Chapter 1: THE HUMAN ORGANISM

1.1 ANATOMY

 Human anatomy and physiology – is the study of the structure and function of the human body

 Stimulus- An object or event that provokes a particular response by an organ or a tissue. An object or event
that provokes a particular response by an organ or a tissue.

 Anatomy- is the scientific discipline that investigates the SRUCTURE of the body.

-Anatomy means to dissect, or cut apart and separate, the part of the body for study.

-Anatomy covers a wide range of studies, including the structure of body parts, their microscopic
organization, and the process by which they develop.

Two basic approaches to the study of anatomy

 Systematic anatomy- is the study of the body by SYSTEMS, such as cardiovascular, nervous, skeletal, and
muscular system.

-Systematic anatomy is the approach inmost introductory textbooks.

 Regional anatomy- is the study of the organization of the body by AREAS.

-All systems are studied simultaneously.

-Regional anatomy is the approach taken in most medical and dental schools.

Two general ways to examine the internal structures of a living person

 Surface anatomy- is the study of EXTERNAL features, such as bony projection, which serve as landmarks for
locating deeper structures.
 Anatomical Imaging- involves the use of X-rays, ultrasound, magnetic resonance, and other technologies to
create picture of internal structures, such as when determining if a bone is broken or a ligament is torn

Both surface anatomy and anatomical imaging provide important information for diagnosing disease.

1.2 PHYSIOLOGY

 Physiology- is the scientific discipline that deals with the PROCESS OR FUNCTION of living things

The major goals for studying PHYSIOLOGY

1. To understand and predict the body’s responses to stimuli.

2. To understand how the body maintains internal condition within a narrow range of values in the
presence of continually changing internal and external environment.
 Human physiology- is the study of a specific organism, the human

Subdivisions that emphasize specific organizational levels

 Cellular physiology
 Systematic physiology
1.3 STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY

ATOM- Simplest level of organization in the human body

The body can be studied at SIX STRUCTURAL LEVELS:

 Chemical Level
 Atoms combine to form molecules

 The structure and functional characteristics of all organism are determines by their CHEMICAL MAKEUP.

 Chemical level of organization involves how atoms, such as hydrogen and carbon, interact with each
other.

 This is important because a molecule’s structure determines its function

Collagen molecules – are strong, ropelike fibers that give skin structural strength and flexibility.

 Cell Level
 Molecules form organelles, such as the nucleus and mitochondria, which make up cells.

Cells – are the basic structural and functional units of organisms, such as plants and animals.

 Molecules can be combine to form organelles which are the small structure that make up some cells

Organelle- is specialized part of cell performing one or more specific functions.

 Cell types have different structure and function but they have many characteristic in common

 Tissue Level
 Similar cells and surrounding materials make up tissues

Tissue- is a group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them.

 The characteristic of the cells and surrounding materials determine the functions of the tissue.
 Organ Level
 Different tissues combine to form organs, such as the urinary bladder

Organ- is composed of two or more tissue types that together perform one or more common functions.

Major organs of the body:

Brain Stomach
Gallbladder Lungs
Heart Kidneys
Liver Large intestine
Pancreas Small intestine
Spleen Urinary bladder
Urethra
 Organ System Level
 Organs such as kidney and urinary bladder makes up an organ system.

Organ system- is the group of organs classified as unit because of a common function or set of functions.
Major organ systems
 Integumentary System – Provides protection, regulates temperature, prevent water loss, and helps produce
Vitamin D. Consist of skin, hair, nails, sebaceous glands and sweat glands.

 Skeletal System – Provides protection and support, allows body movements, produces blood cells, and
stores minerals and adipose tissue. Consist of bones, associated cartilages, ligaments, and joints.

 Muscular System- produces body movement, maintains posture, and produces body heat. Consists of
muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons.

 Nervous System- A major regulatory system that detects sensation and controls movements, physiological
processes, and intellectual functions. Consists of brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors.

 Endocrine System- A major regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth, reproduction, and many
other functions. Consists of endocrine glands, such as the pituitary, that secrete hormones.

 Cardiovascular System- Transport nutrients, waste products, gases, and hormones throughout the body:
plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of the body temperature. Consists of the heart,
blood vessels, and blood.

