12th Class Chemistry Chapter 8

CHAPTER
8 ALIPHATIC
HYDROCARBONS
Animation 8.1 : Cycloalkanes

Source and credit : Stackexchange
8. ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONS eLearn.Punjab
In This Chapter You Will Learn:

1. How to name the aliphatic hydrocarbons according to IUPAC
rules.
2. The synthesis of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes and their important
reactions.
3. The comparison of reactivity of s bond and p bond.
4. About the free radical nature of reactions of alkanes and electrophilic
addition of alkenes and alkynes.
5. The comparison of reactivities of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds which contain carbon and hydro-

gen only. The number of such compounds is very large because of the prop-
erty of catenation. Hydrocarbons have been divided into various class-
es on the basis of structure of the chain or size and nature of the ring.
2
If all the valencies of the carbon atoms in a molecule are fully satisfied and
these cannot further take up any more hydrogen atoms, then the
hydrocarbons are named as saturated hydrocarbons or alkanes.
The compounds of carbon and hydrogen in which all the four valen-
cies of carbon are not fully utilized and they contain either a double or
a triple bond, such compounds are called unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Those unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain a double bond are
called alkenes while those containing a triple bond are called alkynes.
Classification of hydrocarbons has been’ shown at page 136.
8.2 NOMENCLATURE
8.2.1 Common or Trivial Names:
In the early days, the compounds were named on the basis of their history,
the method of preparation or name of the person working on it, e.g., the name
marsh gas was given to methane because it was found in marshy places.
Acetic acid derives its name from vinegar (Latin, acetum means vinegar).
Organic compounds were named after a person, like barbituric acid after
Barbara. Such a system may have a certain charm but is never manageable.
For alkanes with five or more carbon atoms, the root word is derived from
the Greek or Latin numerals indicating the number of carbon atoms in
a molecule, and the name is completed by adding ‘ane’ as a suffix, e.g.
pentane (C5H12), hexane (C6H14), heptane (C7H16), etc. The common or
trivial names are applicable to all isomers of a given molecular formula.
The prefixes n, iso, neo are, however, to differentiate between isomers.
3
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 H3C CH CH3

|
n-butane CH3
Isobutane
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3

n-pentane
CH3
|
H3C CH CH2 CH3 H3C C CH3
| |
CH3 CH3
Isopentane Neophentane
These prefixes have only limited use, as they are not workable with
complex molecules. Moreover, common names give only minimum
information about the structure of the compounds.Alkenes are similarly
named by replacing the ending -ane of the name of alkane with ylene. e.g.
CH3
|
H3C C=CH2
H2C=CH2 H3C CH =CH2
Ethylene Propylene Isobutylene
4
8.2.2 IUPAC Names

In 1889 the solution for naming the organic compounds systematically
was sought by International Chemical Congress. A report was accepted in
1892 in Geneva but it was found incomplete. In 1930, International Union of
Chemistry (IUC) gave a modified report which is also referred as Liege Rules.
This report was further modified by International union of Pure and
Applied Chemists (IUPAC) in the year 1947. Since that date the union
has issued periodic reports on rules for the systematic nomenclature of
organic compounds, the most recent of which was published in the year
1979. IUPAC system of nomenclature is based on the following principle.
‘Each different compound should have a different name’.
Thus through a systematic set of rules, the IUPAC system provides
different names for more than 7 million known organic compounds.
Nomenclature of Alkyl Groups:

If we remove one hydrogen atom from an alkane, we obtain what is
called an alkyl group. These alkyl groups have names that end in —
yl.When the alkane is unbranched and the hydrogen atom that is
removed is a terminal hydrogen atom, the names are straight forward:
Alkane Alkyl Group Abbreviation

CH3 H CH3 Me-
Methane Methyl
Et-
CH3 CH2 H CH3CH2
Ethane Ethyl
Pr-
CH3 CH2 CH2 H CH3CH2CH2
Propane n-propyl
n-Bu-
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 H CH3CH2CH2CH2
n-Butane n-Butyl
5
8.2.3 Nomenclature of Alkanes

Branched-chain alkanes are named according to the following rules.
1. Locate the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms; this chain determines
the parent name for the alkane. We designate the following compound as
a hexane because the longest continuous chain contains six carbon atoms.
H3C CH2 CH2 CH2 CH CH3

|
CH3
The longest continuous chain may not always be obvious from the way the
formula is written. Notice, for example, that the following alkane is designated
as a heptane because the longest chain contains seven carbon atoms.
2.Number the longest chain beginning from the end of the chain nearer the
substituent. Applying this rule, we number the two alkanes shown above in
the following way.
6
3.Use the numbers obtained by the application of rule 2 to designate the

location of the substituent group. The parent name is placed last, and the
substituent group, preceded by the number designating its location on
the chain, is placed first. Numbers are separated from words by a hyphen.
The systematic names ot the two compounds shown above will then be:
4. When two or more substituents are present, give each substituent a number
corresponding to its location on the longest chain. For example, we designate
the following compound as 4 -ethyl-2 -methylhexane.
The substituent groups should be listed alphabetically (i.e. ethyl before methyl).
In deciding on alphabetical order disregard multiplying prefixes such as “di”
and “tri”.
5. When two substituents are present on the same carbon atom, use that
number twice.
7
6.When two or more substituents are identical, indicate this by the use of the
prefixes di, tri , tetra , and so on. Then make certain that each and every substituent
has a number. Commas are used to separate numbers from each other.
Application of these six rules allows us to name most of the alkanes that we
shall encounter. Two other rules, however, may be required occasionally.
7.When two chains of equal length compete for selection as the parent chain,
choose the chain with the greater number of substituents.
8
8. When branching first occurs at an equal distance from either end of the
longest chain, choose the name that gives the lower number at the first point of
difference.
8.2.4 Nomenclature of Alkenes:

The IUPAC rules for naming alkenes are similar in many respects to those for naming
alkanes.
1.Select the longest continuous chain that contains the C = C as the parent
chain. Change the ending of the name of the alkane of identical length
from — ane to — ene, e.g.,
2.Number the chain so as to include both carbon atoms of the double

bond. Numbering begins from the end nearer to the double bond.
9
3.Designate the location of the double bond by using the number of the first
atom of the double bond as a prefix.
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4
H2 C = CH CH2 CH3 H2 C = CH CH2 CH2 CH3
1-Pentene
1-Butene
4.Indicate the locations of the substituent groups by the numbers of the
carbon atoms to which they are attached.
5.If the parent chain contains more than one double bonds, they are alkadienes
for two, alkatrienes for three and so on.
1 2 3 4
= =
CH2 CH CH CH2
1,3-Butadiene
8.2.5 Nomenclature of Alkynes:
1.The largest continuous carbon chain containing triple bond is selected.

