HermanYeung DSE Bio CH 3D Temp Note

DSE Biology Chapter 3D Coordination and response 協調和反應
3D. Coordination and response 協調和反應

3Da. Stimuli, receptors and responses 刺激、感受器和反應
i. Human eye 人的眼睛
1. Structure 結構
2. Rod cells and cone cells 視桿細胞和視錐細胞
3. Eye accommodation and eye defect 視覺調節及眼睛毛病
ii. Response in plants 植物的反應

1. Phototropic response 向光反應
2. Geotropic response 向地反應
iii. Human ear 人的耳朵
3Db. Nervous coordination in humans 人類的神經協調

i. Nervous system 神經系統
ii. Voluntary and reflex actions 隨意動作和反射動作
iii. Neurones and reflex arc 神經元和反射弧
iv. Synapse 突觸
3Dc. Hormonal coordination 激素協調
3Dd. Movement in humans 人體的運動

i. musculo-skeletal system 肌肉骨骼系統
ii. lever principle 槓桿原理
1 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Dai. Stimuli, receptors and responses : Human eye

刺激、感受器和反應︰人的眼睛
1. Structure 結構
(1) Lens 晶狀體 / 晶體

- has no blood capillaries, so it allow the transmission of light to the retina
without obstruction
- obtain nutrients from aqueous humour and choroids
- transparent and can refract the light
- the curvature will change during accommodation of the eye
- cannot feel tired
- 沒有微血管，所以讓光線無阻地透過，傳至視網膜
- 由水狀液及脈絡膜獲得養料
- 透明及可將光線折射
- 進行視覺調節時，曲率會改變
- 不會感到疲倦


1. Structure 結構
(2) Cornea 角膜
- has no blood capillaries, so it allow the transmission of light to the retina
without obstruction
- obtain nutrients from aqueous humour
- transparent and can refract the light
- can be transplant by other people after death
- 沒有微血管，所以讓光線無阻地透過，傳至視網膜
- 由水狀液獲得養料
- 透明及可將光線折射
- 可由死後的人捐贈


1. Structure 結構
(3) Pupil 瞳孔
- can change the size to prevent excessive light entering the eye so that the
light-sensitive cells of the retina may not be damaged
- constrict when under bright sunlight
- dilated when seeing nearby object
- black in colour, because all the light entering the eye is absorbed by the
retina and the choroid. As a result no light is reflected out of the eye
through the pupil.
- 可以改變大小，能避免過多光線進入眼睛
因此視網膜的感光細胞可免遭破壞
- 強光下會縮小
- 看近物時擴張
- 黑色。因為所有進入眼睛的光線被視網膜和脈絡膜吸收
因此沒有光線經由瞳孔從眼內向外反射


1. Structure 結構
(4) Iris 虹膜
- the iris muscle (circular muscle) contracts to reduce the size of the pupil to
prevent too much light entering the eyeballs to over stimulate / damage
the retina
- 虹膜括約肌收縮令瞳孔的大小減小，防止太多光進入眼球導致視網膜
過度刺激 / 受損
(5) Aqueous humour 水狀液

- maintain the shape of the eyeball
- 維持眼球的形狀
(6) Vitreous humour 玻璃狀液

- maintain the shape of the eyeball
- involved in the convergence of light rays onto the retina
- 維持眼球的形狀
- 涉及把光線會聚在視網膜上


1. Structure 結構
(7) Retina 視網膜

- have light-sensitive cells : rod cells and cone cells
- Light-sensitive cells on the retina were stimulated
- 有感光細胞︰視桿細胞和視錐細胞
- 視網膜上的感光細胞受到刺激
(8) Choroid 脈絡膜

a. to supply nutrients / oxygen to the eyeball / retina
as it is richly supplied with blood / capillaries.
b. to prevent reflection of light within the eye as it contains dark pigments
a. 提供營養 / 氧給眼球 / 視網膜
因它具豐富的血液供應 / 滿佈微血管
b. 避免光線在眼球內反射，因它含黑色素。
(9) Sclera 鞏膜
- tough and white in colour
- 強韌和呈白色