 Lymphatic System- Removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph, combats diseases, maintains
tissue fluid balance, and absorbs dietary fats from the digestive tract. Consists of the lymphatics vessels,
lymph nodes, and other lymphatic organs.

 Respiratory System- Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and air and regulars blood
pH. Consists of the lungs and respiratory passages.

 Digestive System – Performs the mechanical and chemical processes of digestion, absorption of nutrients,
and elimination of wastes. Consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory organs.

 Urinary System – Removes waste products from the blood and regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water
balance. Consists of the kidneys, urinary bladder, ureters, and urethra.

 Female Reproductive System- Produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization and fetal development;
produces milk for the new born; produces hormones that influence sexual function and behaviors. Consists
of the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands, and associated structures.

 Male Reproductive System- Produces and transfers sperm cells to the female and produces hormones that
influence sexual functions and behaviors. Consists of the testes, accessory structures, duct, and penis.

 Organism Level
 Organ systems make up an organism
Organism- Is any living thing considered as a whole, whether composed of one cell, such as a bacterium, or
of trillions of cells, such as a human.
1.4 Characteristics of life

Life- the most important common features of all organisms

6 ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE:

 Organization- refers to the specific relationship of the many individual parts of an organism from cell
organelles to organs, interacting and working together.
 Metabolism – is the ability to use energy to perform vital functions, such as growth, movement, and
reproduction.
 Responsiveness- is the ability of an organism to sense changes in the environment and make the
adjustments that help maintain its life.
 Growth- refers to an increase in size of all or part of the organism. It can be result from an increase in cell
number, cell size, or the amount of substance surrounding cells.
 Development- Includes the changes an organism undergoes through time.
Differentiation- is change in in cell structure and function from generalized to specialize.
 Reproduction- is the formation of new cells or new organisms. Without reproduction of cell, growth and
tissue repair are impossible.

1.5 HOMEOSTASIS

 Homeostasis- is the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body despite
fluctuations in either the external environment or internal environment.
 Homeostasis mechanism- such as sweating or shivering, normally maintain body temperature near an
average normal value, or set point.
 Most homeostasis mechanism are governed by the nervous system and endocrine system.
 Homeostasis mechanism cannot maintain body temperature PRECISELY at the set point. Instead, body
temperature increases and decreases slightly around the set point, producing a normal range of values.
 Average body temperature is 98.6 F

Negative Feedback

 Negative-feedback mechanism- is when any deviation from the set point is made smaller or is resisted.
Negative feedback does not prevent variation but maintain variation within a normal range.
 Negative means to decrease

3 components of negative feedback mechanism

1. Receptor- Monitors the value of a variable, such as body temperature, by detecting stimuli.
2. Control center- such as part of the brain, determines the set point for the variable and receives input from
the receptor about the variable.
3. Effector- such as sweat glands, can change the body value of the variable when directed by the control
center

Positive feedback
 Positive-feedback mechanism- Occur when the initial stimulus further the response. In other words,
positive means that the deviation from the set pint becomes even greater.
1.6 TERMINOLOGY AND THE BODY PLAN

BODY POSITIONS

 Anatomical position- refers to a person standing upright with the face directed forward, the upper
limbs hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward
 Supine- when lying face upward
 Prone – when lying face downward

Directional terms
 Directional terms –describe part of the body relative to each other.

Definition*
Term Etymology Example

Right   Toward the body’s right side The right ear

Left   Toward the body’s left side The left ear

Inferior Lower Below The nose is inferior to the forehead.

Superior Higher Above The mouth is superior to the chin.

Anterior To go before Toward the front of the body The teeth are anterior to the throat.

Posterior Posterus, following Toward the back of the body The brain is posterior to the eyes.

Dorsal Dorsum, back Toward the back (synonymous The spine is dorsal to the breastbone.
with posterior)

Ventral Venter, belly Toward the belly (synonymous The navel is ventral to the spine.
with anterior)

Proximal Proximus, nearest Closer to a point of attachment The shoulder is proximal to the
elbow.

Distal di + sto, to be Farther from a point of attachment The ankle is distal to the hip.
distant

Lateral Latus, side Away from the midline of the body The nipple is lateral to the
breastbone.

