FTC 1 THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
(HAL: Tinago natin ang isang bagay, ang teddy
bear sa kumot. Hindi niya iyon nakikita pero
Jean Piaget – He was a Swiss psychologist and alam niyang hindi yon tuluyang Nawala at nag-
genetic epistemologist. eexist pa rin.)
- He is most famously known for his Theory
of Cognitive Development that looked at
how children develop intellectually 2.The Preoperational Stage
throughout the course of childhood. Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
•Children begin to think symbolically and learn to
THE 4 STAGES OF COGNITIVE use words and pictures to represent objects.
DEVELOPMENT •Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive struggle to see things from the perspective of others.
development suggests that children move through •While they are getting better with language and
four different stages of mental development. His thinking, they still tend to think about things in very
theory focuses not only on understanding how concrete terms.
children acquire knowledge, but also on
understanding the nature of intelligence. (HAL: Nakita ng isang bata ang aso na may apat
na paa, makapal ang balahibo kaya kung siya ay
Piaget believed that children take an active makakakita muli ng may apat na paa iisipin
role in the learning process, acting much like little niyang aso pa rin ito dahil apat ang paa.)
scientists as they perform experiments, make
observations, and learn about the world. As kids
interact with the world around them, they 3.The Concrete Operational Stage
continually add new knowledge, build upon existing
knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
accommodate new information.
• During this stage, children begin to thinking
logically about concrete events

•Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years • They begin to understand the concept of

conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short,
•Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7 wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for
• Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11 example

•Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up • Their thinking becomes more logical and
organized, but still very concrete
• Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning
1.The Sensorimotor Stage from specific information to a general principle
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: (HAL: Nagsalin tayo ng tubig, ang isa ay maliit
• The infant knows the world through their na baso habang ang isa ay malaki. Sa point na
movements and sensations ito, iisipin natin na pareho lang ang amount ng
tubig dahil sinalin lang ang tubig.)
• Children learn about the world through basic
actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening 4.The Formal Operational Stage
• Infants learn that things continue to exist even Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
though they cannot be seen. This is called Object
Permanence. • At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins
to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical
• They are separate beings from the people and problems
objects around them
• Abstract thought emerges
• They realize that their actions can cause things to
happen in the world around them • Teens begin to think more about moral,
philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues
that require theoretical and abstract reasoning

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 FTC 1 THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT
• Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a or new experiences. New schemas may also be
general principle to specific information. developed during this process.

SCHEMA
• A schema describes both the mental and physical LEV VYGOTSKY
actions involved in understanding and knowing.
Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to
interpret and understand the world. -Russian psychologist/developmentalist
• In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a -Born in what was the Russian Empire
category of knowledge and the process of obtaining
that knowledge. -Severe anti-Semitism at the time