1. Structure 結構
(10) Blind spot 盲點

a. no light-sensitive cell / no cone cells and no rod cells
b. the image formed on blind spot cannot be seen
/ no vision will be generated
a. 沒有感光細胞 / 沒有視桿細胞和視錐細胞
b. 形成在盲點的影像不能產生視覺 / 沒有視覺產生
(11) Yellow spot 黃點

a. have many cone cells generate much sensory nerve impulses
b. more neurones are allocated to analysis of the nerve impulses
a. 有很多視錐細胞，生產更多感覺的神經脈衝
b. 分配更多的神經元來自黃點的神經脈衝


1. Structure 結構
(12) Optic nerve 視神經

- After the stimulation of light-sensitive cells on the retina
Nerve impulses were set up and transmitted along the optic nerve to the
(cerebrum / cerebral cortex / sensory area / visual area) for interpretation
into vision
- 當視網膜上的感光細胞受到刺激後
便會產生神經脈衝
該些脈衝沿視神經
傳至 (大腦 / 大腦皮層 / 感覺區 / 視覺區)，詮釋為視覺
(13) Ciliary muscles 睫狀肌

- contract when see nearby object, while relax when see distant object
- 看近物時會收縮，而看遠物時會放鬆
(14) Suspensory ligament 懸韌帶

- slacken when see nearby object, while tighten when see distant object
- 看近物時會鬆弛，而看遠物時會繃緊


2. Photoreceptor cells / Light sensitive cells 感光細胞
A = rod cells 視桿細胞

- cannot distinguish colours
- can function in the dim light, but it is also stimulated a little under bright light
- not located at blind spot and yellow spot
- contain visual purple to help to bleach the light
- insufficient vitamin A  insufficient amount of visual purple  night-blindness
- 不能分辨顏色
- 能夠於微光下運作，但亦於強光下稍微被刺激
- 不會出現於盲點和黃點
- 包含視紫量，協助將光線漂白
- 維生素 A 不足  視紫量不足  夜盲症
B = cone cells 視錐細胞

- responsible for colour vision
- only stimulated by strong light, and a larger number is stimulated in bright light
than in dim light
So, the coloured object is perceived as being more colourful in bright light
- concentrated in yellow spot, but not located at blind spot
- there are 3 types of cones for colour perception
- 負責產生色覺
- 只有強光才能刺激，因為強光能刺激更多 / 弱光下，較少的會被刺激。
導致於強光下形成視覺時，物體的色彩遂顯得更鮮艷。
- 集中於黃點，但不會出現於盲點
- 視錐細胞有三種，用以分辨顏色


Normal eye 正常眼睛︰
Nearby object Distant object

Ciliary muscles contract Ciliary muscles relax
Suspensory ligament slackening Suspensory ligament tightening
Thickened lens / more convex Lens pulled thin / less convex
Larger curvature of lens Smaller curvature of lens
近物遠物
睫狀肌收縮睫狀肌放鬆
懸韌帶鬆弛懸韌帶繃緊
晶狀體加厚 / 更凸晶狀體拉薄 / 不太凸
大的晶狀體曲率小的晶狀體曲率


From nearby object to far away object / Moving away

由近物到遠物 / 漸行漸遠
- The ciliary muscle relaxed increasing the tension on the suspensory ligaments
The lens became less convex / thinner
OR lens curvature decrease
to enable it to focus on a far away object.
- 睫狀肌放鬆增加懸韌帶的拉力
晶狀體變得較少凸 / 更較薄
或晶狀體曲率下降
使其能聚焦遠物上
From far away object to nearby object / Moving towards

由遠物到近物 / 漸行漸近
- The ciliary muscle contracted decreasing the tension on the suspensory
ligaments
The lens became more convex / thicker
OR lens curvature increase
to enable it to focus on a nearby object.
- 睫狀肌收縮減少懸韌帶的拉力
晶狀體變得較凸 / 更較厚
或晶狀體曲率上升
使其能聚焦近物上


Short-sighted 近視
Nearby object
近物
Distant object
遠物
(1) Eyeball is too long 眼球太長

(2) Lens is too thick / too convex 晶體太厚 / 太凸
(3) The curvature of the lens is too great 晶體的曲率太大
Correction : Concave lens 改正︰凹透鏡