Medial Medialis, middle Toward the middle or midline of the body The bridge of the nose is medial to
the eye.

Superficia Superficialis, surface Toward or on the surface The skin is superficial to muscle.
l

Deep Deop, deep Away from the surface, internal The lungs are deep to the ribs.

BODY PARTS AND REGIONS

Central region pf the body
 Head
 Neck
 Trunk
The trunk can be divided into:
 Thorax(chest) - the upper part of the trunk between the neck and the abdomen
 Abdomen (belly) - between the thorax and the pelvis.
 Pelvis (hips)
The upper limb is divided into:
 Arm
 Forearm
 Wrist
 Hand
-The arm extend from the shoulder to the elbow, and the forearm extends from the elbow to the wrist.
The lower limb is divided into:
 Thigh
 Leg
 Ankle
 Foot
-The thigh extends from the hip to the knee, and the leg extends from the knee to the ankle.

4 sections or quadrants of abdomen (2 imaginary lines – one horizontal and one vertical that intersect at the navel)
 right-upper quadrant
 left-upper quadrant
 right-lower quadrant
 left-lower quadrant

6 regions of abdomen (4 imaginary lines- two horizontal and two vertical)

 Right hypochondriac region
 Epigastric region
 Left hypochondriac region

 Right lumbar region

 Umbilical region
 Left lumbar region

 Right iliac region

 Hypogastric region
 Left iliac region

PLANES
Planes- Imaginary flat surface
 Sagittal plane- runs vertically through the body and separates it into right and left parts.
 Median plane- is a sagittal plane that passes through the midline of the body, dividing it into equal right and
left halves.
 Transverse plane- or horizontal plane, runs parallel to the surface of the ground, dividing the body into
superior and inferior parts.
 Frontal plane- or coronal plane, run vertically from right to left and divides the body into anterior and
posterior parts.

PLANES OF SECTION
 Longitudinal section- a cut along the length of the organ
 Transverse section – or cross section, cuts completely through organ.
  Oblique section – a cut is made diagonally across the long axis

BODY CAVITIES
 Thoracic cavity- is surrounded by the rib cage and is separated from the abdominal cavity by the muscular
diaphragm
- Space bounded by the neck, the thoracic wall, and the diaphragm.
 Mediastinum – is a section that houses the hearth, the thymus, the trachea, esophagus, and other
structures.
-Mediastinum is between the 2 lungs, which are located on each aside of the thoracic cavity.
 Abdominal cavity – is bounded primarily by the abdominal muscles and contains stomach, the intestines,
liver, spleen, pancreas, and kidneys.
- Space bounded by the diaphragm, the abdominal wall, and the pelvis
 Pelvic cavity- is a small space enclosed by the bones of the pelvis contains the urinary bladder, part of the
large intestine, and the internal reproductive organ.
- Space completely surrounded by the pelvic bones.
 Abdominopelvic cavity- Abdominal and pelvic cavities considered together.

SEROUS MEMBRANES
 Serous membranes – line the trunk cavities and cover the organs of these cavities
 Visceral serous membrane- the soft parts, internal organs] Relating to the internal organs.
 Parietal serous membrane - Relating to the wall of any cavity; parietal serous membranes are in contact
with the walls of cavities. The parietal bones form part of the skull.
 Cavity –fluid filled space between visceral and parietal serous membrane

The thoracic cavity contains three serous membrane lined cavities:

 Pericardial cavity - Space between the visceral and parietal pericardia, filled with pericardial fluid; a cavity
that surrounds the heart.
 Visceral pericardium –covers the hearth
 Parietal pericardium – forms the outer layers pf the sac around the heart.
 Pericardial fluid- fluid filling the pericardial cavity

 Pleural cavity - Space between the visceral and parietal pleura, filled with pleural fluid; a cavity that
surrounds each lung.
 Visceral pleura – covers each lung
 Parietal pleura – lines the inner surface of the thoracic wall, the lateral surfaces of the mediastinum, and the
superior surface of the diaphragm.

 Peritoneal cavity - Space between the visceral and parietal peritoneum filled with peritoneal fluid; cavity
that surrounds many abdominopelvic organs.
 Visceral peritoneum – covers many of the organs of the abdominopelvic cavity.
 Parietal peritoneum – lines the wall of the abdominopelvic cavity and the inferior surface of the diaphragm.

