recognition devices, fingerprint scanners, iris scanners, and the software
programs developed for same. Any one of these types of systems may be used alone or in conjunction with
other forms of biometric, electronic or documentary identification for purposes of passenger security and
customs screening and/or passenger facilitation.
Bluesea: See Greenfield/bluesea airports.
Brownfield Site: Previously used land.
Busy Day: A forecasting measure, IATA defines the ‘busy day’ as the second busiest day in an average
week during the peak month.
Capacity: The variable measurement of a specific airport system or subsystem's throughput, or the system's
capability to accommodate a designated level of demand. Comprehensive capacity assessments are based

Glossary
on five fundamental measurements: Dynamic Capacity; Static Capacity; Sustained Capacity; Maximum
Capacity; and Declared Capacity.
Capital Expenditure Plan: The long-term financing and expenditure plan pertaining to the acquisition,
construction, or improvement of fixed assets such as land and buildings.
Charter services: Flights performed for remuneration on an irregular basis, including empty flight stages
related thereto and inclusive tours other than those reported under scheduled services.
Common Use Passenger Processing Systems (CUPPS): is the modern development of the CUTE
concept.
Common Use Self-Service (CUSS): refers to systems such as self-service check-in kiosks. It is a shared
kiosk offering convenient passenger check-in whilst allowing multiple airlines to maintain branding and
functionality.
Common Use Terminal Equipment (CUTE): CUTE is a generic term (not to be related to certain vendors'
products and services) for a system of shared or common IT infrastructure which allows individual airlines to
access their host computer(s), undertake all their data processing functions, make the same entries and
obtain the same responses as they otherwise would through a proprietary terminal network. The basic CUTE
concept is to enable airlines at an airport to share passenger terminal handling facilities, including such areas
as check- in and boarding gate counters, on a common-use basis, and thus eliminate the need for individual
airlines to install their own equipment. CUTE facilities also enable airlines to use their own host applications
for departure control, reservations, ticketing, seat allocation, boarding pass and baggage tag issuance, etc., at
such counters, as well as in their on-site administrative offices.
De/anti-icing: De-icing is the process which removes ice, snow, slush or frost from airplane surfaces for flight
safety purposes. Anti-icing is a precautionary measure which prevents frost, ice or snow from forming or
accumulating on the protected surface of an aircraft. Standard safety procedures usually involve proper and
adequate de-icing, followed by an application of appropriate anti-icing freezing point depressant (FPD) fluids
to create a protective film that delays formations of frost, snow or other types of ice.
Demographic data: Covers population related statistics.
Departures hall: The entrance into the terminal building for departing passengers. Depending upon type, size
and airport location, it can consist of various public and non public areas including circulation and waiting
areas, orientation and regrouping spaces, public facilities and airline facilities.
Facilitation (FAL): A general term reflecting the action being taken by governments, airlines, airports and
other organizations involved in civil aviation to standardize, simplify and reduce government-imposed
formalities and procedures at airports. The main objectives are to improve efficiencies and services to
passengers and users of cargo services, and to reduce relevant waiting times and costs. See IATA Guide to
Facilitation.
Fixed-Base Operators (FBOs): Provider of support services to general aviation operators at an airport.