• As experiences happen, this new information is -Quota system for Jews at universities; had to
used to modify, add to, or change previously
enter a lottery
existing schemas.
-Vygotsky was lucky and allowed to go to
• For example, a child may have a schema about a
type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole university, but banned from formally studying
experience has been with small dogs, a child might
philosophy
believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four
legs. Suppose then that the child encounters an -Graduated from Moscow University with a law
enormous dog. The child will take in this new
degree in 1917, but also studied history and
information, modifying the previously existing
schema to include these new observations. philosophy
-Began seriously studying psychology at the
ASSIMILATION Institute of Psychology in Moscow in 1924;
• The process of taking in new information into became researcher there
our already existing schemas is known as
assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective
because we tend to modify experiences and 1. All learning is social
information slightly to fit in with our preexisting • Knowledge is always socially constructed.
beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and
labeling it "dog" is a case of assimilating the animal 2. Culture shapes our learning and cognitive
into the child's dog schema. development
• Culture ensures each new generation learns
from the previous
EQUILIBRATION • Provides lens through which we see and make
• Piaget believed that all children try to strike a sense of world
balance between assimilation and • What is valued in one culture may not be in
accommodation, which is achieved through a another
mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children • Learning is tied to the culture and situation
progress through the stages of cognitive where it was learned.
development, it is important to maintain a balance
between applying previous knowledge 3. Challenge is important to learning
(assimilation) and changing behavior to account for • Learning happens best within our ZPD
new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration • A more knowledgeable other knows what will
helps explain how children can move from one challenge us.
stage of thought to the next.
4. Learning leads development
• Learning pushes us towards more advanced
ACCOMMODATION cognitive development.
•Another part of adaptation involves changing or
altering our existing schemas in light of new
information, a process known as accommodation. VYGOTSKY’S THEORY
Accommodation involves modifying existing • Known by any one of the following names or
schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information variations of these names:
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 FTC 1 THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT
Sociocultural - learning is a social process tied to o Internalization – process through which social
and driven by our specific culture. activities evolve into internal mental activities
(ex: self-talk to inner speech)
Sociohistoric - learning is a social process tied to
o Peers and older children can also be “more
and driven by our our specific history (culture)
knowledgeable others”
Situative – learning is tied to the context or o Discussions, debates, arguments teach children
situation (culture) where it was learned that there are multiple ways to see same
situation; process becomes internalized
o All learning is social
VYGOTSKY’S BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
• Children can perform more challenging tasks
when helped by “more knowledgeable other”
• Adults convey to children (formally & o Child’s actual development level – upper limits
informally) the ways their culture sees the of tasks that learner can successfully perform
world alone
o Adults share meanings they attach to objects, o Child’s level of potential development – upper
events (culture) limits of tasks that learner can successfully
o Adults should describe discoveries of previous perform with help from more knowledgeable
generations, help connect children to their other
history o Learning is a social process
o We don’t have to “discover” what those
before us have learner • Challenging tasks promote maximum
o Culture “shapes” our learning and cognitive growth
development o Child’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) –
o Learning is both social and culturally based range of tasks a learner can perform with help,
and tied to the situation where it was learned. but not alone
o Children learn little by performing tasks they
• Every culture passes down physical and can already do alone
cognitive tools o Develop by trying tasks they can do only with
o Physical Tools (pencil, scissors, computer, help – within their ZPD
etc.) or cognitive (language, math, symbols, o In teaching: some tasks should require more
etc.) knowledgeable other, some should be worked
o These should be passed on to children to make on together by students of equal ability
learning and development easier o Each child has unique ZPD
o Again, see the social, cultural, and historic
connection
o Learning is connected with these tools – • Play allows children to cognitively “stretch”
themselves
• Thought & language become increasingly o “In play a child always behaves beyond his
interdependent in first few years of life average age, above his daily behavior”
o For adults and older children, thought & (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 102)
language are closely connected o Play is valuable training for adult world and
o Separate functions for babies/toddlers; culture
language a means to communicate not o Play is often social in nature and each culture
thoughts. determines what is acceptable play
o Thought and language intertwine around 2
(think in words) and self-talk emerges to guide
child through a task CONTEMPORARY APPLICATIONS OF
o Self-talk turns into inner Speech – mentally VYGOTSKY’S THEORY: SOCIAL
guiding oneself CONSTRUCTION
o A culture’s language is a tool passed on to o Scaffolding – guidance or structure the more
new generation (cultural and historical knowledgeable other provides to help the learner
connection) perform tasks in his/her ZPD

• Complex mental processes begin as social o Scaffolds should be used until leaner has
activities, gradually evolve into independent, internalized behavior than fade away.
internal mental activities
o As children discuss events/objects with a “more
• Examples of scaffolding in school:
knowledgeable other”, begin to incorporate this
talk into their own thinking
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 FTC 1 THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT
o Outlines, guidelines, checklist o Gradual fading to give novice independence and
o Hints, guiding questions, reminders responsibility
o Strategies, plans o Trades: plumber, electrician; Professional:
o Modeling, demonstrating internship, student teaching, law clerk, medical
intern

