CHAPTER 6:

BOILING AND CONDENSATION

HEAT TRANSFER

Dr. Khor Chu Yee

Office: S4-L2-64
Email: cykhor@unimap.edu.my
H/P: 019-5637283
 Learning Outcome (LO)

• Differentiate between evaporation and boiling, and gain

familiarity with different types of boiling (CO4).
• Develop a good understanding of the boiling curve, and the
different boiling regimes corresponding to different regions of
the boiling curve (CO4).
• Calculate the heat flux and its critical value associated with
nucleate boiling, and examine the methods of boiling heat
transfer enhancement (CO4).
 Boiling Heat Transfer
• Evaporation occurs at the liquid–vapor interface when
the vapor pressure is less than the saturation pressure
of the liquid at a given temperature.
• Boiling occurs at the solid–liquid interface when a
liquid is brought into contact with a surface
maintained at a temperature Ts sufficiently above the
saturation temperature Tsat of the liquid.
 Boiling Heat Transfer

Boiling heat flux from a solid surface to the fluid is

expressed from Newton’s law of cooling as

where

Excess temperature

h = boiling heat transfer coefficient

 Pool Boiling
• In pool boiling, the fluid is not forced to flow by a mover such as a pump.
• Any motion of the fluid is due to natural convection currents and the motion of the
bubbles under the influence of buoyancy.
Boiling Regimes

• Boiling takes different forms, depending on D Texcess = Ts  Tsat .

Different boiling regimes in pool boiling

Pool Boiling (Figure 1)
 Pool Boiling-Natural Convection Boiling
(to Point A on the Boiling Curve)
• Bubbles do not form on the heating surface until the liquid is heated a few
degrees above the saturation temperature (about 2 to 6°C for water).
• The liquid is slightly superheated in this case (metastable state) and
evaporates when its rises to the free surface.
• The fluid motion in this mode of boiling is governed by natural convection
currents.
• Heat transfer from the
heating surface to the fluid
is by natural convection.
• For the conditions of Fig. 1,
natural convection boiling
ends at an excess
temperature of about 5°C.
 Pool Boiling-Nucleate Boiling (between Points A and C)

• The bubbles form at an increasing rate at an increasing number of

nucleation sites as we move along the boiling curve toward point C.

Point A is referred to as
the onset of nucleate
boiling (ONB).

• Region A–B ─ isolated

bubbles.

• Region B–C ─ numerous

continuous columns of
vapor in the liquid.
 Pool Boiling-Nucleate Boiling (between Points A and C)

• In region A–B the stirring and agitation caused by the entrainment of the liquid to the
heater surface is primarily responsible for the increased heat transfer coefficient.
• In region A–B the large heat fluxes obtainable in this region are caused by the combined
effect of liquid entrainment and evaporation.
• For the entire nucleate boiling range, the heat transfer coefficient ranges from about
2000 to 30,000 W/m2·K.

• After point B the heat flux

increases at a lower rate
with increasing DTexcess,
and reaches a maximum at
point C.
• The heat flux at this point
is called the critical (or
maximum) heat flux.
 Pool Boiling-Transition Boiling (between Points C and D)

• When DTexcess is increased past point C, the heat flux decreases.

• This is because a large fraction of the heater surface is covered by a vapor film,
which acts as an insulation.
• In the transition boiling regime, both nucleate and film boiling partially occur.