Long-sighted 遠視
Nearby object
近物
(1) Eyeball too short 眼球太短

(2) Lens is too thin / not convex enough 晶體太薄 / 不夠凸
(3) The curvature of the lens is too small 晶體的曲率太小
Distant object
遠物
Correction : Convex lens 改正︰凸透鏡


Presbyopia 老花
The lens is not elastic  ~ long-sighted
When the man is looking at a near object, the weakened ciliary muscle contract with
less force and the tension of the suspensory ligament remains high.
Hence, the lens is not thick enough and fails to converge light to form a clear image
on the retina.
晶體沒有彈性  ~ 遠視
當那人正在看近物，變弱的睫狀肌收縮力度減少
而懸韌帶維持較大的張力
因此晶體不夠厚
未能將光線聚焦在視網膜以形成清晰的影像

3Daii. Stimuli, receptors and responses : Phototropic response in plants

刺激、感受器和反應︰植物的向光反應
Tropic response is a directional growth response of some parts of the plant to a

unidirectional stimulus.
向性反應是植物某些部位對單側刺激作出的方面性的生長反應。
Advantages 好處
1. Positive phototropic response of the shoot enables the leaves to be brought into
positions that enable them to receive maximum sunlight for photosynthesis.
莖部具有正向光性，令葉得以生於能吸收最多陽光進行光合作用的位置。
2. Negative phototropic response of the root enables
- the root to grow deep into the soil for firm anchorage
- minor advantage : obtain water from deeper ground.
根具有負向光性
- 令根向土壤深處生長，以固定植物體
- 次要好處︰吸取土壤深處的水分


Auxins 生長素
1. is produced by the tip of the coleoptile and the tip of root
由芽鞘的頂尖和根部頂尖產生
2. different concentrations of auxins result in differences in the extent of shoot

and root elongation (inhibited / promoted / not promoted).
不同濃度的生長素會導致莖部和根部有不同程度的延長 (抑制 / 促進 / 不
促進)。
3. High concentration of auxins will promote the growth of shoot but inhibit the
growth of root.
高濃度的生長素會促進枝條的生長，但抑制根部的生長
4. Escape from the strong light 強光下會逃脫
Coleoptile 芽鞘 Root 根部
Sunlight Left right Sunlight Left right
+ +++ (promoted 促進) + +++(inhibited 抑制)
Turn to the left 向左 Turn to the right 向右
a. if auxins concentrate at the right side of coleoptile, then the growth

direction of the coleoptile is left
若生長素集中於芽鞘的右方，則芽鞘的生長方向是左方
b. If auxins concentrate at the right side of root, then the growth direction of
the root is right
若生長素集中於根部的右方，則根部的生長方向是右方


Auxins 生長素
5. If higher concentration of auxin is on the lower side of the root / shoot
a. Shoot : high concentration of auxin has a growth stimulatory effect
therefore the lower side grow faster than the upper side and the ending
curves upwards
b. Root : high concentration of auxin has a growth inhibit effect therefore the
upper side grow faster than the lower side and the ending curves
downwards
若高濃度的生長素集中於根和莖的下方
a. 莖部︰高濃度的生長素有刺激生長的效用，因此下方會比上方生長得
更快，最終會彎向上
b. 根部︰高濃度的生長素有抑制生長的效用，因此上方會比下方生長得
更快，最終會彎向下
6. can be destroyed by strong light? 可以被強光破壞?

- If no light, it becomes taller but slender with yellow leaves (Etiolation)
若沒有光，植物生長得較快，但會變得較高但較為纖細帶有黃葉
(黃化)
- 2009/I/Q10b 指不會 destroy 破壞


Experimental tools 實驗工具:

1. agar block 瓊脂板
auxins can pass through / dissolve into or out of by diffusion
生長素可通過擴散來通過 / 溶入或溶出
2. mica block 雲母板
auxins cannot pass through 生長素不能通過
3. marking the radicle of the seed with lines at equal intervals
在胚根上劃上等距墨線
- to compare the growth at different regions of the radicle
e.g. to find out which region of the radicle grows faster
- 比較胚根的不同區域的生長
例︰找出胚根哪部分生長得較快
4. opaque cap 不透明罩子