INFLAMMATION OF SEROUS MEMBRANES

 Pericarditis – is inflammation of the pericardium
 Pleurisy – is inflammation of the pleura
 Peritonitis – is inflammation of the peritoneum
 Appendicitis – is an inflammation of the appendix that is usually caused by a bacterial infection.

 Mesenteries - Double layer of peritoneum extending from the abdominal wall to the abdominopelvic organs; conveys
blood vessels and nerves to abdominopelvic organs; holds and supports abdominopelvic organs. Retroperitoneal -
Located behind the parietal peritoneum; includes the kidneys, the adrenal glands, the pancreas, portions of the
intestines, and the urinary bladder.
CHAPTER 3
3.1 CELL STRUCTURE
  Organelles –specialized structures that perform specific function.
 Nucleus – is an organelle containing cell’s genetic material.
 Cytoplasm – the living material surrounding the nucleus. It contains many type of organelles
 Cell membrane - or plasma membrane outermost component of the cell, surrounding and binding the
rest of the cell contents.

ORGANELLES AND THEIR LOCATION AND FUNCTIONS

Organelles Location Function(s)

Nucleus Often near center of the cell Contains genetic material of cell (DNA) and
nucleoli; site of RNA synthesis and ribosomal
subunit assembly

Ribosomes In cytoplasm Site of protein synthesis

Rough endoplasmic In cytoplasm Has many ribosomes attached; site of protein

reticulum synthesis (rough ER)

Smooth endoplasmic In cytoplasm Site of lipid synthesis; participates in detoxification

reticulum (smooth ER)

Golgi apparatus In cytoplasm Modifies protein structure and packages proteins in

secretory vesicles

Secretory vesicle In cytoplasm Contains materials produced in the cell; formed by

the Golgi apparatus; secreted by exocytosis

Lysosome In cytoplasm Contains enzymes that digest material taken into the
cell

Peroxisome In cytoplasm Breaks down fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen
peroxide

Mitochondrion In cytoplasm Site of aerobic respiration and the major site of ATP
synthesis

Microtubule In cytoplasm Supports cytoplasm; assists in cell division and

forms components of cilia and flagella

Centrioles In cytoplasm Facilitate the movement of chromosomes during cell

division

Cilia On cell surface with many Move substances over surfaces of certain cells
on each cell

Flagella On sperm cell surface with Propel sperm cells

one per cell

Microvilli Extensions of cell surface Increase surface area of certain cells

with many on each cell

3.2 FUNTION OF THE CELL

 4 MAIN FUNCTION OF CELL

 Cell metabolism and energy use – The chemical reactions that occurs within cells are collectively called
cell metabolism. Energy released during metabolism is used for cell activities, such as the synthesis of
new molecules, muscle contraction, and heat production, which helps maintain body temperature.

 Synthesis of molecules. Cells synthesize various types of molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, and
lipids. The different cells of the body do not all produce the same molecules. Therefore, the structural
and functional characteristics of cells are determined by the types of molecules they produce

 Communication. Cells produce and receive chemical and electrical signals that allow them to
communicate with one another. For example, nerve cells communicate with one another and with
muscle cells, causing muscle cells to contract.

 Reproduction and inheritance. Each cell contains a copy of the genetic information of the individual.
Specialized cells (sperm cells and oocytes) transmit that genetic information to the next generation.

3.3 CELL MEMBRANE

 Cell membrane - is the outermost component of a cell. The cell membrane encloses the cytoplasm and
forms the boundary between material inside the cell and material outside it.
 Extracellular – substances outside the cell
 Intracellular – substances inside the cell
 Act as selective barrier

Cell membrane is primarily made up of two major types of molecules

 Phospholipids
 Proteins
 Cell membrane contains other molecules such as cholesterol and carbohydrates

 Fluid-mosaic model- is the model used to describe the cell membrane structure

-phospholipids form a bilayer.