The name of the identical alkane is changed from ane to — yne. e.g.
2 1 3 2 1
CH ≡ CH H3 C C ≡ CH
Ethyne
Propyne
10
2.The position of triple bond is shown by numbering the alkyne, so that minimum
number is assigned to the triple bond.
4 3 2 1
H3 C CH2 C ≡ CH
1-Butyne
3.If a hydrocarbon contains more than one triple bonds, it is named as

alkadiyne and triyne, etc. depending on the number of triple bonds.
6 5 4 3 2 1
HC ≡ C CH2 CH2 C ≡ CH
1,5 - Hexadiyne
4.If both double and triple bonds are present in the compound then ending
enyne is given to the root.
a.Lowest possible number is assigned to a double or a triple bond irrespective

of whether ene or yne gets the lower number.
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
HC ≡ C CH=CH CH3 =
H2 C CH C=
≡ C CH3
3 - Penten - 1- yne 1- Penten - 3 - yne
b.In case a double and a triple bond are present at identical positions, the double
bond is given the lower number.
11
8.3 ALKANES OR PARAFFINS
Alkanes are the simplest organic compounds made up of carbon and

hydrogen only. They have a general formula of CnH2n+2. In these compounds
the four valencies of carbon atoms are satisfied by single bonds to either other
carbon atoms or hydrogen atom. They are, therefore known as Saturated
Hydrocarbons. Methane (CH4) is the simplest member of this family. Each
carbon atom in alkane is sp3 hybridized and has a tetrahedral geometry.
8.3.1 General Methods of Preparations
(1) Hydrogenation of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
(Sabatier-Sendem’s Reaction)
Hydrogenation of alkenes or alkynes in the presence of nickel at 200-300OC

yields alkanes.
R CH = CH2 + H2  Ni
200−300o C
→ R CH2 CH3
Alkene
e.g CH2 = CH2 + H2  Ni

200−300o C
→ CH3 CH3
Ethane
The hydrogenation can also be carried out with platinum or
palladium at room temperature but they are expensive than nickel.
The method is of industrial importance. Production of vegetable ghee
by the catalytic hydrogenation of vegetable oil (unsaturated fatty acids)
is an example of the application of this method on industrial scale.
(2) From Alkyl Halides:
An alkane is produced when an alkyl halide reacts with zinc in the
presence of an aqueous acid.
12
R X + Zn + H+ + X − 
→ R H + ZnX 2
Alkyl halide Alkane
CH3 I + Zn + H+ + I− 
→ CH4 + ZnI2
Methyl iodide Methane
CH3 CH2 CH CH3

|
Br + Zn + H+ + Br − 
→ CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 + ZnBr
2-Bromo-butane n-Butane
Alkanes can also be prepared from alkyl halides using palladium-charcoal

as acatalyst. The method is known as Hydrogenolysis (hydrogenation
accompanied by bond cleavage)
R X + H2 
Pd/C
∆
→R H+H X
(3) Decarboxylation of Monocarboxylic Acids
i) When sodium salts of fatty acids are heated with soda-lime (prepared
by soaking quick lime (CaO) with caustic soda solution and drying
the product). They eliminate a molecule of CO2 to form alkanes.
e.g
13
ii) Kolbe's Electrolytic Method

When a concentrated solution of sodium or potassium salt of a mono
carboxylic acid is electrolysed, an alkane is produced. This method
is only suitable for the preparation of symmetrical alkanes i.e. those
of the type R—R. Methane cannot be prepared by this method.
2RCOO−Na + + 2 H2O 

Electrolysis
→R R+2CO2 + 2NaOH+H2
It is known to involve the following mechanism.
When potassium salt of acetic acid is electrolysed, acetate ion migrates
.
towards the anode gives up one electron to produce acetate free
.
radical (CH3COO), which decomposes to give a methyl free radical
(CH3) and CO2.Two such methyl radicals combine to give ethane.
At Anode
O
||
2H3C C O   + 2CO
→ 2CH3 2
 + CH
CH  → H3C CH3
3 3
At Cathode
2H2O + 2e− 
→ 2OH + H2
2K + + 2OH 
→ 2KOH
This reaction has limited synthetic applications as it forms a number of side
products.
14
(4) From Carbonyl Compounds (Aldehydes or Ketones)
The carbonyl groups of aldehydes or ketones are reduced to methyl or

methylene group respectively by either Clemmensen or Wolf-Kishner’s
reduction. In the former reaction a ketone is reduced to an alkane
using zinc amalgam and hydrochloric acid whereas in the later an
aldehyde is reduced to alkane with hydrazine in the presence of KOH.
3
Acetone Propane
(5) From Grignard Reagents

Alkyl halides react in anhydrous ether with magnesium to
form alkyl magnesium halides, known as Grignard Reagent.
They decompose on treatment with water or dilute acid to give alkanes.
ether
15
8.3.2. Physical Properties

1. Alkanes containing upto four carbon atoms are colourless, odourless gases
while pentane to heptadecane (C5 to C17) are colourless, odourless liquids. The
higher members from C18 onwards are waxy solids which are also colourless and
odourless.
2. Alkanes are non-polar or very weakly polar and are insoluble in polar solvents
like water, but soluble in non-polar solvents like benzene, ether, carbon tetra
chloride,etc.
3. Their physical constants like boiling .points, melting points, density, etc increase
with the increase in number of carbon atoms, whereas solubility decreases
with increase in molecular mass. The boiling point increases by 20 to 30°C
for addition of each CH2 group to the molecule. The boiling points of alkanes
having branched chain structures are lower than their isomeric normal chain
alkanes, e.g. n-butane has a higher boiling point-0.50 C than isobutane (-1 1 .7°C).
4.The melting points of alkanes also increase with the increase in molecular mass
but this increase is not so regular.
8.3.3. Reactivity of Alkanes

