UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF BARLEY FODDER

GROWN IN A HYDROPONICS SYSTEM

AZILA ABDULLAH

FP 2001 24
 NUTRITIVE VALUE OF BARLEY FODDER
GROWN IN A HYDROPONICS SYSTEM

By

AZILA ABDULLAH

Thesis Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Master

of Science in the Faculty of Agriculture
U niversiti Putra Malaysia

September 2001
 Abstract of the thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in
fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF BARLEY FODDER GROWN

IN A HYDROPONICS SYSTEM

By

AZILA ABDULLAH

September 2001

Chairman: Associate Professor Dr. Zainal Aznam Mohd Jelan

Faculty: Agriculture

A series of experiments were conducted to evaluate barley fodder (BF) as a feed for

ruminants. Barley seeds were grown in a specially designed and controlled

environment cabin at 15 - 18°C. The first experiment was conducted to germinate

barley seeds from day 0 (dO) to day 10 (dIO, n=ll) and samples were collected daily

for chemical composition analysis. In the second experiment, the rumen simulation

technique (RUSITEC) was used to measure the in vitro dry matter (DM) and crude

protein (CP) digestibility and the volatile fatty acids (VFA) produced by BF at

different times. The nylon bag technique was also used to measure the DM

degradability of BF in the rumen of cattle at 2,4,8, 12,24 and 48 hours.

The third experiment on the intake and digestibility of eight-day old BF was

measured by an in vivo technique, using four bucks. The fourth experiment involved

the measurement of rumen fluid parameters (pH, ammonia and VFA) in three rumen

fistulated bucks that were fed on eight-day old BF ad libitum.

ii
The CP, organic matter (OM), ether extract (EE), neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid

detergent fibre (ADF) and crude fibre (CF) contents of BF from dl to dIO increased,

but the DM content decreased with the age of BF. DM content at d7 and d8 were 1 6

and 1 8% while CP content were 1 2 and 1 3% respectively. The amount of calcium

(Ca), phosphorus (P) and Nitrate (N03) did not change significantly throughout

sprouting time. The in vivo, in vitro and in sacco DM degradability studies showed

that 80 to 1 00% DM loss for BF harvested on d7 to dW.

DM intake was lower in the third experiment although digestion coefficient (DC) of

BF was very high (98%). This condition was probably due to the abnormal growth

of BF during the experimental period. Rumen fluid pH was 5.9-6.0 and ammonia-N

(NH3-N) content was 7.0 to 8.8 mglmL. Total fatty acids production was 70 to 1 00

mmoVL between two and eight hour of collection. The acetic:propionic:butyric

ratios were 58:36: 1 .3, 68:25 :2, 6 1 :35:1 .2, 64:33 :0.7 and 65:32:1 at 0, 2, 4, 6 and 8

hours, respectively.

Overall results showed that VFA and �onia-nitrogen (NH3-N) were produced at a

minimum level when BF was given ad libitum although the digestibility was higher

in both in sacco and in vitro studies. BF should be given at different levels in order

to get optimum pH, VFA and NH3-N production.

iii
 Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai
memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Master Sains

NILAI PEMAKANAN FODER BARLI YANG DITANAM

DI DALAM SISTEM HIDROPONIK

Oleh

AZILA ABDULLAH

September 2001

Pengerusi: Profesor Madya Dr. Zainal Aznam Mohd Jelan

Fakulti: Pertanian

Beberapa siri eksperimen telah dijalankan bagi menilai rumput barli (BF) sebagai

makanan ruminan. Pertumbuhan rumput barli dilakukan di dalam persekitaran kabin

khas yang bersuhu di antara 15- 18°C. Eksperimen pertama ialah dengan melakukan

pertumbuhan dan persampelan BF dari umur 0 (dO) hingga umur 10 hari (d 10,

n= 1 1) untuk dianalisa kandungan bahan kimianya. Eksperimen kedua ialah dengan

menggunakan teknik simulasi rumen (RUSITEC) untuk mengukur penghadaman

bahan kering (BK), protin kasar (CP) dan pengeluaran asid lemak meruap (VFA)

pada masa-masa yang berlainan. Teknik nilon beg digunakan untuk mengukur

penghadaman BK di dalam rumen lembu untuk tempoh 2, 4, 8, 12, 24 dan 48 jam.