3Daiii. Stimuli, receptors and responses : Geotropic response in plants

刺激、感受器和反應︰植物的向地反應
Positive geotropic response (Geotropism) of the root enables

- the root grow deep into the soil for firm anchorage
- minor advantage : obtain water from deeper ground.
根具有正向地性
- 令根向土壤深處生長，以固定植物體
- 次要好處︰吸取土壤深處的水分
Auxins 生長素
- the force of gravity results in a higher concentration of auxin on the lower side
of the root / shoot
a. Shoot : high concentration of auxin has a growth stimulatory effect
therefore the lower side grow faster than the upper side and the ending
curves upwards
b. Root : high concentration of auxin has a growth inhibit effect therefore the
upper side grow faster than the lower side and the ending curves
downwards
重力令生長素集中於根和莖的下方
a. 莖部︰高濃度的生長素有刺激生長的效用，因此下方會比上方生長得
更快，最終會彎向上
b. 根部︰高濃度的生長素有抑制生長的效用，因此上方會比下方生長得
更快，最終會彎向下
Other tropic effect : hydrotropism (root only)

其他向性︰向水性 (只有根部)

3Daiv. Stimuli, receptors and responses : Human ear

刺激、感受器和反應︰人的耳朵
1. Pinna 耳廓
- collect sound waves into the external ear canal
- 收集聲波到外耳道
2. Ear drum 鼓膜
- detect the vibrations in air
- when there are sound wave, it will vibrate
- 感應空氣中的震動
- 當有聲波時，它會震動
3. Ear bones 聽小骨

- amplify vibrations
- transmit vibrations
- 擴大振動
- 傳遞振動


4. Semi-circular canals 半規管

- has sensory hair cells
- detect the direction of head movement
the movement of the head results in the movement of the endolymph of the
semi-circular canal in the direction opposite to the head movement
this stimulates the sensory hair cells and nerve impulses are generated and
carried to the cerebrum for interpretation
- 有感覺毛細胞
- 探測頭部活動的方向感受器
頭的運動引致半規管的內淋巴
向頭部移動的相反方向位移
這位移刺激到感覺毛細胞，從而產生神經脈衝
神經脈衝跟著傳遞到大腦作分析


5. Eustachian tube 耳咽管

- equalize the air pressure on either side of the ear drum
- once it is blocked / the pressure is not equalize, people will not able to hear
clearly, since the ear drum cannot vibrate freely
- 平衡耳膜兩邊的氣壓
- 一旦閉塞 / 氣壓沒有平衡，就不能聽得清楚，因為鼓膜不能自由振動
6. Oval window / Round window 卵圓窗 / 圓窗

- when there are sound wave, it will vibrate
- 當有聲波時，它會震動


7. Cochlea 耳蝸
- has sensory hair cells
- convert vibrations to nerve impulses
- serve as receptors to detect sound vibrations by detecting lymph movement in
sensory hair cells
- 有感覺毛細胞
- 將振動轉化為神經脈衝
- 作為感受器通過感覺毛細胞中的淋巴流動感應聲音振動
8. Middle ear & Outer ear 中耳和外耳

- filled with air
- 充滿空氣
9. Inner ear 內耳
- filled with liquid
- 充滿液體

3Dbi. Nervous coordination in humans : Nervous system

人類的神經協調︰神經系統
1. Central nervous system 中樞神經系統


[Stimulus  Receptor  CNS  Effector  Response]

[刺激  感受器  中樞神經系統  反應器  反應]
Stimulus 刺激 Receptor 接收器 Central nervous system Effector 反應器 Response 反應