Flight Information Display System (FIDS): A computerized airport, airline and baggage claim information
display.
Forecourt (formerly curbside): That area of an airport terminal facility dedicated to the safe and efficient
transfer of passengers and meeters/greeters to and from road-based surface transport systems (cars, buses
and taxis).
Fractional ownership: With fractional jets, customers buy a “share” of a plane, rather than an entire plane.
Freight: Includes express and diplomatic bags but not a passenger's checked baggage.
‘Greenfield’ or ‘bluesea’ are terms used to describe what most planners would
G re e n fie ld /b lu e s e a a irp o rts :
consider to be ‘ideal’ airports or (alternately) airport locations. In general, greenfield or bluesea airports are
mega facilities that have benefited from planning decisions whereby designers and ACCs have opted to
create large, modern facilities on hitherto “undeveloped” land, incorporating many of the latest ‘best-practice’
airport planning guidelines. Current greenfield/bluesea airports include facilities such as Hong Kong
International Airport, Denver International Airport, Kuala Lumpur KLIA, and Seoul Incheon, which all became
operational between 1995 and 2000. These new airports are generally sized in the 400,000 sqm range and
have operating capacities upwards of 30 mppa. They're usually designed to be hub facilities, are capable of
adapting to service currently-envisioned larger aircraft, and incorporate a detailed master plan that will allow
them to grow in a modular fashion to capacities up to 100 mppa.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP): is the market value of all officially recognized final goods and services
produced within a country in a year, or other given period of time.
Hub: Any airport having numerous inbound and outbound flights and a high percentage of connecting traffic.
In the context of scheduling and marketing from a hub-operating carrier's perspective, hub denotes an airport
where many of its inbound and outbound schedules are coordinated with the aim of producing the most
convenient connections and/or trans-shipment for passengers, freight and/or mail. The same airport may
serve as a hub for more than one air carrier although this is exceptional. Currently, most hubs have been
designed for passenger traffic but the concept is also used for the development of cargo and mail traffic.
Intermodal transportation: Intermodal passenger transport involves using two or more modes of
transportation in a journey.
International Industry Working Group (IIWG): IIWGs bring together IATA, Airports Council International
(ACI) and the International Coordinating Council of Aerospace Industries Associations (ICCAIA). The IIWG
was founded in 1970 and its main goal is to review airport/aircraft compatibility issues which might improve
the development of the air transport system.
Landside: Those areas of an airport to which the non-traveling public has free access. Sometimes referred to
as the public side.
Level of Service (LoS): concept is a way to ensure that considerations of demand, processing rates and
service quality are taken into account when defining airport service levels. The new LoS framework is based
on three levels: overdesign, optimum and suboptimum.

Glossary
Load factor, passenger: Passenger-kilometers/miles expressed as a percentage of available seat-

kilometers/miles. Alternatively, the number of passenger seats occupied expressed as a percentage of the
total seat capacity of an aircraft.
Long-haul: Operating distances of >5,000 km non stop, presuming an aircraft with a full payload at normal
cruising conditions and with an adequate fuel reserve to reach an alternate airport.
Low-Cost Carrier (LCC): is an airline that generally has lower fares and fewer comforts. To make up for
revenue lost in decreased ticket prices, the airline may charge for extras like food, priority boarding, seat
allocating, and baggage, etc.
The term originated within the airline industry referring to airlines with a lower operating cost structure than
their competitors. While the term is often applied to any carrier with low ticket prices and limited services,
regardless of their operating models, low-cost carriers should not be confused with regional airlines that
operate short flights without service, or with full-service airlines offering some reduced fares. Also called New
Model Airlines.
Market demand: Passenger or cargo demand to or from a given market.
Master plan, airport: A presentation of the airport planner's conception of the ultimate development capacity
of a specific airport, created so that all airside, landside and airport support facilities can develop, expand and
improve the operational flexibility and efficiency of their businesses in a structured, balanced and orderly
fashion without adversely impacting on the business of their neighbors on or adjacent to an airport site.
Master plans are applied to the modernization and expansion of existing airports and to the construction of
new airports, regardless of their size or functional role.
Medium-haul: Operating distances of >1,000 km and <5,000 km non stop, presuming an aircraft with a full
payload at normal cruising conditions and with an adequate fuel reserve to reach an alternate airport.
Multiple Aircraft Receiving Stands/Ramp System (MARS): Aircraft stands designed to accommodate one
larger or two smaller aircraft, providing flexibility to the operation (e.g., one Code-E position can be occupied,
or two Code-C positions).
New Model Airline (NMA): Synonymous with Low-Cost Carrier (LCC).
Noise zones: Areas surrounding an airport which are established to protect nearby residents from excess
noise and which also protect the airport from community encroachment. The establishment of noise zones is
an important step when determining future land-use, and the factors used to ascertain them will vary
depending upon local/national standards. Noise zones should be calculated and based on the ultimate
achievable throughput of the airport (i.e., when the runway is saturated, such that long term development
flexibility is ensured).
Operations area: The designation given to the area occupied by airlines and ground handling, catering, etc.,
personnel who handle the aircraft while it is on the ground. It is usually located near the apron and includes
the area required for the flight crew and flight attendants as well as airline and ground handling personnel