• Operation in the transition

boiling regime, which is also
called the unstable film
boiling regime.
• Nucleate boiling at point C is
completely replaced by film
boiling at point D.
• For water, transition boiling
occurs over the excess
temperature range from about
30°C to about 120°C.
 Film Boiling (beyond Point D)

• Beyond point D the heater

surface is completely
covered by a continuous
stable vapor film.
• Point D, where the heat flux
reaches a minimum, is
called the Leidenfrost
point.
• The presence of a vapor
film between the heater
surface and the liquid is
responsible for the low heat
transfer rates in the film
boiling region.
• The heat transfer rate
increases with increasing
excess temperature due to
radiation to the liquid.
 Heat Transfer Correlations in Pool Boiling
• Boiling regimes differ considerably in their character.
• Different heat transfer relations need to be used for different boiling regimes.
• In the natural convection boiling regime, heat transfer rates can be accurately
determined using natural convection relations.
(∆𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 ≤ 5oC)

Nucleate Boiling
• There is no general theoretical relation for
heat transfer in the nucleate boiling regime.
(5oC ≤ ∆𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 ≤ 30oC)
• Correlations based on experimental data are
used.
• The rate of heat transfer strongly depends
on the nature of nucleation (the number of
active nucleation sites on the surfaces, the
rate of bubbles formation at each site) and
the type and the condition of the heated
surface.
 Nucleate Boiling-by Rohsenow

• The most widely used correlation for nucleate

boiling was proposed in 1952 by Rohsenow:

Rate of heat transfer 𝑄boiling = A𝑞𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝑄𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔
Rate of evaporation 𝑚=
ℎ𝑓𝑔
 Peak Heat Flux

• The maximum (or critical) heat flux (CHF) in nucleate pool boiling:

Ccr is a constant whose value depends on the heater geometry, but generally is about 0.15.
• The CHF is independent of the fluid–heating surface combination, as well as the viscosity, thermal
conductivity, and the specific heat of the liquid.
• The CHF increases with pressure up to about one-third of the critical pressure, and then starts to
decrease and becomes zero at the critical pressure.
• The CHF is proportional to hfg, and large maximum heat fluxes can be obtained using fluids with a
large enthalpy of vaporization, such as water.
 Minimum Heat Flux
• Minimum heat flux, which occurs at
the Leidenfrost point, is of practical
interest since it represents the lower
limit for the heat flux in the film
boiling regime.
• Zuber derived the following
expression for the minimum heat flux
for a large horizontal plate:

• The relation above can be in error by

50 percent or more.

Transition
boiling
regime
 Film Boiling

The heat flux for film boiling on a horizontal cylinder or sphere of diameter D
is given by

Film temperature, Tf = (Tsat + Ts)/2, which is the

average temp. of the vapor film.
At high surface temperatures (typically
above 300°C), heat transfer across the
vapor film by radiation becomes
significant and needs to be considered.
 Example 1 (Nucleate Boiling of Water in Pan)

Water is to be boiled at atmospheric pressure in a mechanically

polished stainless steel pan placed on top of a heating unit, as shown
in below. The inner surface of the bottom of the pan is maintained at
108°C. If the diameter of the bottom of the pan is 30 cm, determine
(a) the rate of heat transfer to the water and
(b) the rate of evaporation of water.
 Solution

Assumptions : 1. Steady operating conditions exist.

2. Heat losses from the heater and the pan are negligible.

• The properties of water at the saturation temperature of 100°C are:

σ = 0.0589 N/m (Table surface tension of liquid-vapor interface for water)
• From Table 1,
ρl = 957.9 kg/m3 hfg = 2257 x 103 J/kg
ρv = 0.6 kg/m3 μl = 0.282 x 10 -3 kg/m.s
Prl = 1.75 Cpl = 4217 J/kg.K
• For the boiling of water on a mechanically polished stainless steel surface
Csf = 0.0130 n = 1.0
 Solution
(a) The excess temperature in this case is ∆ T = Ts - Tsat = 108-100 = 8°C which is
relatively low (less than 30°C). Therefore, nucleate boiling will occur. The heat flux in
this case can be determined from the Rohsenow relation to be

The surface area of the bottom of the pan is

Then the rate of heat transfer during nucleate boiling becomes

 Solution

(b) The rate of evaporation of water is determined from

That is, water in the pan will boil at a rate of more than 2 grams per second.
 Example 2 (Peak Heat Flux in Nucleate Boiling)

Water in a tank is to be boiled at sea level by a 1-cm-diameter nickel

plated steel heating element equipped with electrical resistance wires
inside, as shown in figure below. Determine
(a) the maximum heat flux that can be attained in the nucleate boiling
regime
(b) the surface temperature of the heater surface in that case.
 Solution

Assumptions : 1. Steady operating conditions exist.