Eksperimen ketiga ialah mengukur pengambilan makanan dan penghadaman BF

pada umur lapan hari secara in vivo ke atas empat ekor kambing jantan. Eksperimen

keempat melibatkan pengukuran parameter cecair rumen (pH, ammonia dan VFA) di

dalam tiga ekor kambing berfistula yang diberi BF berumur lapan hari secara ad

libitum.

iv
Kandungan CP, bahan organic (OM), ekstrak eter (EE), serat asid detergent (ADF)

dan serat kasar (CF) dalam BF semasa d l hingga diO meningkat tetapi kandungan

BK menurun. Kandungan BK pada d7 dan d8 masing-masing adalah 1 6 dan 1 8%

manakala kandungan CP pula ialah masing-masing 1 2 dan 1 3%. Jumlah kandungan

kalsium (Ca), fosforus (P) dan nitrat (N03") tidak menunjukkan sebarang perubahan

yang ketara di sepanjang tempoh pertumbuhan. Kajian in vivo, in vitro dan in sacco

menunjukkan bahawa terdapat kebilangan BK sehingga 80% hingga1 00% pada BF

yang dituai semasa d7 dan dlO.

Pengambilan BK adalah rendah di dalam kajian ketiga walaupun pekali

penghadaman (DC) adalah tinggi «98%). Keadaan ini mungkin disebabkan oleh

pertumbuhan BF yang tidak normal semasa kajian dijalankan. PH cecair rumen

ialah diantara 5.9-6.0 dan kandungan ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N) ialah 7.0 hingga

8.8 mg/mL. Jumlah pengeluaran VFA ialah 70- 1 00 mmollL semasa pengutipan

sampel dilakukan pada dua dan lapan jam. Nisbah acetic:propionic:butyric masing­

masing ialah 58:36: 1 .3, 68:25 :2, 6 1 : 35 : 1 .2, 64:3 3 :0.7 dan 65 : 32 : 1 semasa 0, 2, 4, 6

dan 8 jam pengutipan sampel.

Keseluruhan keputusan menunjukkan bahawa pengeluaran VFA dan NH3-N adalah

pada kadar yang minima apabila BF diberi secara ad libitum, walaupun

penghadaman adalah tiggi di dalam kajian secara in sacco dan in vitro. BF

seharusnya diberi pada tahap-tahap yang berbeza untuk mendapatkan pH yang

optimum dan pengeluaran VFA dan NH3-N yang optimum.

v
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Prof Madya

Dr. Zainal Aznam Mohd Jelan for his advice and supervision. I thank Prof Madya

Dr. Norhani Abdullah for her advice and guidance in the preparation of my thesis

and Prof Madya Dr. Liang Juan Boo for his valuable advice, guidance and

willingness to share his expertise.

Special thanks go to the manager of FOMETA, Mr. Tony George, for

providing me the feed materials, and also to his worker, Pak Wan for his help during

my experiments.

Many thanks also go to a11lecturers and supporting staff of the Department of

Animal Science for their help, in particular Mr. Ibrahim Mohsin, Mr. Saparin and

Mr. Bakari for their guidance in laboratory analyses.

I thank all my graduate friends, especially Tri Hesti Wahyuni, K. Bodee,

Opart, Darlis and Thongsuk for their full support and encouragement.

Last but not least, I would like to thank my husband and parents for their

patience and support throughout my studies.

vi
I certify that an Examination Committee met on 3rd September 200 1 to conduct the
final examination of Azila Abdullah on her Master of Science thesis entitled
"Nutritive Value of Barley Fodder Grown in a Hydroponics System" in accordance
with Universiti Putra Malaysia (Higher Degree) Act 1980 and Universiti Putra
Malaysia (Higher Degree) Regulations 1981. The Committee recommends that the
candidate be awarded the relevant degree. Members of the Examination Committee
are as follows:

ABDUL R AZAK ALlMON,Ph.D.