中樞神經系統
good taste taste buds 味蕾 cerebrum 大腦 salivary glands secretion of
好味道唾腺 saliva 分泌唾液
good smell smell receptor cerebrum 大腦 salivary glands secretion of
香味嗅覺感受器唾腺 saliva 分泌唾液
light 光 light sensitive cells Medulla oblongata iris muscle contraction 收縮
感光細胞延腦虹膜肌肉



a. Cerebrum / Cerebral cortex 大腦 / 大腦皮層
- action is voluntary, not stereotyped and need to be learned
e.g. muscle contraction
- ability to make decision
- memory
- inner part : white matter; outer part : grey matter
- protected by skull
- highly folded : increase the surface area to harbor more neurones
- impulses received from the visual cortex will be interpreted at the
association area where relevant information about the image will be
retrieved from the previously stored information
- 動作是隨意、無固定反應模式、需經學習而得的，例︰肌肉收縮
- 作出決定的能力
- 記憶
- 內部︰白質, 外部︰灰質
- 由頭顱骨保護
- 高度的皺褶︰增加表面積以容納更多神經元
- 聯合區演繹來自視覺皮層的神經脈衝
聯合區會由之前貯存的資料取得影象的相關資料
b. Cerebellum 小腦
- coordination of muscular movement
- maintaining body balance
- protected by skull
- 協調肌肉運動
- 保持身體平衡
- 由頭顱骨保護



c. Medulla oblongata / Brain stem 延腦 / 延髓 / 腦幹
- responsible for reflex action (head)
- control involuntary actions
- control the rate and depth of breathing
- secreting digestive juices
- regulates heart beat
- protected by vertebrae
- 負責反射動作 (頭部)
- 控制不隨意動作
- 控制呼吸的速率和深度
- 分泌消化液
- 調節心跳
- 由椎骨保護
d. Spinal cord 脊髓
- to relay nerve impulses between the brain and other body parts
- responsible for reflex action (beside head)
- inner part : grey matter
outer part : white matter
- protected by vertebrae from mechanical damage
- have cartilage to reduce friction and absorb shock
- 轉接腦和其他身體部位的神經脈衝
- 負責反射動作 (頭以外)
- 內部︰灰質
外部︰白質
- 由椎骨保護，免受機械性損害
- 有軟骨以降低摩擦力及吸收震盪



e. Cerebrospinal fluid 腦脊髓液
- It fills up the cavities of the brain.
- It nourishes the brain cells.
- It acts as a shock absorber.
- 它填滿腦的空腔。
- 它提供營養給腦細胞。
- 它吸收震盪。

3Dbii. Nervous coordination in humans : Voluntary and reflex actions

人類的神經協調︰隨意動作和反射動作
Reflex action 反射動作 Voluntary action 隨意動作

1. involves a stimulus 1. may involve a stimulus
2. initiated by receptors 2. initiated in the brain
3. inborn / learning is not required 3. learned action / learning is required
4. involuntary / not controlled by will 4. voluntary / controlled by will
5. does not involve the cerebrum, 5. involve the cerebrum
involve spinal cord and medulla
6. stereotype / fixed response : 6. variable response :
the same stimulus leads to same the same stimulus may lead to
response different responses
7. faster in action / response is rapidly 7. slower in action
- avoid danger immediately
- provide immediate protection
1. 涉及一個刺激 1. 可能涉及一個刺激
2. 由感受器引發 2. 由腦部引發
3. 與生俱來的 / 無需通過學習 3. 經學習而得 / 需通過學習
4. 不隨意的 / 不是由意志控制 4. 隨意的 / 是由意志控制
5. 不涉及大腦、涉及脊髓和延腦 5. 涉及大腦
6. 一成不變 / 固定反應︰ 6. 不同的反應︰
同一刺激可能導致相同反應同一刺激可能導致不同反應
7. 反應較快 / 反應是迅速的 7. 反應較慢
- 即時避免危險
- 提供即時保護

3Dbii. Nervous coordination in humans : Voluntary and reflex actions

人類的神經協調︰隨意動作和反射動作
a. Example of reflex actions 反射動作的例子

1. pulling one’s hand from a hot object
2. shutting one’s eyes as an object approaches the face rapidly
3. constriction of pupil
4. knee jerk : kicking up the lower leg when the knee cap is tapped
5. peristalsis
6. shivering
7. sneezing
1. 觸到灼熱物件時手會縮回
2. 物件快速趨近面部時合上眼睛
3. 瞳孔縮小
4. 膝躍︰輕敲膝蓋時下腿踢起
5. 蠕動
6. 顫抖
7. 打噴嚏
b. Example of voluntary action 隨意動作的例子