The alkanes or paraffins (Latin: parum = little, affins = affinity) under ordinary
condition are inert towards acids, alkalis, oxidizing and reducing agents.
However, under suitable conditions, alkanes do undergo two types of reactions.
1. Substitution Reactions
2. Thermal and Catalytic Reactions
These reactions take place at high temperature or on absorption of

light energy through the formation of highly reactive free radicals.
The unreactivity of alkanes under normal conditions may be explained on the

basis of the non-polarity of the bonds forming them. The eletronegativity values
of carbon (2.5) and hydrogen (2.1) do not differ appreciably and the bonding
electrons between C-H and C-C are equally shared making them almost non-
polar. In view of this, the ionic reagents such as acids, alkalies, oxidizing agents,
etc find no reaction site in the alkane molecules to which they could be attached.
16
Inertness of s-bond
The unreactivity of alkanes can also be explained on the basis of inertness of a
s-bond. In a s -bond the electrons are very tightly held between the nuclei which
makes it a very stable bond. A lot of energy is required to break it. Moreover
the electrons present in a s-bond can neither attack on any electrophile nor a
nucleophile can attack on them. Both these facts make alkanes less reactive.
8.3.4 Reactions
1. Combustion
Burning of an alkane in the presence of oxygen is known as Combustion.
Complete combustion of an alkane yields CO2, H2O and heat.
The amount of heat evolved when one mole of a hydrocarbon is burnt to

CO2 and H2O is called heat of combustion, e.g;
CH4 ( g ) + 2O2 ( g ) 

Flame
→ CO2 ( g ) + 2H2O ( g ) + 891kJmol-1
Although the reaction is highly exothermic, it requires very
high temperature to initiate it, e.g. by a flame or a spark.
Combustion is the major reaction occurring in the internal combustion
engines of automobiles. A compressed mixture of alkanes and air burns
smoothly in the internal combustion engine and increases its efficiency.
2. Oxidation
Oxidation of methane under different conditions gives different products.
i) Incomplete oxidation occurs in a limited supply of oxygen
or air and results in the formation of CO and carbon black.
3CH4 ( g )+ 4O2 ( g ) 

Flame
→ 2CO ( g ) + 6H2O ( g ) + C ( s )
17
ii) Catalytic Oxidation: Lower alkanes when burnt in the presence of metallic
catalysts, at high temperature and pressure, result in the formation of useful
products.
CH4 + [O] 

→ H3C Cu
400o C/200atm
OH
Methyl alcohol
H3C OH + O  Cu
400o C/200atm
→ HCHO+H2O
Formaldehyde
HCHO + [O]  Cu

400o C/200atm
→ HCOOH
Formic acid
HCOOH + [O] 
→ CO2 + H2O Cu
400o C/200atm
Catalytic oxidation of alkanes is used industrially to prepare

higher fatty acids used in soap and vegetable oil industries.
3. Nitration:
It is a substitution reaction of alkanes in which a hydrogen atom of an

alkane is replaced by nitro group (-NO2). Alkanes undergo vapour-phase
nitration under drastic condition (at 400-500°C) to give nitroalkanes, e.g.
450o C
CH4 + HONO2 
→ CH3NO2 + H2O
Nitromethane
Nitroalkanes generally find use as fuels, solvents, and in organic synthesis.
18
4. Halogenation
Alkanes react with chlorine and bromine in the presence of sunlight
or UV light or at high temperature resulting in the successive
replacement of hydrogen atoms with halogens called halogenation.
Extent of halogenation depends upon the amount of halogen used.
Reaction of alkanes with fluorine is highly violent and results in
a mixture of carbon, fluorinated alkanes and hydrofluoriq acid.
Iodine does not substitute directly because the reaction is too slow
and reversible. The order of reactivity of halogens is F2>Cl2>Br2>I2.
Halogenation is believed to proceed through free radical mechanism.
It involves the following three steps.
hυ )Initiation(
Step I Cl Cl  → Cl − + Cl −
]
hυ
Step 2 H3C H + Cl�  → CH�3 + HCl )Propagation(
hυ
CH�3 + Cl Cl  → CH3 Cl + Cl�
)Termination(
Step 3 CH�3 + Cl� 
→ CH3 Cl
By repetition of step II, a mixture of halogen substituted products are

obtained.The reaction is not synthetically so important.
19
� �
Cl CH2 + Cl Cl → Cl CH2 Cl + Cl
Dichloromethane
Chloroform
Tetrachloromethane or
carbon tetrachloride
20
8.3.5 Uses of Methane
Methane is used:
(i) as a fuel and as an illuminating gas.

(ii) for the preparation of methylchloride, dichloromethane, chloroform and
carbon tetrachloride.
(iii) for the industrial preparation of methyl alcohol, formaldehyde and hydrogen
cyanide.
(iv) for the preparation of carbon black used in paints, printing inks and
automobile tyres.
(v) is used to manufacture urea fertilizer.
8.4 ALKENES
Alkenes have two hydrogen atoms less than the coresponding saturated
hydrocarbons. They are also known as Olefins (derived from Latin word
olefiant meaning oil forming) because lower members form oily products
on treatment with chlorine or bromine. The simplest olefin is C2H4, ethene.
Alkene having one double bond are known as mono-enes with general
formula CnH2n. Alkenes containing two double bonds are called dienes.
8.4.1 General Methods of Preparation
1. Dehydrohalogenation of Alkyl Halides

Alkyl halides on heating with alcoholic potassium hydroxide undergo
dehydrohalogenation i.e. elimination of a halogen atom together with a hydrogen
atom from adjacent carbon atoms.
21
R CH2 CH2 →

Alc. KOH
R CH =CH2 + KX + H2O
|
H2 C CH2 + KOH 

Alcohol
→ H2C=CH2 + KBr + H2O
| |
H Br
H3C CH2 CH2 Br + KOH 

Alcohol
→ H3C =
CH CH2 + K Br + H2O
2. Dehydration of Alcohols
Alcohols when dehydrated in the presence of a catalyst give alkene .
The best procedure is to pass vapours of alcohol over heated alumina.
Al2O3
R CH2 CH2 
340−450o C
→ R CH=CH2 + H2O
|
Alkene
Alcohol OH
P4O10, (conc)H2SO4 and H3PO4 are also used for dehydration. The ease of
dehydration of various alcohols is in the order. Ter. alcohol > Sec. alcohol >
Pri .alcohol
Thus
75% H2SO4
R CH2 CH2 
140−170o C
→ R CH=CH2 + H2O
|
OH
Primary Alcohol
60% H2SO4
R CH2 CH CH3 
100o C
→ R CH=CH CH3 + H2O
|
OH
Secondary Alcohol
Tertiary Alcohol
22
3. Dehalogenation of Vicinal Dihalides