Associate Professor,
Faculty of Agriculture,
Universiti Putra Malaysia.
(Chairman)

ZAINAL AZNAM MOHD. JELAN,Ph.D.

Associate Professor,
Faculty of Agriculture,
Universiti Putra Malaysia.
(Member)

NORHANI ABDULLAH,Ph.D.
Associate Professor,
Faculty of Science and Environmental Studies,
Universiti Putra Malaysia.
(Member)

LIANG JUAN BOO,Ph.D.

Associate Professor,
Faculty of Agriculture,
Universiti Putra Malaysia.
(Member)

MOHD ��
-----------

Professor,
-----;;.., ;
- --------------------------------

HAZALI MOHAYIDIN, Ph.D.,

Deputy Dean of Graduate School,

Universiti Putra Malaysia.

Date: . 'I NOV 2001

vii
This thesis submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia has been accepted as
fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science.

AINI IDERIS, Ph.D.,

Professor,
Dean of Graduate School,
Universiti Putra Malaysia.

Date:

viii
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the thesis is based on my original work except for quotations
and citations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been
previously or concurrently submitted for any other degree at UPM or other
institutions.

�.
""-.-
-

--------- ---- -- -------------------

AZILA ABDULLAH, D.V.M

Date : ,/" /01

ix
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT 11

ABSTRAK IV

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS VI

APPROVAL SHEETS Vlll

DECLARATION FORM IX

LIST OF TABLES XlII

LIST OF FIGURES XlV

LIST OF PLATES xv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS/NOTATIONS/GLOSSARY OF TERMS XVI

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION 1

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 4
2. 1 Introduction 4
2.2 Methods of Growing Fodder 5
2.3 Types of Fodder 6
2.4 Nutritive Value of Fodder 7
2.5 Effects of Feeding Sprouted Fodder to Animals 9
2.6 Feed Intake 10
2.7 Rumen Fermentation 11
2.8 Rumen pH 12
2.9 Volatile Fatty Acids 12
2. 1 0 Digestibility 14
2. 1 1 Laboratory Techniques (In Vitro Methods) 16
2. 1 1 . 1 Tilley and Terry 16
2. 1 1 .2 Gas Technique 16
2. 1 1 . 3 Rumen Simulation Technique (RUSITEC) 16

3 NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF BARLEY FODDER 18

3.1 Introduction 18
3 .2 Materials And Methods 19
3 .2. 1 Location of Experiment 19
3 .2.2 Growing Conditions ofBarley Fodder 19
3 .2.3 Sampling ofBarley Fodder 23
3 .2.4 Proximate Analysis 23
3 .2.5 Phosphorus (P) 23
3 .2.6 Nitrate Determination 24
3 .2.7 Statistical Analysis 25

x
 3 .3 Results 26
3 . 3 . 1 Growth Characteristics ofBarley Fodder 26
3 .3 .2 Nutrient Content ofBarley Fodder 31
3 . 3 .2. 1 Dry matter (DM) 31
3 .3 .2.2 Crude Protein (CP) 33
3 . 3 .2.3 Fibers 33
3 . 3 .2.4 Ash 34
3 . 3 .2.5 Ether extract (EE) 35
3 . 3 .2.6 Minerals 35
3 . 3 . 3 Comparison in Nutrient Contents between
Barley Seed 36
3 .4 Discussion 38
3.5 Conclusion 41

4 DEGRADABALITY OF SPROUTING BARLEY IN VITRO (RUSITEC)

AND IN SACCO
4. 1 Introduction 42
4.2 Materials and Methods 43
4.2. 1 Animals Management and Rumen Fluid Collection 43
4.2.2 RUSITEC Working Procedure 43
4.2.3 Preparation of Artificial Saliva 44
4.3 Digestibility ofBarley Fodder In Vitro (RUSlTEC) 46
4.4 The Digestibility ofBarley Fodder In Situ 48
4. 5 Statistical Analysis 50
4.6 Results 50
4.6. 1 Degradability ofBarley Fodder in RUSITEC 50
4.6.2 Volatile Fatty Acids 55
4.6.3 In Sacco Degradability 58
4.6.4 Comparison Between RUSITEC and In sacco 60
4.7 Discussion 60
4.8 Conclusion 62