2. Heat losses from the boiler are negligible.

• The properties of water at the saturation temperature of 100°C are:

σ = 0.0589 N/m (Table surface tension of liquid-vapor interface for water)

• From Table 1,
ρl = 957.9 kg/m3 hfg = 2257 x 103 J/kg
ρv = 0.6 kg/m3 μl = 0.282 x 10-3 kg/m.s
Prl = 1.75 Cpl = 4217 J/kg.K

• For the boiling of water on a nickel plated surface

Csf = 0.0060 n = 1.0
 Solution
Analysis (a) The heating element in this case can be considered to be a short cylinder
whose characteristic dimension is its radius. That is, L = r = 0.005 m. The dimensionless
parameter L* and the constant Ccr are determined from table (in slide peak heat flux).

which corresponds to Ccr 0.12.

Then the maximum or critical heat flux is determined from
 Solution

The Rohsenow relation, which gives the nucleate boiling heat flux for a specified
surface temperature, can also be used to determine the surface temperature
when the heat flux is given.

3
 Condensation Heat Transfer

Condensation occurs when the temperature of a vapor is reduced below its

saturation temperature.
Film condensation
• The condensate wets the surface and forms
a liquid film slides down under influence of
gravity.
• The surface is blanketed by a liquid film
which serves as a resistance to heat transfer.
Dropwise condensation
• The condensed vapor forms droplets on the
surface.
• The droplets slide down when they reach a
certain size, clearing the surface and
exposing it to vapor.
• No liquid film to resist heat transfer.
• As a result, heat transfer rates that are more
than 10 times larger than those associated
with film condensation can be achieved.
 Film Condensation

• Liquid film starts forming at the top of the

plate and flows downward under the
influence of gravity.
• Thickness of the film, d increases in the
flow direction x.
• Heat in the amount, hfg (the latent heat of
vaporization ) is released during
condensation and is transferred through
the film to the plate surface.
• hfg is the heat released as a unit mass of
vapor condeses, and normally represents
the heat transfer per unit mass of
condensate formed during condensation.
• Ts must be below the saturation
temperature for condensation.
• The temperature of the condensate is Tsat
at the interface and decreases gradually to
Ts at the wall.
Film Condensation

Heat transfer in
condensation depends on
whether the condensate
flow is laminar or
turbulent. The criterion for
the flow regime is
provided by the Reynolds
number.
 Film Condensation
• The cooling of the liquid below the saturation temperature can be accounted by replacing hfg by

Modified latent heat of vaporization

• For vapor that enters the condenser as superheated vapor at a temperature Tv instead of as
saturated vapor where vapor must be cooled first to Tsat before it can condense, and this heat must
be transfer to the wall as well, represent by, Cv(Tv-Tsat)

Rate of heat transfer

This relation is convenient to use to

determine the Reynolds number when the
condensation heat transfer coefficient or
the rate of heat transfer is known.
The properties of the liquid should be evaluated at this film
temperature. The hfg should be evaluated at Tsat.

𝑄
𝑚condensation = ℎ∗ Rate of condensation
𝑓𝑔
 Flow Regimes

• The dimensionless parameter controlling

the transition of liquid film between
regimes is the Reynolds number defined as:

• Three prime flow regimes:

– Re  30 ─ Laminar (wave-free)
Smooth and wavy, flow is clearly
laminar.
– 30 < Re < 1800 ─ Laminar (wavy)
Waves appear on the free surface of
the condensate flow as the Re
increase.
– Re > 1800 ─ Turbulent
Disagreement exists.