• When a child, through support and guidance,

participates in adult activities
• Cognitive Apprenticeship: Mentor provides
• Gradual entry into adult world: begins with child
guidance to novice about how to think about a task
on fringe of activity until eventually child plays
more central role
o Teacher talks with student about task/problem,
o Think of young child helping adult cook: allowed
analyze problem, decide on best approach
to stir and measure at first; as child gets older he is
o Teacher models effective ways of thinking about
gradually allowed to do more
situation, coaches student through task, provides
o Participation is mediated, scaffolded, modeled, and
scaffolds.
supervised by adult
• Rather than assess what students can do alone,
• Guided Participation in classroom:
assessing what they can do with scaffolding –
o Scientific experiments
Assess students’ ability
o Writing letters to local paper, government, etc.
• Dynamic Assessment provides info about the
o Search the internet
child’s thinking process and ability to learn,
o Any activity which is beyond the child’s world
allowing teacher to better guide future
instruction
• A mother sitting with her toddler singing, “Baa,
• Not to be used all the time, but can be helpful
baa black sheep have you any wool, yes sir, yes
sir ....” at this point the mother pauses and the
child sings loudly, “THREE BAGS FULL!”.
SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY’S VIEW ON
How is this Guided Participation? MOTIVATION
o Mother guided the child through song, aware of the • We’re motivated by a particular situation
child’s ZPD (situated motivation)
o Mother knew the child can’t sing the song by • We’re motivated to become part of a group that
himself, so she provided a scaffold by starting the we see as desirable (soccer team, honor society,
song for him skateboarders, etc.)
o Mother modeled how the song should be sung o We become part of the group by participating in the
o Eventually, the child will internalize the process and group’s activities, culture, language, behavior
be able to sign whole song alone o Our identity is tied to the groups we participate in
(soccer player, smart kid, skateboarder, etc.)
• A 5-year old lost her security blanket & asks her
father for help. The father asks her where she • We often join the group through peripheral
last saw the blanket; the child says , “I can’t participation (start on the fringe/edge of group)
remember.” The father then asks a series of o Observe group & its culture: language, activities,
questions – “Did you have it in your room? dress, behavior, etc.
Outside?” To each question the child answers o Practice aspects of the culture (may be
“No”. When he asks, “In the car?”, she says “I apprenticeship learning)
think so” and finds the blanket in the car. o Work to become integrated into the group; full
How is this guided participation? community participation; group passes on
knowledge to the novice
o Father guided child through process, aware of her
ZPD
o Father modeled the thinking process of an adult
o Each question the father asked was a scaffold
Triarchic theory of Intelligence by Robert
o Eventually the child will internalize this behavior, at J. Stenberg
first through self-talk, and then inner speech

• Apprenticeship: Intensive form of guided • STENBERG proposed his theory in 1985 as an

participation, novice works with an expert to learn a alternative to the idea of the general intelligence
task in a particular domain; factor. The general intelligence factor, also known
as g, is what intelligence test typically measures. It
o Much structure & guidance to slowly introduce refers only to “academic intelligence.”
novice to work • He argued that practical intelligence—a person’s
ability to react and adapt to the world around

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 FTC 1 THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT
them—as well as creativity are equally important Intelligence, has been a controversial topic throughout
when measuring an individual’s overall intelligence. psychology’s history. Despite the substantial interest in
• He also argued that intelligence is not fixed but the subject, there is still considerable disagreement about
rather comprises a set of abilities that can be what components makeup intelligence.
developed.
In addition to questions of exactly how to define
Subtheories of Three Intelligences: intelligence, the debate continues today about whether
accurate measurements are even possible.
PRACTICAL ------- CONTEXTUAL
CREATIVE ------- EXPERIENTIAL
COMPONENTIAL ------ COMOPONENTIAL

What is Intelligence?
CONTEXTUAL SUBTHEORY
At various points throughout recent history, researchers
Intelligence is intertwined with the individual’s have proposed some different definitions of intelligence.
environment. Thus, intelligence is based on the way one While these definitions can vary considerably from one
functions in their everyday circumstances, including theorist to the next, current conceptualizations tend to
one’s ability to suggest that intelligence is the ability to:
a) Adapt to one’s environment - Learn from experience
b) Select the best environment for oneself, or - Recognize problems
c) Shape the environment to better fit one’s needs - Solve Problems
and desires
LEARN FROM EXPERIENCE
(EX: During a recitation, a student incorporates
situations that he/she experience at home. The acquisition, retention, and use of knowledge is an
important component of intelligence.
RECOGNIZE PROBLEMS
EXPERIENTIAL SUBTHEORY
To put knowledge to use, people must be able to identify
There are two categories of creative intelligence: novelty possible problems in the environment that need to be
and automatization. Novelty concerns how a person addressed.
reacts the first time they encounter something new.
Automatization concerns how a person learns to SOLVE PROBLEMS
perform repeated tasks automatically.
People must then be able to take what they have learned
(EX: During class discussion, two students of Mrs. to come up with a useful solution to a problem they have
Gomez were fighting and punching each other. Mrs. noticed in the world around them.
Gomez might be shock but she can solve the situation
Problem Solving Skills
because it is not her first time t0o experience this in
her class. She can apply what she learned from the -Teamwork
former fight between the student.)
-Negotiation
-Positive Mindset
COMPONENTIAL SUBTHEORY
-Logic
This is related to analytical intelligence, which is
essentially academic intelligence. Analytical -Strategic
Intelligence is used to solve problems and is the kind of WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE?
intelligence that is measured by a standard IQ Test.
Intelligence involves some different mental abilities
(EX: math test, computations, problem solving) including logic, reasoning, problem-solving, and
planning.
While psychologist often disagree about the definition
INTELLIGENCE and causes of intelligence plays a significant role in
- Is one of the most talked about subjects in many areas.
psychology, there is no standard definition of what These areas include decisions regarding how much
exactly constitutes intelligence. funding should be given to identify children who need
How Psychologists Define Intelligence? additional academic help.