5 INTAKE, DIGESTffiILITY AND FLUID PARAMETERS OF

GOATS FED BARLEY FODDER 63
5. 1 Introduction 63
5.2 Materials and Methods 64
5 .2. 1 Experiment I-Intake and Digestibility of
Barley Fodder 64
5.2.2 Experiment 2 Fluid Characteristics of
-

Goats Fed Barley Fodder

5.2.2. 1 Animal Management 67
5.2.2.2 Rumen Cannulation 67
5.2.2.3 Treatment and Sampling Procedure 68
5.2.2.4 Volatile Fatty Acids 68
5.2.2. 5 Ammonia 69
5.2.3 Statistical Analysis 69

xi
 5.3 Results 69
5.3 . 1 Experiment I-Intake And Digestibility of
Barley Fodder 69
5 . 3 . 2 Experiment 2 Fluid Characteristics of
-

Goats Fed Barley Fodder 71

5.3 .2. 1 pH 71
5.3 .2.2 Ammonia 71
5.3.2.3 VFA 73
5.4 Discussion 74
5.4. 1 Experiment 1 Intake and Digestibility of
-

Barley Fodder 74
5.4.2 Experiment 2 Fluid Characteristics of
-

Goats Fed Barley Fodder 75

5.5 Conclusion 76

6 GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 77

REFERENCESlBffiLIOGRAPHY 83
APPENDIXES 91
BIODATA OF AUTHORS 96

xii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

2.1 Nutritive Value of Barley Fodder. 8

3.1 Nutrient Composition ofBF. 32

3.2 The Percentage of Nitrate in BF. 36

3.3 Nutrient Composition of Barley Seed (dO) and BF at 7 days

old. 37

3.4 The Recommended Range of Nitrate for the Use of Forage in

Ruminant. 40

4.1 DM Degradation of BF at Different Stages of Growth

Incubated at Different Times in RUSITEC. 51

4.2 CP Degradation of BF at Different Stages of Growth

Incubated at Different Times in RUSITEC. 53

4.3 Potential Degradability (A+ B, g.IOOg-l DM), Rate Constant

(c, fraction.h-I) of DM and CP of Barley Fodder in Nylon
Bags Incubated in RUSITEC From the Equation
p=a+b(l-e-ct). 54

4.4 The VFA at Different Times of Collection From Fermenter

Fluid. 56

4.5 Washing Loss (A), Potential Degradability [A+ B (%)] and

Rate Constant (c, fraction.h-I) of DM of BF in Nylon Bags
Incubated in KK Cattle. 59

4.6 The Comparison of A, B and c Values of RUSITEC and in

sacco Procedure. 60

5.1 Chemical Compositions of The Feed and Faeces From

Digestion Trial. 70

5.2 Total Faecal Output (gld), Intake (gld) and DC (%) of Six
Goats Fed 8th Day Old BF ad libitum. 71

5.3 Rumen Fluid Characteristics of Goats Fed BF ad libitum. 72

xiii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

3.1 Parts of Germination Seeds. 26

3.2 Dry Matter Content (%) ofBF at Different Ages of Growth. 31

3.3 Crude Protein Content (%) ofBF at Different

Ages of Growth. 33

3.4 Crude Fibre (CF), Acid Detergent Fibre (ADF) and Neutral
Detergent Fibre (NDF) Contents in BF at Different Ages of
Growth. 34

