Umm Al-Qura University

College of Applied Medical Sciences

Department of Physiotherapy
Second Year

PSYCHOLOGY of HANDICAPPED
Lecture 1: Introduction.

Dr: Amir El-Fiky

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 PSYCHOLOGY
Def.: "Psychology is both an applied and academic field that studies the
human mind and behavior."
Research in psychology seeks to understand and explain thought,
emotion, and behavior. Applications of psychology include mental health
treatment, performance enhancement, self-help, ergonomics, and many other
areas affecting health and daily life.

Looking at the Word Psychology: From Ancient to Modern Meanings:

The word psychology has had several different meanings from ancient
to modern times. Here is its present definition: Psychology is the science that studies
the behavior of organisms. This definition should guide you throughout your
study of this course.

Three words in the definition seek special attention: (1) science, (2)
behavior, and (3) organisms. Modern psychology is considered a science because
it bases its conclusions on data, information obtained by systematic
observations.

Behavior has three aspects: (1) cognitive processes, (2) emotional states,
and (3) actions. Cognitive processes refer to what an individual thinks.
Emotional states refer to what an individual feels. Actions refer to what an
individual does.

An organism is any living creature. Consequently, the behavior of dogs,

rats, pigeons, and monkeys can be legitimately included in the study of
psychology. Such organisms have indeed been subjects in psychology
experiments. However, traditionally the principal focus of psychology has been
humans. When animals are used in experiments, the implicit goal is often to
explore how such basic processes as learning and motivation, as studied in
animals, can cast a light on our understanding of human behavior.

Although you now know the modern definition of psychology, it is

important to realize that the word psychology has its roots in ancient meanings
associated with philosophy. The Greek word psyche means soul. Consequently,
to philosophers living 400 to 300 B.C., psychology was the “study of the soul.”

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This was the meaning given by Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. In view of the
fact that these thinkers, particularly Socrates and Plato, did not believe that
animals have souls, it becomes evident why for many centuries psychology’s
main attention has been given to human beings. The ancient philosophers
asserted that the soul is the seat of consciousness. It is consciousness that makes
mental life possible. This is why psychology is often thought of as the science
of the mind.

Indeed, this meaning is the one given to it by William James, the dean of
American psychologists. Working at Harvard a little more than one hundred
years ago, James defined psychology as “the science of mental life.” He believed
that the purpose of psychology should be to investigate such mental processes as
thinking, memory, and perception.

This is where we stand now. Although psychology no longer is thought

of as the study of the soul, this original meaning colors our present-day
approach, with its emphasis on human behavior and the importance of
cognition.

Scientific psychology has four explicit goals: (1) describe, (2) explain,
(3) predict, and (4) control behavior. These goals are the same common-sense
goals that we all use in everyday life.

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Classical Schools of Psychology: Five Great Thinkers and Their
Ideas:
It has been said that psychology has a long past and a short history. This
statement should be taken to mean that although psychology has its roots in
philosophy, as a scientific discipline psychology is only a little over 120 years old.
As noted earlier, the roots of psychology can be easily traced back about 2,400
years to ancient Greek philosophers. However, the beginning of scientific
psychology is usually associated with the date 1879, the year that a German
scientist named Wilhelm Wundt founded the first psychological laboratory at the
University of Leipzig in Germany. Modern psychology arose in the context of
what are known as schools of psychology. The concept of a school of
psychology can be easily understood by thinking of a school of fish. In this case
the word school is used similarly to the word group. A school, or group, of fish
follows a leader fish. So it is with a school of psychology. There is a leader and a
group of followers. The school has a viewpoint and a set of important
assumptions.
1- Structuralism:
From a historical perspective, the first school of psychology to be
established was structuralism. Its founding personality was Wilhelm Wundt.
As already noted, he founded the world’s first psychological laboratory. Wundt
was trained in physiology, the study of the functions of the body. He became
interested in studying not so much the physiology of the sense organs such as the
eyes and ears, but in how simple sensations associated with the sense organs
combined to form what we call human consciousness.