1. playing the piano
2. typing
1. 彈鋼琴
2. 打字

3Dbiii. Nervous coordination in humans : Neurones and reflex arc

人類的神經協調︰神經元和反射弧
Neurone 神經元
function : for transmitting nerve impulses / message / information
功能︰傳送神經脈衝 / 訊息 / 資訊
structural feature 構造特徵:
1. long cellular extension / nerve fibre
2. branched endings
1. 長的細胞延伸部分 / 神經纖維
2. 末端分支
types 種類
a. sensory neurone 感覺神經元
b. interneuron 中間神經元
intermediate neurone 聯絡神經元
relay neurone 中繼神經元
c. motor neurone 運動神經元 (a) (b) (c)
Direction of impulse transmission :

dendrites  cell body  axon  nerve ending
樹突  細胞體  軸突  神經末梢


Reflex arc 反射弧

stimulus 刺激 (e.g. light 光)
 receptor 感受器 (e.g. light sensitive cells 感光細胞)
 sensory neurone 感覺神經元
 interneuron / intermediate neurone / relay neurone in spinal cord / brain
脊椎 / 腦部的中間神經元 / 聯絡神經元 / 中繼神經元
 motor neurone 運動神經元
 effector 反應器 (e.g. muscle of iris 虹膜肌肉)
 reaction 反應 (e.g. contraction 收縮)


Non-reflex arc 非反射弧

1. touch receptor stimulated
2. nerve impulses pass along the sensory neurone
3. and via the relay neurone / association neurone / intermediate neurone
to the brain (cerebrum) where the sensation of touch is produced
4. and then nerve impulses sent from the brain (cerebrum) via the
motor neurone to the muscle responsible for speech
1. 觸覺感受器被刺激
2. 神經脈衝沿感覺神經元通過
3. 及經中繼神經元 / 共同神經元 / 中間神經元
到達腦部 (大腦) 而產生觸覺
4. 及後腦部 (大腦) 經運動神經元傳至負責言語肌肉

3Dbiv. Nervous coordination in humans : Synapse 人類的神經協調︰突觸
Synapse 突觸
- found at the end of dendrite and nerve ending
於樹突的末端和神經末梢中找到
- release chemicals is responsible for the impulse transmission from
(1) sensory neurone to interneurone.
(2) interneurone to motor neurone.
(3) motor neurone to muscle.
觸釋放的化學物質負責把脈衝
(1) 由感覺神經元傳遞至中間神經元。
(2) 由中間神經元傳遞至運動神經元。
(3) 由運動神經元傳遞至肌肉。
- Process of transmit nervous impulses from motor neurone to muscle
由運動神經元到肌肉傳送神經脈衝的過程
(1) upon the arrival of nerve impulses, the nerve endings release a
neurotransmitter / a chemical messengers into the neuromuscular junction
當神經脈衝到達時，
神經末梢釋出一種神質遞質/化學信使至神經肌肉接點
(2) mitochondrion : provide energy for the synthesis / secretion / resynthesis
of the neurotransmitter / chemical messenger stored in vesicle
線粒體︰提供能量以合成 / 分泌 / 再合成貯存
在小泡內的神經遞質 / 化學信使
(3) neurotransmitter diffuses across the gap between the nerve ending and
the muscle fibre
這物質擴散穿越神經末梢和肌肉纖維之間的間隙
(4) receptors with binding sites for neurotransmitters that allows transmission
of nerve impulses across synapse
受體具有與神經遞質結合部位，讓神經脈衝越過突觸來傳遞
(5) the neurotransmitter / chemical will stimulate the membrane of muscle
cells, resulting in muscle contraction
並刺激肌肉細胞的細胞膜，最後導致肌肉收縮
(6) neurotransmitters degraded
神經遞質分解