assigned to ground service operations. Certain amenities for personnel such as wash rooms, lunchrooms,
locker rooms, together with support areas for stores, are also located in this area.
Passenger, connecting: See passenger, transfer.
Passenger, destination: With respect to a specific airport, a destination passenger is one who's final section
of carriage, including aircraft disembarkation, baggage claim, etc., takes place at said facility. Synonymous
with terminating or arrivals passenger.
Passenger, originating: With respect to a specific airport, an originating passenger is one who's first section
of carriage, including check-in, aircraft embarkation, etc, takes place at said facility. Synonymous with
departures passengers
Passenger, terminating: See passenger, destination.
Passenger, transfer: A passenger making a direct connection between two flights (i.e., using different aircraft
and flight numbers operated by the same or another airline), or a passenger arriving at an airport of a State
and whose journey continues on another flight at the same or another airport of that State (ICAO Airport
Economics Manual Doc 9562). Synonymous with connecting passenger.
Passenger, transit: A passenger who arrives and departs on the same aircraft.
Passenger Boarding Bridge (PBB): A mechanically operated, adjustable ramp used to provide direct
passenger access between aircraft and terminal buildings or ground transport vehicles. Synonymous with
aerobridge; air bridge; passenger bridge (PB); jetway; passenger gangway; passenger loading bridge (PLB);
telescopic passenger bridge; telescopic passageway; and walkway.
Ramp: See Apron..
Revenue Passenger Kilometer/Mile (RPK/RPM): Produced by an airline when a revenue (or paying)
passenger travels over the distance of one kilometer or one statute mile. Measure of passenger traffic =
number of paying passengers X distance flown.
Schengen/non-Schengen: The name Schengen refers to a treaty signed in March 1995 by seven European
Union countries. The purpose of the treaty was to end internal border checkpoints and controls, and an
additional eight European countries have signed the treaty since it came into effect. The 15 Schengen
countries are: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Italy, Greece, Luxembourg,
Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain and Sweden. All these countries except Norway and Iceland are
European Union members.
Short-haul: Operating distances of £1,000 km non stop, presuming an aircraft with a full payload at normal
cruising conditions and with an adequate fuel reserve to reach an alternate airport.
Stand: Designated area on an apron intended to be used for parking an aircraft (ICAO Annex 4, 14, Vol. I).

IA TA A Glossary
Taxilane: A route bounded on either one or both sides by aircraft parking positions, and by which aircraft can
only gain access to these parking positions.
Taxiway: A defined path on an airfield established for the taxiing of aircraft and intended to provide a link
between one part of the airport and another, including:
• Aircraft stand taxilane: A portion of an apron designated as a taxiway and intended to provide access to
aircraft stands only.
• Apron taxiway'. A portion of a taxiway system located on an apron and intended to provide a through taxi
route across the apron.
• Rapid exit taxiway (RET): A taxiway connected to a runway at an acute angle and designed to allow
landing airplanes to turn off at higher speeds than are achieved on other exit taxiways and thereby
minimizing runway occupancy times (ICAO Annex 2, 4, 14 Vol. I, PANS-ATM). Synonymous with high
speed exit taxiway.
User Charges Panel (UCP): The User Charges Panel is responsible for representing IATA airlines in
negotiations with airport authorities regarding the charges for the use of the airport, including but not limitec to
landing fees, terminal building charges, passenger-related elements, lighting charges, air traffic control and
monopoly-type user charges.

ia t a
,n|
Acronyms
a/c Aircraft
ACFT Aircraft
ACC Airport Consultative Committee
ACC Airport Consultants Council (USA)
AC I Airports Council International
ACRP Airport Cooperative Research Program
ADRM Airport Development Reference Manual
AirportlS Airport Intelligence Services
ALS Approach Lighting Systems
AMD Archway Metal Detector (passenger and hand baggage screening)
ANSP Air Navigation Service Providers
AOC Airline Operators Committees
AODB IATA Airport and Obstacle Database or Airport Operational Database
APASG Asia Pacific Airports Steering Group
AHM Airport Handling Manual
APM Automated People Mover or Airport People Mover
ARP Airport Reference Point, with latitude and longitude to the nearest second based on
the WGS-84 (world geodetic system).
API Advance Passenger Information
APU Auxiliary Power Units
A-SMGS Advanced Surface Movement Guidance and Control System
ATA Air Transport Association (American)
ATB Automated Ticket and Boarding Pass
ATC Air Traffic Control
ATFM Air Traffic Flow Management
ATM Air Traffic Movement or Air Transport Movement
AWB Air Waybill
BAR Board of Airline Representatives
BHR Busy Hour Rate
BHS Baggage Handling System
BMS Building Management System
BOT Build-Operate-Transfer (leasing term)
BOOT Build-Own-Operate-Transfer (leasing term)
BRS Baggage Reconciliation System
BSP IATA Billing and Settlement Plan
BTO Build-Transfer-Operate (leasing term)
CAA Civil Aviation Authority
CAPEX Capital Expenditure(s)
CASS lATA's Cargo Accounts Settlement Systems
CCTV C osed-circuit Television
CDA Continuous Descent Approach