Wundt trained assistants in the art of introspection, a skill characterized

by paying attention not to the whole pattern of a stimulus, but to an elemental
part of a stimulus. Consequently, a trained introspectionist was not supposed to
say, “I see a tree.” Instead, he or she was supposed to say, “I see here a patch of
green,” and “I see there a bit of brown,” and so forth. These bits and pieces were
the psychological “atoms” that made up the complex “molecule” of the tree or
other visual object.
According to Wundt, the primary purpose of psychology is to study the
structure of consciousness. By the structure of consciousness, Wundt meant
the relationship of a group of sensations, a relationship that produces the
complex experiences we think of as our conscious mental life. This approach
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to psychology has been called mental chemistry. As earlier indicated, the “atoms”
of experience are the sensations. The “molecules” of experience are our
complex perceptions.
Wundt is considered to be not only the first scientific psychologist, but
also the founder of psychology as an academic discipline. (Many beginning
psychology students think this honor belongs to Sigmund Freud. Although
Freud is the most famous psychologist who ever lived, he occupies a different
place in psychology’s history than does Wundt.)
2- Functionalism:
William James was following Wundt’s research with interest. James had
an interest not only in psychology, but also in physiology and eventually in
philosophy. James founded a psychological laboratory at Harvard; he also
authored The Principles of Psychology, the first psychology textbook published in
the United States. The book was published in 1890, and this can also be taken
as the date when the school of psychology known as functionalism was born.
The principal personality associated with it is James, and he is said to be the
dean of American psychologists.

According to James, psychology should be more interested in how the

mind functions, or works, than how it is structured. Consequently, James
stressed the importance of studying such processes as thinking, memory, and
attention. You will recall that James defined psychology as “the science of
mental life.” This definition is certainly reflected in the processes just
identified.
In brief, functionalism as a school of psychology asserts that the primary
purpose of psychology should be to study the functions of human consciousness,
not its structures.
3- Gestalt psychology:
The German psychologist Max Wertheimer, like James, was also
dissatisfied with Wundt’s structuralism. Wertheimer believed that Wundt’s
emphasis on the importance of simple sensations as the building blocks of
perceptions was misguided. According to Wertheimer, a melody, for example, is
more than an aggregate of sensations. It is a pattern. And the perception of the
melody depends much more on the pattern itself than on the individual notes.

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 The general pattern that induces a complex perception is described with
the German word Gestalt. Gestalt is usually translated as a “pattern,” a
“configuration,” or an “organized whole.”
In 1910 Wertheimer published an article setting forth the basic
assumptions of Gestalt psychology, and this is usually taken to be the starting
date of the school. The article reported a series of experiments using two of his
friends, Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler, as subjects. These two men went on
to also become well-known Gestalt psychologists.
It became the goal of Gestalt psychology to study the effects that various
Gestalten (the plural of Gestalt) have on thinking and perception.
In brief, Gestalt psychology asserts that patterns, or configurations, of stimuli
have a powerful effect on how we think and perceive the world around us.
4- Behaviorism:
Returning to the United States, behaviorism is a fourth classical school
of psychology. Its founding personality is John B. Watson. A wave of
enthusiasm for Watson’s ideas swept him to the presidency of the American
Psychological Association (APA) in 1915, and this can be taken as the starting
date for behaviorism. Doing research first at the University of Chicago and then
at Johns Hopkins University, Watson came to the conclusion that psychology
was placing too much emphasis on consciousness. In fact, he asserted that
psychology is not a mental science at all. The “mind” is a mushy, difficult-to-
define concept. It can’t be studied by science because it can’t be observed.
Only you can know what’s going on in your mind. If I say I’m studying your
mind, according to Watson, it’s only guesswork.

Consequently, Watson asserted that the purpose of psychology should be

to study behavior itself, not the mind or consciousness. Some critics of Watson say
that he denied the very existence of consciousness. Others assert Watson was
primarily saying that references to the consciousness, or mental life, of a subject
don’t provide solid explanations of behavior. In either event, Watson’s view is
today thought to be somewhat extreme and is referred to as radical behaviorism,
a psychology that doesn’t employ consciousness as an important concept.
Behaviorism has been very influential in American psychology. It
inspired a psychologist named B. F. Skinner to study the process of learning.
Skinner in time became the most famous behaviorist of the twentieth century.