4.1 DM Degradation (%) ofBF in RUSITEC. 50

4.2 CP Degradation ofBF in RUSITEC. 52

4.3 The Total VFA (mmollL) of BF at 3, 6 and 9 Hours of

Collection. 55

4.4 The DM Degradation ofBF Incubated in KK Cattle. 58

5.1 The pH and Ammonia Concentration (mg/100mL) in the

Rumen Liquor of Goats Fed BF ad libitum. 72

5.2 Volatile Fatty Acids Concentration (mmol/lOOmol) of Goats

Fed 8 day old BF ad libitum. 73

xiv
 LIST OF PLATES

Plate Page

3.1 Container System for Barley Fodder Production at The

Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, UPM. 20

3.2 Washing Barley Grains in Water. 20

3.3 Soaking of Barley Grains in Chlorinated Water for 2 hours. 21

3.4 The Soaked Seeds Were Spread Evenly onto Perforated

White Plastic Trays Sized 98 x 30cm. 21

3.5 Interior View of The Container Where The Trays Of BF

Were Arranged on The Galvanised Rack. 22

3.6 Barley Grains on Day 0 of Sprouting After Being Soaked For

2 Hours. 27

3.7 Barley Grains on Day 1 of Sprouting. 27

3.8 Barley Grains on Day 2 of Sprouting. 28

3.9 Barley Grains on Day 3 of Sprouting. 28

3.10 Barley Grains on Day 4 of Sprouting. 29

3.11 Barley Grains on Day 5 of Sprouting. 29

3.12 The Root Totally Formed a Mat on Day 6 of Sprouting. 30

3.13 Barley Grains on Day 7 of Sprouting. 30

4.1a & b RUSITEC System Used in The Experiment. 45

5.1 The Crates Used For The Digestibility Trial of Goats. 65

5.2 Closed Up View of a Crate Showing Feed and Water Trough. 65

5.3 The Barley Fodder Was Fed in Loose Form. 65

xv
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ADF Acid detergent fiber

BF Barley fodder
Ca Calcium
CaCI anhydrous Dehydrated calcium chloride
CF Crude fiber
C02 Carbon dioxide
CP Crude protein
Cu Copper
DC Digestibility coefficient
DM Dry matter
EE Ether extract
H2S04 Sulphuric acid
KCI Potassium chloride
ME Metabolise energy
MgCI anhydrous Dehydrated magnesium chloride
Mn Manganese
NaCI Sodium chloride
NaHC03 Sodium bicarbonate
NaHP0412H20 Sodium hydrogen phosphate
NDF Neutral detergent fiber
NH3-N Ammonia nitrogen
N02- Nitrite
N03- Nitrate
OM Organic matter
OPF Oil palm fronds
P Phosphorus
RUSITEC Rumen simulation technique
VFA Volatile fatty acid
Zn Zinc

xvi
 CHAPTER l

INTRODUCTION

Fodder is an important component in ruminant diet. Many types of fodder

had been used in ruminant particularly grass and legume species. Leucaena

leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium and guinea grass (Panicum maximum) are among

the fodder shrubs and grasses, respectively that are currently being utilized as

ruminant feeds (Halim, 1993; Wong and Annuar, 1999; Khamseekhew et al., 1999

& 2000). Their growth and performances depend on the soil type and weather

condition with intensive labor work and management. Varieties of them are of low

nutritive value due to the faster rate of maturity. Minson (1990) reported that the

average crude protein (CP) was the lowest for tropical grasses when compared to

temperate grasses because of their rapid growth. Other grasses such as Axonopus

compresses, Paspalum conjugatum and Imperata cylindrica are characteristically

low in dry matter production and CP (4-15 t/hectare/year and 4-9%, respectively,

Halim, 1993).

Beside fodders and grasses, the ruminant can also consume agricultural by­

products like oil palm fronds (OPF), pineapple waste and rice straw either in fresh or

treated form. These materials are known to have low nutritive value due to its high

crude fiber (CF) content. OPF for example have been reported to have high CF

content of more than 400g/kg DM (Islam et aI., 1998). Rice straw and pineapple

waste have only 4 and 6% CP and about 30 and 13% of CF, respectively (Alimon,

1993).