• The Reynolds number increases in the flow

direction.
 Heat Transfer Correlations for Film Condensation

1. Vertical Plates
Assumptions:
1. Both the plate and the vapor are maintained at
constant temperatures of Ts and Tsat,
respectively, and the temperature across the
liquid film varies linearly. The Ts < Tsat and thus
vapor condenses on the surface.
2. Heat transfer across the liquid film is by pure
conduction.
3. The velocity of the vapor is low (or zero) so that it
exerts no drag on the condensate (no viscous
shear on the liquid–vapor interface).
4. The flow of the condensate is laminar
(Re < 30) and the properties of the liquid are
constant.
5. The acceleration of the condensate layer is
negligible.
 Heat Transfer Correlations for Film Condensation

• The average heat transfer coefficient for laminar film condensation over a vertical flat
plate of height L is

All properties of the liquid are to be evaluated at the film temperature. The hfg
and v are to be evaluated at the saturation temperature Tsat.
 Wavy Laminar Flow

• The average heat transfer coefficient in wavy laminar condensate flow is:

• A simpler alternative to the relation above is:

 Turbulent Flow

• Turbulent flow of condensate on vertical plates:

• The physical properties of the condensate are again to be evaluated at the film
temperature Tf = (Tsat + Ts)/2.
 Heat Transfer Correlations for Film Condensation

2. Inclined Plates
Equation 1 was developed for vertical plates, but it can also be used for laminar film
condensation on the upper surfaces of plates that are inclined by an angle  from the
vertical, by replacing g in that equation by g cos .

(Equation 1)

3. Vertical Tubes

Equation 1 for vertical plates can also be used to

calculate the average heat transfer coefficient for
laminar film condensation on the outer surfaces of
vertical tubes provided that the tube diameter is large
relative to the thickness
of the liquid film.
 Heat Transfer Correlations for Film Condensation

4. Horizontal Tubes and Spheres

The average heat transfer coefficient for film condensation on the outer surfaces of a
horizontal tube is

For a sphere, replace the constant

0.729 by 0.815.

A comparison of the heat transfer coefficient relations for a vertical tube of height L and
a horizontal tube of diameter D yields

• For a tube whose length is 2.77 times its diameter, the average heat transfer coefficient
for laminar film condensation will be the same whether the tube is positioned
horizontally or vertically.
• For L > 2.77D, the heat transfer coefficient is higher in the horizontal position.
• Considering that the length of a tube in any practical application is several times its
diameter, it is common practice to place the tubes in a condenser horizontally to
maximize the condensation heat transfer coefficient on the outer surfaces of the tubes.
 Heat Transfer Correlations for Film Condensation
5 Horizontal Tube Banks
• The average thickness of the liquid film at the lower tubes is
much larger as a result of condensate falling on top of them
from the tubes directly above.
• Therefore, the average heat transfer coefficient at the lower
tubes in such arrangements is smaller.
• Assuming the condensate from the tubes above to the ones
below drain smoothly, the average film condensation heat
transfer coefficient for all tubes in a vertical tier can be
expressed as

This relation does not account for the increase in heat transfer
due to the ripple formation and turbulence caused during
drainage, and thus generally yields conservative results.
 Example 1-Condensation of Steam on A Vertical
Plate
Saturated steam at atmospheric pressure condenses on a 2m high and
3m wide vertical plate that is maintained at 80°C by circulating
cooling water through the other side as shown in Figure below.
Determine
(a) the rate of heat transfer by condensation to the plate and
(b) the rate at which the condensate drips off the plate at the bottom.
 Solution
Assumptions 1.Steady operating conditions exist. 2.The plate is isothermal. 3. The
condensate flow is wavy-laminar over the entire plate (will be verified). 4 The density of
vapor is much smaller than the density of liquid, ρv ≤ ρl.