Phospholipids contain 2 region
 Polar
 Nonpolar

Phospholipid Structure

Phospholipid molecule has:

1. polar head region that is hydrophilic
 the polar region is exposed to water around the membrane
2. nonpolar tail region that is hydrophobic
 nonpolar region is facing the interior of the membrane

3.4 MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE

  The cell membrane has selective permeability, which allows only certain substances to pass in and out of
the cell
 Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and potassium are found in higher concentration inside the cell.
 Substances such as sodium, calcium, and chloride are found in higher concentrations outside the cell.
 Some substances like Oxygen and Carbon dioxide can pass directly though the cell membrane’s phospholipid
bilayer.
 Some substances must pass through transmembrane protein channels, such as sodium through its channel.
 The route of transport through the membrane depends on the size, shape, and charge of the substance.
 Some substances require carrier molecules to transport them across the cell membrane, such as glucose.
 Some substances require a vesicular transport across the membrane.
 The vesicle must fuse with the cell membrane for transport

 Passive membrane transport – does not require the cell to expend energy
 active membrane transport – does require the cell to expend the energy, usually in the form of ATP

DIFFUSION
 diffusion – generally involves movement of substances in a solution down a concentration gradient
- movement from higher concentration to low concentration
 Solution – is generally composed of 2 major parts, solutes and solvent.
- Solutes are substances dissolved in a predominant liquid or gas which is called the solvent.
3. Concentration gradient – is the difference in the concentration of a solute in a solvent between 2 points
divided by the distance between the 2 points.
-the concentration gradient is said to be steeper when the concentration difference is large and the
distance is small.

LEAK AND GATED CHANNELS

- Lipid soluble substances can be diffuse directly through the phospholipid bilayer.
- Water- soluble substances, such as ions, can diffuse across the cell membrane only by passing through cell
membrane channels.

2 classes of cell membrane channels

 Leaked channels – constantly allow ions to pass through.
 Gated channels – limit the movement of ions across the membrane by opening and closing.

OSMOSIS
 Osmosis- is the diffusion of water ( a solvent) across a selectively permeable membrane from a region of
higher water concentration to one of lower water concentration
 Osmosis exerts pressure, termed osmotic pressure, which is the force required to prevent movement of
water across the cell membrane
Osmotic pressure and the cell
-Osmotic pressure depends on the difference of solution concentrations inside cell relative to outside the cell.
-A cell may be placed in solutions that either hypotonic, isotonic, or hypertonic compared to the cell cytoplasm.

HYPOTONIC
 Hypotonic solution has a lower concertation of solutes and higher concentration of water relative to the
cytoplasm of the cell
- The solution has less tone, or osmotic pressure, than the cell
- Water moves by osmosis into the cell, causing it to swell
- If the cell swells enough, it can rupture, a process called lysis

ISOTONIC
-A cell immersed in an isotonic solution has the same solute concentrations inside and outside the cell.
-the cell will neither shrink nor swell.
HYPERTONIC
 Hypertonic solution has a higher concentration of solutes and a lower concentration of water relative to the
cytoplasm of the cell.
-Water moves by osmosis from the cell into the hypertonic solution, resulting cell shrinkage or crenation.

Carrier-Mediated Transport
-some water-soluble, electrically charged or large sized particles cannot enter or leave though the cell membrane
diffusion.
-these substances include amino acids, glucose and some polar molecules produced by the cell
 Carrier molecules – are proteins within the cell membrane involved in carrier-mediated transport
Carrier-mediated transport mechanism include:
 Facilitated diffusion- does not require ATP or energy
 Active transport – does require ATP for transport
Facilitated diffusion
- Is a carrier-mediated transport process that moves the substances across the cell membrane from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration of the substance.
- Because movement is with the concentration gradient, metabolic energy in the form of ATP is not required.
Active transport
- Is a carrier-mediated transport process requiring ATP that moves substances across the cell membrane from
region of lower concentration to those of higher concentration against a concentration gradient.
- Active transport process accumulate necessary substances on one side of the cell membrane at
concentration many times greater than those on the other side.
Sodium-Potassium Pump
- A major example of active transport is the action of the sodium-potassium pump present in the cell
membranes.
- The sodium-potassium pump moves SODIUM out of the cells and POTASSIUM into cells.
- The result is a higher concentration of SODIUM outside cells and higher concentration of POTASSIUM
inside cells.
Secondary Active Transport
- Uses the energy provided by a concentration gradient established by the active transport of one substance,
such as SODIUM to transport other substances.
- No additional energy is required above the energy provided by the initial active transport pump
 Cotransport –The diffusing substance moves in the same direction as the initial active transported
substance.
 Counter transport – the diffusing substance moves in a direction opposite to that of the transported
substance.
Endocytosis
- Is a process that brings materials into cell using vesicles.
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis – occurs when a specific substance binds to the receptor molecule and is
transported into the cell.
 Phagocytosis- is often used for endocytosis when solid particles are ingested.
 Pinocytosis- has much smaller vesicles formed, and they contain liquid rather than solid particles.
Exocytosis
-Involves the use of membrane- bound sacs called secretory vesicles that accumulate materials for release from the
cell.
- The vesicles move to the cell membrane and fuse, ultimately releasing material by exocytosis
-example of exocytosis are the secretion of digestive enzymes.