1
 In Malaysia, large pasturelands are limited when compared to the high

ruminant population. Malaysia has more than 83000 buffaloes, 680000 cattle and

500000 sheep and goats (NAP 3). Most farmers prefer the cash and profitable crops

such as oil palm, rubber, cocoa or rice instead of fodder plantations. Nevertheless,

several commercial ruminant farms have opened improved pastures and fodder

crops, but land space is a constraint. Furthermore, mass production of fodder

requires proper maintenance and good management.

Due to all these limitations, steps must be taken to diversify the fodder

availability through the introduction of exotic species that have been identified to

contain high quality nutritive value to be grown under similar agro-c1imatic

condition. The automated and mechanized intensive production systems under

controlled environment such as hydroponics can be used. Hydroponics system is the

soiless culture of vegetables commonly used for human consumption. One unit of

the system was brought to Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) in 1 996 to produce feed

for horses and ruminants that require high energy feed. The system can increase the

production of fodder with the utilization of limited land and labor.

The main objective of this study was to investigate the potential use of barley

fodder (BF) as ruminant feed produced by this hydroponics system.

2
The specific objectives are:

1 . to determine the chemical composition of barley fodder at various stages

of growth.

2. to determine the nutritive value of barley fodder for the best age of

harvest.

3. to determine the intake and digestibility of barley fodder in goats fed ad

libitum.

4. to determine the digestibility of barley fodder by in vitro (RUSITEC) and

in situ (nylon bag) methods.

5. to determine the rumen fermentation pattern in goats fed barley fodder.

3
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Growing of plants in water or nutrient solutions, referred as hydroponics, has

been practiced for centuries. The term hydroponics was given by Dr. W.F Gericke

in 1936 who did several studies on planting vegetables using water. This system was

used to grow vegetables on a commercial scale to supply fresh food products for

human. Vegetables grown by this method were claimed to be fresh and tasty. No

pesticide were added and thus considered good for health.

The introduction of sprouted fodder for animals using hydroponics had been

recognised as early as 1930 by Spangenberg (Leitch, 1939). The equipment

consisted of cabinets with uniform unit sections, shallow tank shelves and removable

perforated trays. A daily yield was 273 kg fodder for 10 days rotation. The most

modem system consists of a cabin with controlled environment for germination and

growth of barley as animal feed. The cabin is continuously lighted by fluorescent

light and air-conditioned at a temperature of 1SoC.

BF is used to feed high valued animals like racehorses, dairy goats and cattle.

The internal environment of the cabin needs to be controlled. There is no adverse

effect of temperature and nutrient solutions or lighting on the seeds or growing

fodder. One unit of this system could produce one tonne of fodder per day.

4
Compared with the traditional crop grown on land, it needs about four hectares of

land to grow grass that is equivalent to the amount produced by the system.

2.2 Methods of Growing Fodder

The current method to grow fodder is almost similar to the system used

earlier. In a 'cabinet culture' by Spangenberg, 1930 (as cited by Leitch, 1939), 2.7

kg of seed per tray was soaked for 24 hours and then removed to another shelf,

irrigated by turning on the tap water for three minutes daily. The germinating

capacity for seed maize was about 96% (Leitch, 1939), and was about 60 to 65% in

barley (peer and Leeson, 1985a). Trubey (1969) had pre-germinated the seeds by

plugging the water outlets of the culture and adding water until the seeds submerged.

Four hours later, the water was drained and the process was repeated after 20 hours.

The author reported that the seeds began to sprout at the end of 48 hours. The

method was also used by Hillier and Perry (1969) to grow oats for six days. Water

absorption by the seed caused rupture of the seed coat and started the germination

process. Some proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes together with the secretion from

the scutellum that surrounded the embryo prepared the stored material to be

transported to and from the growing embryo. Carbohydrates and fats will be used

for energy required by the growing embryo.

With modem technology, the cabinet was modified. A big container, which

is highly insulated, thermostatically controlled and electrically powered was used.

The germinating capacity increased up to 90%. The seeds still need to be soaked,

but only for about 2 to 3 hours and spread evenly on white plastic trays instead of

5
using baskets (Trubey, 1969). The germinating time till the time the fodder can be

fed was seven days with minimum labour.