Vicinal dihalides have two halogens on adjacent carbon atoms. Dehalogenation
occurs when dihalide is treated with Zinc dust in an anhydrous solvent like
methanol or acetic acid.
CH3OH
R CH CH2 Zn  → H2C=CH R+ ZnX 2
| |
X X Alkene
CH3OH
H3C CH CH CH3 + Zn  → H3C CH=CH CH3 + ZnBr2
| |
2-Butene
Br Br
4. Electrolysis of Salts of Dicarboxylic acid

(Kolbe’s Electrolytic Method)
When sodium or potassium salts of the dicarboxylic acid like succinic acid
are subjected to electrolysis in an aqueous solution, alkenes are formed.
H2C COO-Na + H2C COO- + 2Na+

| Ionization |
�� H2�O� ��
��
H2C COO-Na + H2C COO-
Disodium Succinate
At Anode
23
At Cathode
2H2O + 2e− → 2OH− + H2
2Na + + 2OH− → 2NaOH
5. Partial Hydrogenation of Alkynes: -
Controlled hydrogenation of alkynes with hydrogen gas in an equimolar ratio

over heated catalysts, gives alkenes. The catalyst is finely divided palladium
supported on BaSO4 and poisoned by treatment with quinoline (Lindlar’s catalyst).
Cis-Alkene
A trans alkene can be obtained by treating an alkyne with Na in liquid NH3 at -33°C.
trans-Alkene
8.4.2 Physical Properties
1. First three members i.e. ethene, propene and butene are gases at room
temperature while C5 to C15 are liquids and the higher members are solids.
2. They are insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol.
3. They have characteristic smell and burn with luminous flame.
4. Unlike alkanes, they show weakly polar properties because of sp2
hybridization.
24
8.4.3 Reactivity of a p-bond

In the formation of a p-bond, the partially filled p-orbitals overlap in a
parallel fashion. The probability of finding electron is thus away from
the line joining the two nuclei. Due to this reason p-electrons are less
firmly held between the nuclei. A p-bond is, therefore, a weak bond as
compared to a s-bond. During a reaction it breaks comparatively easily
rendering alkenes as reactive group of compounds. Moreover, the
loosely held p-electrons are more exposed to attack by the electrophilic
reagents. Alkenes, therefore, undergo electrophilic reactions very easily.
8.4.4 Reactions of Alkenes

A. Addition Reactions
1. Addition of Hydrogen (Hydrogenation)
Hydrogenation is a process in which a molecule of hydrogen is added to an
alkene in the presence of a catalyst and at moderate pressure (1-5 atm.) to
give a saturated compound. The process is known as Catalytic Hydrogenation.
It is a highly exothermic process and the amount of heat evolved when one
mole of an alkene is hydrogenated is called Heat of Hydrogenation. The heat
of hydrogenation of most alkenes is about 120kJmole -1 for each double bond
present in a molecule. The catalysts employed are Pt, Pd and Raney nickel.
Raney Nickel
It is prepared by treating a Ni — Al alloy with caustic soda.
Ni Al + NaOH+ H2O → Ni + NaAlO2 + 3 H2

2
Most alkenes are hydrogenated over Raney nickel at about 100°C and upto 3-
atmosphere pressure.
3-Methyl-l-butene iso Bentane

25
Catalytic hydrogenation of alkenes is used in the laboratory as well as

in industry. In industry, it is used for the manufacture of vegetable ghee
from vegetable oils. In the laboratory, it is used as a synthetic method
as well as an analytical tool, as the reaction is generally quantitative.
2. Addition of Hydrogen Halides

Alkenes react with dry gaseous hydrogen halides to form alkyl
halides. The order of reactivity of halogen aicds is HI > HBr > HC1.
R CH=CH2 + HX → R CH CH3

|
H2C=CH2 + HCl →H3C CH2

|
Cl
The addition of a hydrogen halide to an alkene takes place in two steps.
Alkene accepts the proton of hydrogen halide to form a carbocation.
26
The carbocation then reacts with the halide ion.
The addition of hydrogen halide over an unsymmetrical alkene is governed by

Markownikov’s Rule. The rule states that; in the addition of an unsymmetrical
reagent to an unsymmetrical alkene, the negative part of the adding
reagent goes to that carbon, constituting the double bond, which has least
number of hydrogen atoms.
27
3. Addition of Sulphuric Acid

When alkenes are treated with cold concentrated sulphuric acid, they are
dissolved because they react by addition to form alkyl hydrogen sulphate.
For example,
These alkylhydrogen sulphates on boiling with water decompose to

give corresponding alcohols. The overall reaction involves the addition
of water to an alkene and it is, therefore, called hydration reaction.
100o C
H3C CH2 O SO3H + H2O 
→ H3C CH2 OH + H2SO4
4. Addition of Halogens
The alkenes on treatment with halogen in an inert solvent like carbon tetrachloride
at room temperature give vicinal dihalides or 1,2 dihalogenated products.
For example,
Br2 and Cl2 are effective electrophilic reagents. Fluorine is too reactive to control
the reaction. Iodine does not react.
Mechanism:
a. A bromine molecule becomes polarized as it approaches the alkene. This
polarized bromine molecule transfers a positive bromine atom to the alkene
resulting in the formation of a bromonium ion.
28
b. The nucleophilic bromide ion then attacks on the carbon of the bromonium
ion to form vic. dibromide and the colour of bromine is discharged. A trans
product is formed.
Bromonium ion 1, 2-Dibromoethane