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 5- Psychoanalysis:

In order to identify a fifth classical school of psychology, it is necessary

to return to the European continent, specifically to Austria; the school is
psychoanalysis. The father of psychoanalysis is Sigmund Freud. Freud was a
medical doctor with a specialty in neurology. His findings and conclusions are
based primarily on his work with patients. Early in his career he concluded that
a large number of people with neurological symptoms such as paralysis, a numb
feeling in a hand or foot, complete or partial blindness, chronic headaches, and
similar complaints had no organic pathology. They were not biologically sick.
Instead their symptoms were produced by intense emotional conflicts.

Freud’s original work was done with a colleague named Josef Breuer.
Breuer and Freud collaborated on the book "Studies on Hysteria". Published in
1895, it is the first book written on psychoanalysis. This can also be taken to
be the starting date for the school. After the publication of this first book,
Freud went on alone without Breuer; it was a number of years before he
worked again with colleagues.
The word hysteria is a diagnostic label. It used to be assigned to a
patient if he or she was experiencing neurological symptoms that were thought
to be imaginary in nature. The patient is not malingering. He or she believes
that the symptoms are real. Today this is a well-recognized disorder, and is
called a somatoform disorder, conversion type. This simply means that an
emotional problem such as chronic anxiety has converted itself to a bodily
expression. (The Greek word soma means “body”)
In order to explain chronic emotional suffering, Freud asserted that
human beings have an unconscious mental life. This is the principal
assumption of psychoanalysis.
Psychoanalysis is not only a school of psychology, but also a method of
therapy. Freud believed that by helping a patient explore the contents of the
unconscious mental level, he or she could obtain a measure of freedom from
emotional suffering. It is important to note that of the five classical schools of
psychology, psychoanalysis is the only one that made it an aim to improve the
individual’s mental health.

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Branches of Psychology:
There are a number of unique and distinctive branches of psychology.
Each branch looks at questions and problems from a different perspective.
While each branch has its own focus on psychological problems or concerns,
all areas share a common goal of studying and explaining human thought and
behavior. The following are some of the major branches of psychology within
the field today.
1. Abnormal Psychology
Abnormal psychology is the branch of psychology that looks at
psychopathology and abnormal behavior. The term covers a broad range of
disorders, from depression to obsession-compulsion to sexual deviation and
many more. Counselors, clinical psychologists, and psychotherapists often
work directly in this field.
2. Behavioral Psychology
Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of
learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through
conditioning. While this branch of psychology dominated the field during the
first part of the twentieth century, its hold loosened during the 1950s.
However, behavioral techniques remain a mainstay in therapy, education and
many other areas.
3. Biopsychology
The branch of psychology focused on the study of how the brain
influences behavior is often known as biopsychology, although it has also
been called physiological psychology, behavioral neuroscience and
psychobiology.
4. Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on
internal states, such as motivation, problem solving, decision-making,
thinking, and attention. This area of psychology has continued to grow since it
began taking hold in the 1960s.
5. Developmental Psychology
This branch of psychology looks at development throughout the
lifespan, from childhood to adulthood. The scientific study of human
development seeks to understand and explain how and why people change
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throughout life. This includes all aspects of human growth, including physical,
emotional, intellectual, social, perceptual, and personality development.
Topics studied in this field include everything from prenatal development to
Alzheimer's disease.
6. Educational Psychology
Educational psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with
schools, teaching psychology, educational issues, and student concerns.
Educational psychologists often study how students learn or work directly
with students, parents, teachers and administrators to improve student
outcomes.
7. Experimental Psychology
Experimental psychology is the branch of psychology that utilizes
scientific methods to research the brain and behavior. Many of these
techniques are also used by other areas in psychology to conduct research on
everything from childhood development to social issues.
8. Forensic Psychology
Forensic psychology is a specialty area that deals with issues related to
psychology and the law. Forensic psychologists perform a wide variety of
duties, including providing testimony in court cases, assessing children in
suspected child abuse cases, preparing children to give testimony and
evaluating the mental competence of criminal suspects.
9. Personality Psychology
This branch of psychology is focused on the patterns of thoughts,
feelings, and behavior that make a person unique. Some of the best-known
theories in psychology have arisen from this field, including Freud's stage
theory of psychosexual development and Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development.
10. Social Psychology
Social psychology seeks to explain and understand social behavior and
looks at diverse topics including group behavior, social interactions,
leadership, nonverbal communication and social influences on decision-
making.