2.3 Types of Fodder

Seeds grown in the hydroponics system have been recognised previously as

artificially grown fodder (BFGA) by Maity et aI., 1996, oat grass (Hillier and Perry,

1969), oats seedlings (Trubey et al., 1969) or sprouted seed (Falen and Petersen,

1969). As far as the thesis is concerned, the seed produced in this system will be

identified as barley fodder (BF).

Many types of seed can be grown as fodder. Among the usual types of seed

used are maize/com (Rule et aI., 1986), barley and soybeans (peer and Leeson,

1985a,b & c; Maity et aI., 1996; Ong et aI., 1997), oats (Trubey et aI., 1969; Hillier

and Perry, 1969) and wheat (Farlin et ai., 1971). Because of the environmentally­

controlled system, temperate seeds can be fully adapted to the suitable environment.

Peer and Leeson (1985b) fed 4-day old BF to young growing pigs and found

that the digestibilities of dry matter (DDM), digestible protein (DP) and digestible

energy (DE) were low. The use of BF in dairy cattle did not improve milk

production and milk composition (Maity et ai., 1996). Feeding BF at different levels

to sows also did not have any effect on the litter size performance although they

provided an addition of 4.7 MJ of ME when given to the sows (Ong et ai., 1997).

6
2.4 Nutritive Value of Fodder

Feed contains many types of organic and inorganic materials such as

carbohydrate, protein, fibre, minerals and also vitamins. These nutrients determine

the nutritive values of the feed. Nutritive value is a role of the feed intake and the

efficiency of nutrients extracted from the feed during digestion (Norton, 2000).

Animals provided with high nutritive values feed produce high levels of growth and

productivity.

Researchers have reported different result on the nutritive value of fodder.

Trubey et al., (1969) compared the nutrient composition of oat seedlings grown

under light or dark conditions and the influence of culture solution at three and six

days of sprouting. They found that six-day old seedlings had a higher fresh weight,

CP, ash and soluble carbohydrate (CHO) content. However the dry matter (OM)

was higher in three-day old seedlings. There was no significant effect of light on the

fresh weight, CP and water-soluble carbohydrate of the oats.

Hillier and Perry (1969) stated that the CP and CF contents of oat sprout

based on DM basis was about 20.7 and 21.1%, respectively as compared to the oat

grain itself. However the DM content was much lower. Peer and Leeson (1985a &

b) carried out two subsequent analyses on the composition and nutritive value of BF.

They also found that the younger the age of the sprout, the higher the DM content.

CP did not significantly increase throughout the sprouting period. During growth,

there was a linear increase in concentration of aspartic acid, alanine, lysine,

7
threonine, glycine and gamma amino butyric acid, but proline and glutamic acid

decreased.

FOMETA, the pioneer of the BF technology published a reference called

'Test and Testimonials on Fometa Mechanical Fodder Production System '. The

fodder produced by this unit increased animal productivity such as milk yield,

growth and improved animal health. BF has high CP content (Table 2.1) and high

digestibility (80 - 85%). It also contains a high content of carotene (Vitamin A),

which is not found in other types of feed materials.

Table 2.1: Nutritive value of barley fodder

Crude protein % 19.7 ME% 12.6 Ca% 0.104

Digest. Protein % 16.8 Carotene 25 IU/kg/DM P% 0.470
Crude fibre % 13.2 Vito E 26.1 IU/kg/DM Mg% 0.140
DM% 18.6 Zn 34 ppm K% 3
Fat % 4.4 Mn 29990 ppm
Digestibility 80 - 85 Cu 8 ppm

Digestibility, carbohydrate and energy contents decreased with sprouting

time but fibre content increased. DM digestibility, digestible protein and energy

were lower compared to ground barley, but superior to whole barley (peer and

Leeson, 1985 a). Digestion trials showed that the digestible energy of BF was 12. 5

MJ/kg compared to ground barley which was 15 .9 MJ/kg. The DM content was low

as the fodder was grown under a wet condition (hydroponics).