This test is used for the detection of a double bond.
5. Addition of Hypohalous acid (HOX)
If the halogenation of an alkene is carried out in an aqueous solution,
haloalcohol is formed called a Halohydrin. In this reaction, molecules of the
solvent become reactants too.
X 2 + H2O 
→ HOX + HX
Halohydrin
B. OXIDATION REACTIONS
1. Addition of Oxygen
Alkenes when mixed with oxygen or air and passed over a silver oxide
catalyst at high temperature and pressure, add an atom of oxygen to form
epoxides. Epoxides serve as the starting substances for the industrial
production of glycols.
29
2. Hydroxylation
When alkenes are treated with mild oxidizing reagents like dilute
(1%) alkaline KMn04 solution (Baeyer's Reagent) at low temperature,
hydroxylation of duoubie bond occurs resulting in the formation of
dihydroxy compounds known as vicinal glycols. The pink colour of KMnO4
solution is discharged during the reaction. It is also a test for the presence of
unsaturation in the molecules. For example,
3. Combustion
Alkenes burn in air with luminous flame and produce CO2 and H2O
vapours. Ethene forms a highly explosive mixture with air or oxygen.
C2H4 + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 2H2O + heat

4. Ozonolysis
Ozone (O3) is a highly reactive allotropic form of oxygen. It reacts vigorously
with alkenes to form unstable molozonide. It rearranges spontaneously to
form an ozonide.
30
Ozonides are unstable compounds and are reduced directly by treatment with zinc
and H2O. The reduction produces carbonyl compounds (aldehydes or ketones).
H2O2 + Zn → ZnO + H2O
Ozonolysis is used to locate the position of double bond in an alkene.
C. Polymerization
In this ‘process small organic molecules (monomers) combine together to form

larger molecules known as Polymers.Ethene at 400°C and 100 atm pressure,
polymerize to polythene or polyethylene.
A good quality polythene is obtained, when ethene is polymerized in the

presence of aluminium triethyl Al(C2H5)3 and titanium tetrachloride catalysts
(TiCl4).
8.4.5 Uses of Ethene:
Ethene is used:
1. for the manufacture of polythene, a plastic material used for making toys,
cables, bags, boxes, etc.
2. for artificial ripening of the fruits.
3. as a general anaesthetic.
4. for preparing ‘Mustard gas’ a chemical used in World War I. The name comes
from its mustard like odour. It is not a gas, but a high boiling liquid that is
dispersed as a mist of tiny droplets. It is a powerful vesicant i.e., causes blisters.
31
5. as a starting material for a large number of chemicals of industrial use such

as glycols (antifreeze), ethyl halide, ethyl alcohol, etc.
8.5 ALKYNES
Unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain a triple bond are called Alkynes.

They have the general molecular formula CnH2n-2 and contain two hydrogen
atoms less than the corresponding alkenes.
The first member of the Alkyne series has the formula C2H2 and is known as
Ethyne or Acetylene.
8.5.1 General Methods of Preparation
1. Dehydrohalogenation of Vicinal Dihalides
Vicinal dihalide on treatment with a strong base eliminates two mole-

cules of hydrogen halides from two adjacent carbons to give an alkyne.
Alkyne
1,2-Dihalide
32
HC CH + KOH 
Alcohol
− HBr 80oC
→ HC=CH2
| | |
Br Br Br
1,2-Dibromoethane Vinyl bromide
=HC CH + KOH 

Alcohol
− HBr 150oC
→ HC ≡ CH
| |
Br H
Ethyne
The second molecule of hydrogen halide is removed with great difficulty and
requires drastic conditions.
2. DehalogenationofTetrahalides
Tetra haloalkanes on treatment with active metals like Zn, Mg, etc. form
alkynes.
(i)
=
(ii) HC CH + Zn 
→ HC ≡ CH + ZnBr2
| |
Br Br
3. Electrolysis of Salts of Unsaturated Dicarboxylic Acids
Kolbe's electrolytic method involves electrolysis of aqueous solution of Na
or K salts of unsaturated dicarboxylic acids.
33
At Anode
Ethyne
At Cathode
2H2O + 2e− → 2OH−
2K + + 2OH− → 2KOH

Industrial Preparation of Ethyne
On industrial scale ethyne is prepared by the reaction of calcium
carbide (CaC2) with water Calcium carbide is prepared by heating lime
(CaO) and coke (C) at a very high temperature in an electric furnace.
2000oC
CaO+3C 
→ CaC2 +CO
34
8.5.2 Physical Characteristics

1. They are colourless, odourless, except acetylene which has a garlic like
odour,
2. The first three members are gases (ethyne, propyne, butyne) at room
temperature, The next eight members (C5 - C12) are liquids and higher
members are solids.
3 The melting points, boiling points and densities increase gradually with
the increase in molecular masses.
4 They are nonpolar and dissolve readily in solvents like ether, benzene and
carbon tetrachloride.
8.5.3 Reactivity of Alkynes
In alkynes, the carbon atoms are held together by a triple bond, a s-bond and
two p-bonds. The electron density between the carbon atoms is very high
which draws atoms very close to each other. Electrons in a triple bond are,
therefore, less exposed and thus less reactive towards electrophilic reagents.
8.5.4 Reactions
A. Addition Reactions:
Alkynes undergo addition reactions like alkenes but add two molecules of the
reagent instead of one.
1. Addition of Hydrogen:
Alkynes react with hydrogen gas in the presence of a suitable catalysts
like finely divided Ni, Pt, or Pd. Initially alkenes are formed which
then take up another molecule of hydrogen to form an alkane.
35
HC ≡ CH + H2 →
Ni
heat
H2C=CH2
Ethyne Ethene
CH2 =CH2 + H2 →

Ni
heat
H3C CH3
Ethene Ethene
2. Addition of Halogens:
One or two molecules of halogens can be added to alkynes giving
dihalides and tetra halides respectively.Chlorine and bromine add readily
while iodine reacts rather slowly.
3. Addition of Halogen Acids:
Alkynes react with hydrogen chloride and hydrogen bromide to form

dihaloalkanes. The reaction occurs in accordance with Markownikov’s rule.
36
HC ≡ CH + H Br 
→ H2C=CH
|
Ethyne
Br
Vinyl bromide
1, 1- Dibromoethane
4. Addition of Water:
Water adds to alkynes in the presence of mercuric sulphate dissolved in

sulphuric acid at 75°C. The reaction is important industrially. For example,
HgSO4
HC ≡ CH + Hä+ OHä- 
H2SO4
→ H2C=CH O H
Vinyl alcohol
Vinyl alcohol is an unstable enol. The enol has the hydroxy group attached
to a doubly bonded carbon atom and isomerises to acetaldehyde.
Acetaldehyde
All other alkynes give ketones.
37
5. Addition of Ammonia and Hydrogen Cyanide:
NH3and HCN react with ethyne in the presence of suitable catalysts, to

give nitriles.
Al2O3
HC ≡ CH + NH3 
300o C
→ H3C C ≡ N + H2
Methyl Nitrile
Cu2Cl2 /NH4Cl
HC ≡ CH + HCN  ∆
→ CH2 =CH CN
Acrylonitrile
B. Oxidation Reactions
1. Ethyne on oxidation with strong alkaline KMnO, gives glyoxal.
38
2. Combustion:
Alkynes when burnt in air or oxygen produce heat and evolves CO2
and H2O. The reaction is highly exothermic for acetylene and the
resulting oxyacetylene flame is used for welding and cutting of metals.
2HC ≡ CH + 5O2 → 4CO2 + 2H2O + heat