3.5ORGANELLESE / GENERAL CELL STRUCTURE

 Organelles- are specialized structure that perform certain function

  Organelles include the nucleus, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes,
peroxisomes, mitochondria, cytoskeleton, centrioles, cilia, flagella, and microvilli.

CELL NUCLEUS
 Nucleus- is a large organelle usually located near the center of the cell.
-nucleus is bounded by a nuclear envelope, which consist of outer and inner membranes with a narrow space
between them.
-The nuclear membrane contains nuclear pores, through which materials can pass into or out of the nucleus.
- The nuclei of human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes which consist of DNA and proteins.
- During the most of a cell’s life, the chromosomes are loosely coiled and collectively called chromatin
-When a cell prepare to divide, the chromosomes become tightly coiled and are visible when viewed with a
microscope.
 Within the nucleus are Nucleoli, Which are diffuse bodies with no surrounding membrane that are found in
the nucleus.
- There are usually one to several nucleoli within the nucleus.
- The subunits of ribosomes, a type of cytoplasmic organelle, are formed within a nucleolus.
- These ribosomal components exit the nucleus through nuclear pores.

RIBOSOMES
-Are produced in the nucleolus,
 Ribosomes – are organelles where proteins are produced
-Ribosomes may be attached to other organelles such as the endoplasmic reticulum.
- Ribosomes are not attached to any other organelle are called free ribosomes.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
-Is a series of membranes forming sacs and tubules that extend from the outer nuclear membrane into cytoplasm.
 The rough ER- Is involved in protein synthesis and is rough due to attached ribosomes.
 The smooth ER – has no attached ribosomes and is a site for lipid synthesis, cellular detoxification, and it
stores calcium ions in skeletal muscle cells

GOLGI APPARATUS
-also called the Golgi complex, consists of closely packed stacked of curved, membrane-bound sacs.
-it collects, modifies, packages, and distribute protein and lipids manufactured by the ER.
-The Golgi apparatus forms vesicles, some of which are secretory vesicles, lysosomes, and other vesicles.

LYSOSOMES
-are membrane-bound vesicles formed from the Golgi apparatus.
-they contain a variety of enzymes that function as intracellular digestive systems.
-Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with lysosomes in order to breakdown materials in the endocytic vesicle.
-One example is white blood cells phagocytizing bacteria.

Secretory Vesicles
 Vesicle- is a small, membrane-bound sac that transports or stores materials within cells. Secretory vesicles
pinch off from the Golgi apparatus and move to the cell membrane

PEROXISOMES
-Are small, membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes that break down fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen
peroxide.
- Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid and amino acid breakdown and can be toxic to a cell.
-The enzymes in the peroxisomes breakdown hydrogen.

MITOCHONDRIA
- are small organelles with inner and outer membranes separated by a space.
- The outer membranes have a smooth contour, but the inner membranes have numerous folds, called cristae,
which project into the interior of the mitochondria
- The material within the inner membrane is the mitochondrial matrix and contains enzymes and mitochondrial DNA
(mtDNA).
-Major site of ATP production within cells.

CYTOSKELETON
-Gives internal framework to the cell.
-it consists of protein structures that support the cell, hold organelles in place, and enable cell to change shape.
-These protein structure are microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments

 MICROTUBULES – are hollow structure formed from protein subunits.

-The microtubules perform a variety of roles, including helping to support the cytoplasm of cell, assisting
in cell division, and forming essential components of certain organelles, such as cilia and flagella.