• The properties of water at the saturation temperature of 100°C are hfg = 2257 x
103 J/kg and ρv = 0.6 kg/m3. The properties of liquid water at the film
temperature of Tf = (Tsat + Ts)/2 = (100 + 80)/2 = 90 °C (Table 1).

• From Table 1,
ρl = 965.3 kg/m3 Cpl = 4206 J/kg.K
μl = 0.315 x 10-3 kg/m.s kl = 0.675 W/m.K
vl = μl / ρl = 0.326 x 10-6 m2/s

(a) The modified latent heat of vaporization is

 Solution
For wavy-laminar flow, the Reynolds number is determined

2 100-80

which is between 30 and 1800, and thus our assumption of wavy laminar flow is verified. Then the condensation
heat transfer coefficient is determined

The heat transfer surface area of the plate is As = W x L = (3 m)(2 m) = 6 m2. Then the rate of heat transfer during
this condensation process becomes
 Solution

(b) The rate of condensation of steam is determined from

That is, steam will condense on the surface at a rate of 303 grams per second.
 Example 2-Condensation of Steam on a Tilted Plate

What would your answer be to the preceding example problem if

the plate were tilted 30° from the vertical, as shown in Figure
below?
 Solution

Analysis: (a) The heat transfer coefficient in this case can be determined from the
vertical plate relation by replacing g by g cos . But we will use
instead since we already know the value for the vertical plate from the preceding example:

The heat transfer surface area of the plate is still 6 m2. Then the rate of condensation
heat transfer in the tilted plate case becomes

(b) The rate of condensation of steam is again determined from

 Example 3-Condensation of Steam on Horizontal
Tubes
The condenser of a steam power plant operates at a pressure of 7.38
kPa. Steam at this pressure condenses on the outer surfaces of
horizontal pipes through which cooling water circulates. The outer
diameter of the pipes is 3 cm, and the outer surfaces of the pipes
are maintained at 30°C, as shown in Figure below. Determine
(a) the rate of heat transfer to the cooling water circulating in the
pipes and
(b) the rate of condensation of steam per unit length of a horizontal
pipe.
 Solution

Assumptions 1.Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The tube is isothermal

• The properties of water at the saturation temperature of 40°C

corresponding to 7.38 kPa are hfg = 2407 x 103 J/kg and ρv = 0.05 kg/m3.
The properties of liquid water at the film temperature of Tf = (Tsat + Ts)/2 =
(40+ 30)/2 = 35 °C (Table 1).

• From Table 1,
ρl = 994 kg/m3 Cpl = 4178 J/kg.K
μl = 0.720 x 10-3 kg/m.s kl = 0.623 W/m.K

(a) The modified latent heat of vaporization is

 Solution

Noting that ρv ≤ρl (since 0.05 ≤ 994), the difference is very small, therefore

The heat transfer surface area of the pipe per unit of its length is As = DL = (0.03
m)(1 m) = 0.09425 m2. Then the rate of heat transfer during this condensation process
becomes
 Solution

(b) The rate of condensation of steam is

Therefore, steam will condense on the horizontal tube at a rate of 3.6 g/s or
12.9 kg/h per meter of its length.
 Dropwise Condensation
• Dropwise condensation is characterized by
countless droplets of varying diameters on the
condensing surface instead of a continuous liquid
film. Extremely large heat transfer coefficients
can be achieved with this mechanism.
• The small droplets that form at the nucleation
sites on the surface grow as a result of continued
condensation, coalesce into large droplets, and
slide down when they reach a certain size,
clearing the surface and exposing it to vapor.
There is no liquid film in this case to resist heat
transfer.
• As a result, with dropwise condensation, heat
transfer coefficients can be achieved that are more
than 10 times larger than those associated with
film condensation.
• The challenge in dropwise condensation is not to Dropwise condensation of steam
achieve it, but rather, to sustain it for prolonged on copper surfaces:
periods of time.