C. Polymerization
Alkynes polymerize to give linear or cyclic compounds depending upon the

temperature and catalyst used. However, these polymers are different from
the polymers of the alkenes as they are usually low molecular weight polymers.
1. Conversion of Acetylene to Divinyl Acetylene
When acetylene is passed through an acidic solution of cuprous chloride

and ammonium chloride and then allowed to stand for several hours at
room temperature, vinyl acetylene and divinyl acetylene are obtained.
Cu2Cl2 ,NH4Cl
HC ≡ CH + HC ≡ CH →
300o C
=H2C CH C ≡ CH
Vinyl acetylene
(1- Buten-3-yne
Cu2Cl2 ,NH4Cl
H2C=CH C ≡ CH+HC ≡ CH → =H2C CH C ≡ C=CH CH2
Divinyl acetylene
(l,5-Hexdiene-3-yne)
If HCl is added to vinyl acetylene, chloroprene is obtained which readily
polymerize to neoprene, used as synthetic rubber.
Cu2Cl2 ,NH4Cl
H2C=CH C ≡ CH+(conc.)HCl → H2C = CH C=CH2
|
Vinyl acetylene
Cl
Chloroprene
39
Chloroprene 
Polymerization
→ Neoprene ( synthetic rubber )
2. Conversion of Acetylene to Benzene
When acetylene is passed through a copper tube at 300°C, it polymerizes to

benzene.
D. Acidic Nature of Alkynes

In ethyne and other terminal alkynes like propyne, the hydrogen atom
is bonded to the carbon atom with sp-s overlap. An sp hybrid orbital has
50% s-character in it and renders the carbon atom more electronegative
than sp2 and sp3 hybridized carbons. As a result, the sp hybridized
carbon atom of a terminal alkyne pulls the electrons more strongly
making the attached hydrogen atom slightly acidic.
H C ≡ Cä- Hä+
1. When 1-alkyne or ethyne is treated with sodamide in liquid ammonia

or passed over molten sodium .alkynides or acetylides are obtained.
R C ≡ CH + NaNH2 liq NH3

 →R C ≡ C-Na + +NH3
→ Na +C- ≡ C-Na + +H2
HC ≡ CH + 2Na 
Sodium acetylide
40
Sodium acetylide is a very valuable reagent for

chemical synthesis and is essentially ionic in nature.
Acetylides of copper and silver are obtained by passing acetylene in the
ammoniacal solution of cuprous chloride and silver nitrate respectively.
HC ≡ CH + Cu2Cl2 + 2 NH4OH 
→ CuC ≡ CCu+ 2 NH4Cl +2H2O
Dicopperacetylide
(Reddish brown ppt.)
HC ≡ CH + 2AgNO3 + 2 NH4OH 
→ AgC ≡ CAg+ 2 NH4NO3 +2H2O
Disilver acetylide
(white ppt.)
Silver and copper acetylides react with acids to regenerate alkynes.
AgC ≡ CAg + H2SO4 (dil.) 

→ HC ≡ CH + Ag 2SO4
AgC ≡ CAg + 2HNO3(dil.) 

→ HC ≡ CH + 2AgNO3
These alkynides are used for the preparation, purification, separation, and
identification of alkynes.
8.5.5 Uses of Ethyne

Ethyne is used:
1. in oxyacetylene torch which is in turn used for welding and cutting metals.
2. for the preparation of alcohols, acetic acid and acetaldehyde.
3. for the manufacture of polymers like PVC, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl ethers,
orlon and neoprene rubber.
4. to prepare acetylene tetrachloride a solvent for varnishes, resins, and rubber.
5. for ripening of fruits.
8.5.6 Comparison of Reactivities of Alkanes, Alkenes and Alkynes

The general decreasing reactivity order of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes is as
follows:
Alkenes > Alkynes > Alkanes
41
It has already been explained that a p -bond in alkenes is not only weak
but its electrons are more exposed to an attack by an electrophilic reagent.
Both these facts make the alkenes a very reactive class of compounds.
Alkynes although contain two p -bonds are less reactive than alkenes
towards electrophilic reagents. This is because the bond distance between
the two triple bonded carbon atoms is very short and hence the p
-electrons are not available to be attacked by electrophilic reagents.Alkynes
are, however, more reactive than alkenes towards nucleophilic reagents.
KEYPOINTS
1. Hydrocarbons are made up of carbon and hydrogen only. Saturated

hydrocarbons are called alkanes. They do not contain functional groups.
2. Alkanes react with halogens by a free radical mechanism to give haloalkanes.
Then mechanism consists of three steps, initiation, propagation and termination.
3. Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with at least one C=C. The double bond
is composed of a s and a p bond. Carbon atoms in alkenes are sp2 hybridized.
4. Alkenes are very reactive compounds. They undergo electrophilic reactions
very easily.
5. Addition of unsymmetrical reagent to an unsymmetrical alkene takes place in
accordance with the Markownikov's rule.
6. Alkenes can be very easily oxidized with cold KMnO4 solution, O2 or ozone.
With ozone both the bonds between carbon atoms are cleaved.
7. Hydrocarbons containing a triple bond are known as alkynes or acetylenes.
8. Alkynes undergo addition reactions and two molecules of a reagent are added
in it.
9. Ethyne and other terminal alkynes contain a weakly acidic hydrogen and they
react with ammoniacal cuprous chloride and ammoniacal silver nitrate to give
acetylides
10. The decreasing reactivity order of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes are as
follows:
Alkenes > Alkynes > Alkanes
42
EXERCISE
Q.1. Fill in the blanks.