- The ability to learn

- The ability to recognize problems INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT
- The ability to solve problems
What makes intelligence controversial?

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 FTC 1 THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT
The term “intelligence quotient” or IQ, was first coined 4. Solve novel problems
in the early 20th century by a German Psychologist
named William Stern.
ALFRED BINET – psychologist, developed the very “Intelligence, considered as a mental trait, is the
first intelligence tests to help the French government capacity to make impulses focal at their early,
identify schoolchildren who needed extra academic unfinished stage of formation. Intelligence is
assistance. therefore the capacity for abstraction, which is
- Binet was the first to introduce the concept of an inhibitory process (Thurstone, 1924/1973 p.
mental age or a set of abilities that children of a 159).”
certain age possess.

The Theory of Primary

INTELLIGENCE TESTING Mental Abilities
Intelligence testing has emerged as a widely used tool Thurstone (1938) proposed a theory of primary
that has led to developing many other tests of skill and mental abilities. Although this theory is not widely
aptitude. used today, the theory forms the basis of many
However, it continues to spur debate and controversy contemporary theories, including two
over the use of such testing, cultural biases that may be contemporary theories discussed later, those of
involved, influences on intelligence, and even the very Gardner (1983) and Carroll (1993). It is also the
way we define intelligence. basis for many contemporary group tests of
intelligence.
Alfred Binet and his collaborator, Theodore Simon,
invented the first intelligence test. It consisted of 30 Thurstone (1938) analyzed the data from 56
items of increasing complexity. Results were measured different tests of mental abilities and concluded that
against a mental age. to the extent that there is a general factor of
intelligence, it is unimportant and possibly
epiphenomenal. From this point of view there are
GENERAL INTELLIGENCE BY CHARLES E.
seven primary mental abilities:
SPEARMAN
- Spearman was well known as the pioneer of factor • Verbal comprehension
analysis as a statistical technique to reduce and • Verbal fluency
interpret data. • Number
- He was the first psychologist who used the • Perceptual speed
application of mathematical models for analyzing • Inductive reasoning
and interpreting the complexities present in human • Spatial visualization
mind.
- Spearman conducted a study to prove this theory
through which he observed and inferred that people
with higher levels did well on series of mental VERBAL COMPREHENSION
aptitude tests whereas people with lower intelligence This factor involves a person’s ability to understand
did not perform well enough on all these tests.
verbal material. It is measured by tests such as
vocabulary and reading comprehension.
GENERAL INTELLIGENCE also known as g factor,
refers to a general mental ability that, according to VERBAL FLUENCY
Spearman, underlies multiple specific skills, including This ability is involved in rapidly producing words,
verbal, spatial, numerical and mechanical.
sentences, and other verbal material. It is measured
by tests such as one that requires the examinee to
produce as many words as possible beginning
THURSTONE’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE with a particular letter in a short amount of time.
THEORY
NUMBER
-Intelligence is defined as a combination of mental
capabilities and competencies that include the This ability is involved in rapid arithmetic
following abilities: computation and in solving simple arithmetic word
problems.
1. To learn from experiences
2. Apply the knowledge gained from experiences
3. Formulate new understandings
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 FTC 1 THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT
PERCEPTUAL SPEED • When Gardner published his Multiple
Intelligence Theory, many were in
This ability is involved in proofreading and in rapid
disagreement. Prior to the 1980’s, the
recognition of letters and numbers. It is measured
educational field believed that intelligence
by tests such as those requiring the crossing out of
was already determined at birth. Researchers
As in a long string of letters or in tests requiring
used short-answer tests to assess one’s
recognition of which of several pictures at the right
intelligence, and it was unheard of to assume
is identical to the picture at the left.
that one’s cognitive capacity could grow. In his
INDUCTIVE REASONING theory,
This ability requires generalization— reasoning
• Gardner simply viewed it differently. He
from the specific to the general. It is measured by
defined intelligence as:
tests, such as letter series, number series, and
word classifications, in which the examinee must
1. The capacity to create solutions to life’s
indicate which of several words does not belong
problems.
with the others.
2. The ability to acquire new knowledge to gather
SPATIAL VISUALIZATION understanding on a topic.
3. A skillset that is useful to the community,
This ability is involved in visualizing shapes,
whether it be a product or a service.
rotations of objects, and how pieces of a puzzle fit
together. An example of a test would be the
presentation of a geometric form followed by
• Gardner also had some additional beliefs:
several other geometric forms. Each of the forms
o All humans have all nine unique intelligences,
that follows the first is either the same rotated by
potentially more which have yet to be
some rigid transformation or the mirror image of the
researched.
first form in rotation. The examinee has to indicate
o Everyone possesses all nine intelligences in
which of the forms at the right is a rotated version
various amounts.
of the form at the left, rather than a mirror image.
o Each individual is made up of a unique
combination of all nine intelligences.
o These intelligences are uniquely arranged in
• Today, Thurstone’s theory is not used as
each individual’s brain and may or may not
often in its original form, but it has served as
work collaboratively together.
a basis for many subsequent theories of
o Students can experience greater success if
intelligence, including hierarchical theories
learning tasks were directly related to their
and modern theories such as Gardner’s
developed intelligences.
(1983). Thus, to the extent that a theory is
o Intelligences can be developed or weakened,
judged by its heuristic value, Thurstone’s has
ignored or strengthened with practice.
been one of the most important in the field.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner, (born July 11, 1943, Scranton,
Pennsylvania, U.S.), American cognitive
psychologist and author, best known for his theory LINGUISTIC INTELLIGENCE
of multiple intelligences.
-well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the
First presented in Frames of Mind: The Theory of sounds, meanings and rhythms of words
Multiple Intelligences (1983) and subsequently
refined and extended in Multiple Intelligences: The LOGICAL -MATHEMATICAL
Theory in Practice (1993), INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for -ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and
the 21st Century (1999), and Multiple Intelligences: capacity to discern logical and numerical patterns
New Horizons (2006), Gardner’s theory inspired
SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE
teachers, school leaders, and special educators to
embrace the notion that there are many ways to be -capacity to think in images and pictures, to
intelligent. visualize accurately and abstractly
BODILY- KINESTHETIC INTELLIGENCE
-ability to control one’s body movements and to
handle objects skillfully