IA TA A Acronyms
CFC Cnlorofluorocarbon
CHP Combined Heat and Power
CIP Commercially IMPORTANT Passenger or Capital Investment Program
CO Carbon Monoxide
co2 Carbon Dioxide
CT Computed Tomography Imaging
CTA Cargo Terminal Area or Central Terminal Area
CUTE Common Use Terminal Equipment
DCS Departure Control System
DCV Destination Coded Vehicle
DDFS Design Day Flight Schedules
DEN Day-Evening-Night
DfT Department for Transport (United Kingdom)
DME D stance Measuring Equipment
DNL Day-Night Noise Level
ECAC European Civil Aviation Conference
EDMS Emission and Dispersion Modeling System (FAA)
EDS Explosive Detection System
EDTS Explosive Detection Tomography System
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
EONS Economic viability; Operational efficiency; Natural resource conservation; and
Social responsibility
ETD Electronic Trace Detection
ETV Elevating Transfer Vehicle
EU European Union
F&B Food & Beverage
FAA Federal Aviation Administration (USA)
FBO Fixed Base Operator
FEGP Fixed Electrical Ground Power
FFL Finished Floor Level
FIDS Flight Information Display System
GA General Aviation
GBAS Ground-Based Augmentation Systems
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GDS Global Distribution Systems
GHGs Greenhouse Gasses
GIS Geographic Information Systems
GPS Global Positioning System
GPU Ground Power Unit
GRP Gross Regional Product
GSE Ground Service Equipment
GTC Ground Transportation Center
HBS Hold Baggage Screening
HC Hydrocarbons
HIRO Hgh Intensity Runway Operation
HHMD Hand-held Metal Detectors (passanger and hand baggage screening)

IA TA ml Airport Development Reference Manual
HSR H gh-Speed Rail

HVAC Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
IED Improvised Explosive Device
IATA International Air Transport Association
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
IFR Instrument Flight Rule
ILS Instrument Landing System
IMC Instrument Meteorological Condition
IIWG International Industry Working Group
IPCC United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IROP Irregular Operations
JAA Joint Aviation Authorities
JAR Joint Aviation Requirements
LAT Latest Check-in Acceptance Time
LDA Localizer Directional Aid
LDA Landing Distance Available
LoS Level of Service
MARS Multi-aircraft Ramp System or Multiple Aircraft Receiving Stands
mppa million passengers per annum
MCO Miscellaneous Charge Order
MCT Minimum Connecting Time
MIDT Marketing Information Data Transfer
MIS Management Information System
MLW Maximum Landing Weight
MQT Maximum Queuing Time
MRI Magnetic Resonance Imaging
MRO Maintenance Repair and Operations
MRTD Machine Readable Travel Documents
MTBF Mean Time Before Failure (re: system maintenance)
MTOW Maximum Takeoff Weight
MTTR Mean Time to Repair (re: system maintenance)
Mvts/annum Aircraft Movements per annum
NASP National Airport System Plan
NB Narrow Body Aircraft
NEF Noise Exposure Forecast
NGLA New Generation Large Aircraft
NGOs Non governmental Organizations
NLA New Large Aircraft
NM Nautical Miles
NMA New Model Airlines
NOx N trogen Oxide
O/D Origin and Destination
OFZ Obstacle Free Zone
OOG Out-of-Gauge
OPEX Operating Expenditure(s)
344 10TH EDITION , MARCH 2014

I ATA Acronyms
ORAT Operations Readiness and Airport Transition or Operational Readiness and