1. Ozone reacts with ethene to form___________ .
2. Lindlar’ s catalyst is used for___________ of alkynes.
3. Divinyl acetylene is a ______________ acetylene.
4. Vicinal dihalides have two halogens on_________carbon atoms.
5. Ethyne is acidic in character because of__________ hybridization.
6. Halohydrins are formed due to addition of__________ in ethene.
7. Ethylene glycol is produced when__________ reacts with cold alkaline KMnO4
solution.
8. Mustard gas is a high boiling _____________ .
9. Ethyne has_____________ like odour.
10. Ethyne is obtained by the reaction of________ with calcium carbide.
Q.2. Indicate True or False.

1. Addition of HX to unsymmetriacal alkanes takes place according to
Markownikov’s rule.
2. Methane reacts with bromine water and its colour is discharged.
3. Mustard gas is a blistering agent.
4. Methane is also called marsh gas.
5. Ethyne is a saturated compound.
6. Baeyer’s reagent is used to locate a double bond in an alkene.
7. Alkanes usually undergo substitution reactions.
8. Benzene is a polymer of ethene.
9. Acrylonitrile can be obtained from ethyne.
10. Ethyne is more reactive towards electrophilic reagents than ethene.
43
Q. 3. Multiple choice questions. Encircle the correct answer.

i) Preparation of vegetable ghee involves
(a) Halogenation (b) Hydrogenation
(c) Hydroxylation (d) Dehydrogenation
ii) Formula of chloroform is:

(a)CH3Cl (b) CCI4 (c)CH2CI2 (d)CHCl3
iii) The presence of a double bond in a compound is the sign of

(a) Saturation (b) Unsaturation (c) Substitution (d)None
iv) Vinyl acetylene combines with HCl to form

(a) Polyacetylene (b) Benzene
(c) Chloroprene (d) Divinyl acetylene
v) The addition of unsymmetrical reagent to an unsymmetrical alkene is in

accordance
with the rule
(a) Hund’s rule (b) Markownikov’s rule
(c) Pauli’s Exclusion Principle (d) Aufbau Principle
vi) Synthetic rubber is made by polymerization of

(a) Chloroform (b) Acetylene
(c) Divinylacetylene (d) Chloroprene
vii) b-b’- dichloroethyl sulphide is commonly known as

(a) Mustard gas (b) Laughing gas
(b) Phosgene gas (d) Bio-gas
ix) When methane reacts with Cl2 in the presence of diffused sunlight the
products
obtained are:
(a) Chloroform only (b) Carbon tetrachloride only
(c) Chloromethane and dichloromethane (d) Mixture of a, b, c
x) Which one of the following gases is used for artificial ripening of fruits.
(a) Ethene (b) Ethyne (c) Methane (d) Propane
44
Q. 4. Write the structural formula for each of the following compounds

,
i) 2-Methylpropane. ii) Neopentane.
iii) 3-Ethylpentane. iv) 4-Ethyl-3,4-dimethylheptane.
v) 2,2,3,4-Tetramethylpentane vi) 4-iso-Propylheptane.
vii) 2,2-Dimethylbutane. viii) 2,2-Dimethylpropane.
Q. 5. Write down names of the following compounds according to
IUPAC-system.
)i( )ii( (CH3 )3 C CH2 C ( CH3 )3
)iii( )iv( (CH3 )2 CH CH

|
CH ( CH3 )2
CH3
)v( CH3CH2C(CH3 )2CH(CH2CH3 )CH3 )vi( (CH3CH2 )3 CH
)vii( CH3C(CH3 )2 ( CH2 )2 CH3 )viii( (C6H5 )3 CH
Q. 6. What are the rules for naming alkanes? Explain with suitable examples.
Q. 7. (a) Write down the structural formulas for all the isomeric hexanes and name
them according to IUPAC system
(b) The following names are incorrect. Give the correct IUPAC names,
i) 4-Methylpentane ii) 3,5,5-Trimethylhexane
iii) 2-Methyl-3-Ethylbutane
Q.8. (a) Explain why alkanes are less reactive than alkenes? What is the effect of
branching on the melting point of alkanes ?
(b) Three different alkanes yield 2-methylbutane when they are hydrogenated
in the presence of a metal catalyst. Give their structures and write equations
for the reactions involved.
45
Q.9. (a) Out line the methods available for the preparation of alkanes.
(b) How will you bring about the following conversions?
i) Methane to ethane. ii) Ethane to methane,
iii) Acetic acid to ethane. iv) Methane to nitromethane.
Q.10. (a) What is meant by octane number? Why does a high octane fuel has a less
tendency to knock in an automobile engine?
(b) Explain free radical mechanism for the reaction of chlorine with methane
in the presence of sunlight .
Q. 11. (a) Write structural formulas for each of the following compounds.
i) Isobutylene ii) 2,3,4,4-Tetramethyl-2-pentene
iii) 2 ,5-Heptadiene iv) 4,5-Dimethyl-2-hexene
v) Vinylacetylene vi) 1,3-Pentadiene
vii) 1-Butyne viii) 3-n-Propyl-1, 4-pentadiene
ix) Vinyl bromide x) But-1 -en.3 -yne
xi) 4-Methyl-2-pentyne xii) Isopentane
(b) Name the following compounds by IUPAC system.
)i( H3C CH=CH ( CH2 )2 CH3 )ii(

(CH3 )2 C=CH2
)iii( CH3 CH2 CH2 C=CH2 )iv(

|
CH2 =CH CH=CH2
CH ( CH3 )2
)v( CH2 =C CH2CH2CH3 )vi(

|
CH ≡ C CH3
C2H5
)vii( )viii(
CH3 C≡C CH3 =
CH2 CH C≡C CH=CH2
)ix( CH ≡ C CH=CH C ≡ CH )x(

CH2 =CH C ≡ CH
46
Q. 12. (a) Describe different methods for the preparation of alkenes. How would
you establish that ethylene contains a double bond?
(b) Give structure formulas of the alkenes expected to form by the
dehydrohalogenation of the following compounds with a strong base:
i) 1 -Chloropentane ii) 2-C hloro-3-methy lbutane
iii) l-Chloro-2,2-dimethyl propane.
Q. 13. (a) Write down chemical equations for the preparation of propene from the
following compounds.
i) CH3 — CH2 — CH2 — OH ii) CH3 — C = CH

iii) iso-Propyl chloride
(b) Write skeleton formula showing only the arrangement of carbon atoms
for all the possible alkenes of the molecular formula C5H10.
Q. 14. (a) How may ethene be converted into ethyl alcohol?