3Dc. Hormonal coordination 激素協調
Stimulus  hormone  response

刺激  激素  反應
Stimulus 刺激 Hormone 激素 Response 反應

Increase in blood Pancreas release Stimulates liver cells to convert more blood glucose into
glucose insulin into the liver glycogen / change glucose into glycogen and fat in
血葡萄糖增加 blood stream liver and muscle / to increase carbohydrate oxidation,
胰臟向血液分泌胰 resulting in a reduction of blood glucose level
島素刺激肝細胞將血葡萄糖轉換為肝糖原 / 將葡萄糖轉
化成糖原和脂肪貯於肝臟和肌肉 / 增加碳水化合物
的氧化，令血葡萄糖減少。
Hormone 激素︰
1. made up of protein (insulin), fat (sex hormone)
由蛋白質組成 (胰島素)、由脂肪組成 (性激素)
2. carries by blood to the (specific) target organ
由血液帶到 (專一的) 目標器官
3. not enzyme 不是酶
4. slow signal transmission 信號傳送慢
5. long-term effect, so small amount in needed
效應持久所以只需要少量
6. messages are chemical in nature 信息的本質是化學物質
7. endocrine glands secrete hormones without ducts
e.g. adrenal glands, hypothalamus glands, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands,
pituitary glands, ovaries, pancreas, testicles
內分泌腺是沒有導管下分泌激素
例︰腎上腺、下視丘腺、甲狀腺、副甲狀腺、垂體、卵巢、胰臟、睾丸
exocrine glands secrete substance (not hormones) through ducts
e.g. sweat glands, mammary glands, sebaceous glands, salivary glands,
pancreatic duct
外分泌腺是經導管分泌物質 (非激素)
例︰汗腺、乳腺、皮脂腺、唾液腺、胰管

3Ddi. Movement in humans – musculo-skeletal system

人體的運動 – 肌肉骨骼系統
skeleton / bone 骨骼 / 骨
- living cells 活細胞
- functions 功能
- provide support for the body 為身體提供支持
- protect the internal organ 保護內臟
- produce red blood cell and white blood cell 生產紅血球和白血球
- contain a large amount of calcium salts and fat 含有大量鈣鹽及脂肪
- prevent osteoporosis 避免骨質疏鬆
- vitamin D can help the absorption of calcium
維生素 D 幫助吸收鈣
- vitamin D can be produced by the body under sunlight
在陽光下，身體可以製造維生素 D
- calcium is used for bone formation
鈣有助骨骼生長
- do regular weight-bearing exercise to stimulate the increase in bone
mass
經常做負重運動，刺激骨質增長
- axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton 中軸骨及四肢骨


muscles 肌肉
- types 種類:
- flexor: muscles makes the body part from straight position to bend one
縮肌 / 屈肌︰令身體的部分由伸直位置變成彎曲
- extensor: muscles makes the body part from bend position to straight one
伸肌︰令身體的部分由彎曲位置變成伸直
- antagonistic muscles :
when producing movements, one muscle contracts, the other relaxes
拮抗肌︰當一塊肌肉收縮時，另一塊肌肉則放鬆
e.g. biceps (flexor) and triceps (extensor)
二頭肌 (縮肌) 及三頭肌 (伸肌)
- contract = shorten 收縮 = 變短
joints 關節
- types 種類
- hinge joints 鉸鏈關節 / 屈戍關節
- movement in 1 plane only, e.g. elbow joint / knee joint
- 活動是 1 個平面，例︰肘關節 / 膝關節
- ball-and-socket joints 球窩關節
- movement in 3 planes, e.g. shoulder joint / hip joint
- 活動是 3 個平面，例︰肩關節 / 髖關節
- serves as the fulcrum of the lever system, which allows the movement of
adjoining bones relative to one another
作為支點，形成的槓桿系統容許相鄰的骨作出相對的活動
cartilage 軟骨
- reduce friction between bones during movement
減少骨頭移動時的摩擦力
- elastic tissue found at the two ends of a long bone
位於長骨兩端的彈性組織


tendons 肌腱
- connect bone and muscle to transmits the pulling force produced by muscle
contraction
連接骨骼和肌肉，並傳遞肌肉在收縮時所產生的拉力
- soft, tough and inelastic 柔軟、堅韌及無彈性
- can stand a high tension 能承受大的張力
ligaments 韌帶
- connect bones to prevent the dislocation of bones during movement
連接骨骼，防止骨塊在活動時離位/脫位
- soft and elastic 柔軟及有彈性
- can stand a high tension 能承受大的張力