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 FTC 1 THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT

MUSICAL INTELLIGENCES
In Conclusion
-capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the
moods, motivations and desires of others Gardner himself asserts that educators should not
follow one specific theory or educational innovation
INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE when designing instruction but instead employ
customized goals and values appropriate to
-capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner
teaching, subject-matter, and student learning
feelings, values, beliefs and thinking processes
needs. Addressing the multiple intelligences can
NATURALIST INTELLIGENCE help instructors pluralize their instruction and
methods of assessment and enrich student
-ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals
learning.
and other objects in nature
EXISTENTIAL INTELLIGENCE
-sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions
about human existence such as, “What is the
meaning of life? Why do we die? How did we get
here?”

What's the point?

=Gardner (2013) asserts that regardless of which
subject you teach—“the arts, the sciences, history,
or math”—you should present learning materials in
multiple ways.
Gardner goes on to point out that anything you are
deeply familiar with “you can describe and convey
... in several ways. We teachers discover that
sometimes our own mastery of a topic is tenuous,
when a student asks us to convey the knowledge in
another way and we are stumped.” Thus, conveying
information in multiple ways not only helps
students learn the material, it also helps
educators increase and reinforce our mastery of
the content.

Another point...
Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory can be used
for curriculum development, planning instruction,
selection of course activities, and related assessment
strategies. Gardner points out that everyone has
strengths and weaknesses in various intelligences,
which is why educators should decide how best to
present course material given the subject-matter and
individual class of students. Indeed, instruction
designed to help students learn material in
multiple ways can trigger their confidence to
develop areas in which they are not as strong. In the
end, students’ learning is enhanced when instruction
includes a range of meaningful and appropriate
methods, activities, and assessments.

BY: PAUPAU