Trials/Training
OTS Optimal Turn-off Segment
PANS OPS Procedures for Air Navigation Services-Aircraft Operations
PAPI Precision Approach Path Indicator
PAR Precision Approach Radar
PAVA Public AddressA/oice Alarm
PAX Passenger(s)
PaxIS Passenger Intelligence Service
PBB Passenger Boarding Bridge
PBN Performance-based Navigation
PCI Pavement Condition Index
PCN Pavement Classification Number
PCPI Per Capita Personal Income
PHP Peak Hour Passenger
PKM Passenger Kilometer
PMAD Peak Month Average Day
PRA Passenger Risk Assessment
PRM Precision Runway Monitor
PRM Passengers with Reduced Mobility
PTB Passenger Terminal Bridge
QFE Atmospheric pressure at airport elevation (or at runway threshold) (ICAO)
QNH Altimeter subscale setting to obtain elevation when on the ground (ICAO)
RA Resolution Advisory
RASG Regional Airports Steering Group
RAT Rapid Access Taxiway
RCG Regional Coordinating Group
RET Rapid Exit Taxiway
RF Radio Frequency (tags)
RFFS Rescue and Fire Fighting Services
RFID Radio Frequency Identification
RFP Request for Proposals
RTD Regional Technical Director
RTP Regional Technical Panel
RWY Rjnway
SARS Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
SBR Standard Busy Rate
SID Standard Instrument Departure
SIDS Standard Instrument Departure System
Smarts IATA Smart Security
SMGCS Surface Movement Guidance Control System
SQM/PHP Square Meters per Peak Hour Passenger
SOIA Simultaneous Offset Instrument Approaches
SOP Standard Operating Procedure
STAR Standard Arrival Route
STARS Standard Arrival System

IA TA
,n|
OIL Airport Development Reference Manual
STD Standard Time of Departure

STOL Short Takeoff and Landing
TCA Terminal Control Area
TCAS Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System
TDZ Touchdown Zone
TTS Tracked Transit Systems
TIPO Taxi In, Push Out
TMA Terminal Maneuvering Area (now commonly called terminal control area
TOD Takeoff Distance
TOR Terms of Reference
TWR Tower
TWY Taxiway
UC User Charges
UCP User Charges Panel
ULD Unit Load Device
URS User Requirement Specification (baggage)
VASIS Visual Approach Slope Indicator System (ICAO)
VHF Very High Frequency
VIP Very Important Person
VFR Visual Flight Rules
VMC Visual Meteorological Condition
VOR VHF Omnidirectional Range
VVIP Very, Very Important Person
WAG World Airport Group (IATA)
WB Wide Body Aircraft
W/G Working Group

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Airport Development

© International Air Transport Association. All

Senior Vice President

Airport Development Reference Manual

10TH EDITION, MARCH 2014

2.5 Review of Existing Forecasts............................................................................................................26

IV 10TH EDITION, MARCH 2014

3.2.9 Environmental Responsibility............................................................................................. 107

10TH EDITION, MARCH 2014 V

IATA Members Document Review Panel:

ACI Members Document Review Panel:

ACC Members Document Review Panel:

VI 10TH EDITION, MARCH 2014

Master Planning Chapter

10TH EDITION, MARCH 2014 VII

1.2 lATA's Airport Activities

10TH EDITION, MARCH 2014 1

1.2.1 Airport Consultative Committees (ACCs)

For more information, click on WAG & RASGs.

1.2.2 IATA Consulting Services for Airports

n Commercial performance KPI

Source: IATA Consulting

2 10TH EDITION, MARCH 2014

1.2.2.1 Planning and Construction Phase

1.2.2.2 Commercialization Phase

1.2.2.3 Optimization Phase

1.2.2.4 Change in Ownership Phase

For more information, please contact us at consulting@iata.org.

1.2.3 International Industry Working Group

For more information, click on IIWG.

10TH EDITION, MARCH 2014 3

1.3 Other IATA Airport Activities

1.4 Airports Council International (ACI) Collaboration

1.4.1 Introduction to Airports Council International (ACI)

ACI’s main objectives and roles are to:

• Maximize cooperation and mutual assistance between airports.

4 10TH EDITION, MARCH 2014

• ACI Africa in Casablanca (Morocco)

• ACI Asia-Pacific in Hong-Kong (China)

• ACI Europe in Brussels (Belgium)

• ACI Latin America-Caribbean in Panama City (Panama)

1.5 Purpose of the Airport Development Reference Manual

10TH EDITION, MARCH 2014 5

Recommendation: Required Expertise

1.6 How to Use the ADRM

• International and national government aviation and security authorities:

o International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

o European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC)

o Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)-\Jri\ted States of America

o Transportation Security Administration (TSA)-United States of America

o Department for Transport (DfT)-\Jnited Kingdom

o Canadian A ir Transport Security Authority (CATSA)

o American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

o British Standards Institute (BSI)

o American Institute o f Architects (A!A)

o Royal Institute o f British Architects (RIBA)

o Royal Architectural Institute o f Canada (RAIC)

6 10TH EDITION, MARCH 2014

o Institution o f Civil Engineers (ICE)

o Institution o f Structural Engineers (IStructE)