(b) Starting from ethene, outline the reactions for the preparation of
following compounds.
i) 1,2-Dibromoethane ii) Ethyne iii) Ethane
iv) Ethylene glycol
(c) How will you bring about the following conversions:

i) 1-Butene to 1-Butyne ii) 1-Propanol to CH3—CH—CH2CI
Q. 15. Show by means of chemical equations how the following cycle of changes
may be affected.
Q. 16. Write down structural formulas for the products that are formed when
1-butene will react with the following reagents:
47
i) H2, Pt ii) Br2 in CCI4

iii) Cold dil. KMnO4\OH iv) HBr
v) O2 in the presence of Ag vi) HOCI
vii) dil. H2SO4
Q. 17. In the following reactions, identify each lettered product.

i) conc.H2SO4
Ethyl alcohol  Br2
→ A  → B →
alcoholic
C
KOH
Br2
ii) Propene  → D →
alcoholic
KOH
E →
HCN
F
Q.18. After an ozonolysis experiment, the only product obtained was acetalde-
hyde CH3CHO. Can you guess the structural formula of this compound.
Q. 19. (a) The addition of sulphuric acid to an alkene obeys Markownikov’s rule.
Predict the structures of the alcohols obtained by the addition of the acid
to the following compounds.
i) Propene ii) 1-Butene iii) 2-Butene
(b) Predict the most likely product of the addition of hydrogen chloride to
2-methyl-2-butene. Explain the formation of this product.
Q. 20. Why are some hydrocarbons called saturated and others unsaturated?
What type of reactions are characteristics of them?
Q.21. (a) Describe methods for the preparation of Ethyne.
(b) How does ethyne react with:
i) Hydrogen ii) Halogen acid
iii) Alkaline KMnO4 iv) 10% H2SO4 in the presence of HgSO4.
v) Ammonical cuprous chloride
(c) Mention some important uses of methane, ethene and ethyne.
Q.22 . Describe how you could distinguish ethane, ethene and ethyne from one
another by means of chemical reactions.
Q.23. (a) How will you synthesize the following compounds starting from ethyne.
48
i) Acetaldehyde ii) Benzene

iii) Chloroprene iv) Glyoxal
v) Oxalicacid vi) Acrylonitrile
vii) Ethane viii) Methyl nitrile
(b) Write a note on the acidity of ethyne.
Q. 24. (a) Compare the reactivity of ethane, ethene and ethyne.

(b) Compare the physical properties ot alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.
Q. 25. How does propyne react with the following reagents.

(a) AgNO3/NH4OH
(b) Cu2CI2/NH4OH
(c) H2O/H2SO4/HgSO4
Q. 26. A compound has a molecular formula C4H6, when it is treated with

excess hydrogen in the presence of Ni-catalyst, a new compound C4H10
is formed.When C4H6 is treated with ammoniacal silver nitrate a white
precipitate is formed. What is the structural formula of the given compound.
Q.21. (a) Identify A and B.
PCl5
CH3CH2CH2OH  → A  
Na/Ether
→ B
(b) Give the general mechanism of electrophilic addition reactions of

alkenes.
49

12th Class Chemistry Chapter 8

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CHAPTER

Animation 8.1 : Cycloalkanes

In This Chapter You Will Learn:

Hydrocarbons are organic compounds which contain carbon and hydro-

8.2.1 Common or Trivial Names:

CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 H3C CH CH3

CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3

8.2.2 IUPAC Names

Nomenclature of Alkyl Groups:

Alkane Alkyl Group Abbreviation

8.2.3 Nomenclature of Alkanes

H3C CH2 CH2 CH2 CH CH3

3.Use the numbers obtained by the application of rule 2 to designate the

8.2.4 Nomenclature of Alkenes:

2.Number the chain so as to include both carbon atoms of the double

8.2.5 Nomenclature of Alkynes:

1.The largest continuous carbon chain containing triple bond is selected.

3.If a hydrocarbon contains more than one triple bonds, it is named as

a.Lowest possible number is assigned to a double or a triple bond irrespective

8.3 ALKANES OR PARAFFINS

Alkanes are the simplest organic compounds made up of carbon and

Hydrogenation of alkenes or alkynes in the presence of nickel at 200-300OC

e.g CH2 = CH2 + H2  Ni

CH3 CH2 CH CH3

Alkanes can also be prepared from alkyl halides using palladium-charcoal

ii) Kolbe's Electrolytic Method

2RCOO−Na + + 2 H2O 

(4) From Carbonyl Compounds (Aldehydes or Ketones)

The carbonyl groups of aldehydes or ketones are reduced to methyl or

(5) From Grignard Reagents

8.3.2. Physical Properties

8.3.3. Reactivity of Alkanes

These reactions take place at high temperature or on absorption of

The unreactivity of alkanes under normal conditions may be explained on the

The amount of heat evolved when one mole of a hydrocarbon is burnt to

CH4 ( g ) + 2O2 ( g ) 

3CH4 ( g )+ 4O2 ( g ) 

CH4 + [O] 

HCHO + [O]  Cu

Catalytic oxidation of alkanes is used industrially to prepare

It is a substitution reaction of alkanes in which a hydrogen atom of an

By repetition of step II, a mixture of halogen substituted products are

8.3.5 Uses of Methane

(i) as a fuel and as an illuminating gas.

8.4.1 General Methods of Preparation

1. Dehydrohalogenation of Alkyl Halides

R CH2 CH2 →

H2 C CH2 + KOH 

H3C CH2 CH2 Br + KOH 

3. Dehalogenation of Vicinal Dihalides

4. Electrolysis of Salts of Dicarboxylic acid

H2C COO-Na + H2C COO- + 2Na+

5. Partial Hydrogenation of Alkynes: -

Controlled hydrogenation of alkynes with hydrogen gas in an equimolar ratio

8.4.3 Reactivity of a p-bond

8.4.4 Reactions of Alkenes

Ni Al + NaOH+ H2O → Ni + NaAlO2 + 3 H2

3-Methyl-l-butene iso Bentane

Catalytic hydrogenation of alkenes is used in the laboratory as well as

2. Addition of Hydrogen Halides