Combination 組合:
P = tendon 肌腱
Q = ligament 韌帶
R = cartilage 軟骨
S = bone 骨頭
1. Backbone 脊柱
- Vertebrae are linked together by ligaments to form a column
and they allow the attachment of muscles for maintaining the posture
椎骨由韌帶連接一起組成脊柱，並可連接肌肉以維持姿勢
- The backbone is made up of many vertebrae / small bones
which are articulated by joints
There are compressable cartilage discs between the vertebrae
 allow it to bend to a smooth and curved shape
脊柱是由多塊脊椎骨/小骨組成
骨與骨之間有關節相連
脊椎骨之間有可壓縮的軟骨盤
 容許它能彎曲至平順和彎曲形狀
2. Raise the lower leg 將小腿提升

The contraction of muscle A provides a pulling force
the force is transmitted to the bone of the lower leg via inelastic tendons.
This allows movement across the knee joint to raise the lower leg
肌肉 A 收縮產生拉力
經欠彈性的腱傳到小腿骨使膝關節活動，將小腿提升

3Ddii. Movement in humans – lever principle 人體的運動 – 槓桿原理

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DSE Biology Chapter 3D Coordination and response 協調和反應

3D. Coordination and response 協調和反應

ii. Response in plants 植物的反應

iii. Human ear 人的耳朵

3Db. Nervous coordination in humans 人類的神經協調

3Dc. Hormonal coordination 激素協調

3Dd. Movement in humans 人體的運動

1 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Dai. Stimuli, receptors and responses : Human eye

(1) Lens 晶狀體 / 晶體

2 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Dai. Stimuli, receptors and responses : Human eye

3 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Dai. Stimuli, receptors and responses : Human eye

4 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Dai. Stimuli, receptors and responses : Human eye

(5) Aqueous humour 水狀液

(6) Vitreous humour 玻璃狀液

5 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Dai. Stimuli, receptors and responses : Human eye

(7) Retina 視網膜

(8) Choroid 脈絡膜

6 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Dai. Stimuli, receptors and responses : Human eye

(10) Blind spot 盲點

(11) Yellow spot 黃點

7 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Dai. Stimuli, receptors and responses : Human eye

(12) Optic nerve 視神經

(13) Ciliary muscles 睫狀肌

(14) Suspensory ligament 懸韌帶

8 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Dai. Stimuli, receptors and responses : Human eye

2. Photoreceptor cells / Light sensitive cells 感光細胞

A = rod cells 視桿細胞

B = cone cells 視錐細胞

9 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Dai. Stimuli, receptors and responses : Human eye

3. Eye accommodation and eye defect 視覺調節 及 眼睛毛病

Normal eye 正常眼睛︰

Nearby object Distant object

10 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Dai. Stimuli, receptors and responses : Human eye

3. Eye accommodation and eye defect 視覺調節 及 眼睛毛病

From nearby object to far away object / Moving away

From far away object to nearby object / Moving towards

11 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Dai. Stimuli, receptors and responses : Human eye

3. Eye accommodation and eye defect 視覺調節 及 眼睛毛病

(1) Eyeball is too long 眼球太長

Correction : Concave lens 改正︰凹透鏡

12 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Dai. Stimuli, receptors and responses : Human eye

3. Eye accommodation and eye defect 視覺調節 及 眼睛毛病

(1) Eyeball too short 眼球太短

Correction : Convex lens 改正︰凸透鏡

13 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Dai. Stimuli, receptors and responses : Human eye

3. Eye accommodation and eye defect 視覺調節 及 眼睛毛病

3. Eye accommodation and eye defect 視覺調節及眼睛毛病

3. Eye accommodation and eye defect 視覺調節及眼睛毛病

3. Eye accommodation and eye defect 視覺調節及眼睛毛病

3. Eye accommodation and eye defect 視覺調節及眼睛毛病

3. Eye accommodation and eye defect 視覺調節及眼睛毛病