Statistics and Probability: Quarter 3 - Modules 7-8 The Central Limit Theorem and T-Distribution

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SENIOR

HIGH SCHOOL

STATISTICS AND
PROBABILITY
Quarter 3 – Modules 7-8
The Central Limit Theorem
and t- distribution
Statistics and Probability – Grade 11
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 3 – Modules 7-8: The Central Limit Theorem and t- distribution

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SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Statistics &
Probability
Quarter 3 – Modules 7-8:
The Central Limit Theorem and
t- distribution
Introductory Message
For the facilitator:

Welcome to the Statistics and Probability Alternative Delivery Mode (ADM) Module
on The Central Limit Theorem and t-distribution!
This module was collaboratively designed, developed and reviewed by educators
both from public and private institutions to assist you, the teacher or facilitator in
helping the learners meet the standards set by the K to 12 Curriculum while
overcoming their personal, social, and economic constraints in schooling.

This learning resource hopes to engage the learners into guided and independent
learning activities at their own pace and time. Furthermore, this also aims to help
learners acquire the needed 21st century skills while taking into consideration
their needs and circumstances.

In addition to the material in the main text, you will also see this box in the body of
the module:

Notes to the Teacher


This contains helpful tips or strategies
that will help you in guiding the learners.

As a facilitator you are expected to orient the learners on how to use this module.
You also need to keep track of the learners' progress while allowing them to
manage their own learning. Furthermore, you are expected to encourage and assist
the learners as they do the tasks included in the module.

iii
For the learner:

Welcome to the Statistics and Probability Alternative Delivery Mode (ADM) Module
on The Central Limit Theorem and t-distribution. The hand is one of the most
symbolized part of the human body. It is often used to depict skill, action and
purpose. Through our hands we may learn, create and accomplish. Hence, the
hand in this learning resource signifies that you as a learner is capable and
empowered to successfully achieve the relevant competencies and skills at your
own pace and time. Your academic success lies in your own hands!
This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful opportunities
for guided and independent learning at your own pace and time. You will be
enabled to process the contents of the learning resource while being an active
learner.

This module has the following parts and corresponding icons:

What I Need to Know This will give you an idea of the skills or
competencies you are expected to learn in
the module.

What I Know This part includes an activity that aims to


check what you already know about the
lesson to take. If you get all the answers
correct (100%), you may decide to skip this
module.

What’s In This is a brief drill or review to help you link


the current lesson with the previous one.

What’s New In this portion, the new lesson will be


introduced to you in various ways such as a
story, a song, a poem, a problem opener, an
activity or a situation.

What is It This section provides a brief discussion of


the lesson. This aims to help you discover
and understand new concepts and skills.

What’s More This comprises activities for independent


practice to solidify your understanding and
skills of the topic. You may check the
answers to the exercises using the Answer
Key at the end of the module.

What I Have Learned This includes questions or blank


sentence/paragraph to be filled in to
process what you learned from the lesson.

What I Can Do This section provides an activity which will


help you transfer your new knowledge or
skill into real life situations or concerns.

iv
Assessment This is a task which aims to evaluate your
level of mastery in achieving the learning
competency.

Additional Activities In this portion, another activity will be given


to you to enrich your knowledge or skill of
the lesson learned. This also tends retention
of learned concepts.

Answer Key This contains answers to all activities in the


module.

At the end of this module you will also find:

References This is a list of all sources used in


developing this module.

The following are some reminders in using this module:

1. Use the module with care. Do not put unnecessary mark/s on any part of
the module. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises.
2. Don’t forget to answer What I Know before moving on to the other activities
included in the module.
3. Read the instruction carefully before doing each task.
4. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks and checking your
answers.
5. Finish the task at hand before proceeding to the next.
6. Return this module to your teacher/facilitator once you are through with it.
If you encounter any difficulty in answering the tasks in this module, do not
hesitate to consult your teacher or facilitator. Always bear in mind that you are
not alone.

We hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful learning
and gain deep understanding of the relevant competencies. You can do it!

v
What I Need to Know

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you in
understanding the sampling distribution of the sample means and the concepts of
central limit theorem and t-distribution. The scope of this module permits it to be
used in many different learning situations. The language used recognizes the
diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the
standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them can be
changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.

The module consists of two lessons, namely:


 Lesson 1 – The Central Limit Theorem
 Lesson 2 – The t- distribution
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. define the sampling distribution of the sample mean for normal population
when the variance is known or unknown;
2. illustrate the Central Limit Theorem;
3. define the sampling distribution of the sample means using central limit
theorem;
4. solve problems involving sampling distribution of the sample means;
5. illustrate the t-distribution.

1
What I Know

Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate
sheet of paper or in your notebook.

1. It is a frequency distribution using the means computed from all possible


random samples of a specific size taken from a population.
A. Sampling distribution of sample means
B. Sampling distribution of population means
C. Central Limit Theorem
D. T- distribution

2. How many combinations are there in 5 objects taken 2 at a time?


A. 10
B. 5
C. 2
D. 12

3. A population consists 11, 19, 22, 2, 8, 9, and 15. Suppose samples of 2


are drawn from this population. This situation is an example of the
sampling distribution of the sample mean for a normal population with
population variance is __________.
A. unknown
B. known
C. large
D. small

4. The Central Limit Theorem says that the sampling distribution of the
sample mean is approximately normal if___
A. All possible samples are selected.
B. The sample size is large.
C. The standard error of the sampling distribution is small.
D. All of the above

5. Sample of size 25 is selected from a population with mean 40 and


standard deviation 7.5. The mean of the sampling distribution of sample
means is?
A. 7.5
B. 8
C. 40
D. 25

2
6. The Central Limit Theorem states that the standard deviation of the
sampling distribution of the sample means is ______.
A. equal to the population standard deviation divided by the square root
of the sample size
B. close to the population standard deviation if the sample size is large
C. exactly equal to the standard deviation
D. None of the above

7. A population consists of the numbers 2, 4, 9, 10, and 5. How many


possible samples of size 3 can be drawn from this population.
A. 10
B. 20
C. 5
D. 15

For Items 8-9

A population has a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 5. A random


sample of 16 measurements is drawn from this population. Assume that the
population is infinite.

8. What is mean?
A. 50
B. 10
C. 55
D. 71

9. What is standard deviation?


A. 10
B. 1.3
C. 1.25
D. 1

10. What is the mean of the population 2, 5, 6, 9 and 18?


A. 7
B. 6
C. 8.2
D. 8
11. The mean of the sampling distribution of the sample mean is ____ to the
population mean.
A. equal
B. less than
C. greater than
D. less than by 1

3
12. The average family income in the Philippines in 2019 was P22,250 with
a standard deviation of P1,250. In a certain municipality, a sample of 50
families had an average income of P25,000. This situation is about the
sampling distribution of the sample mean where the population ____.
A. Variance is known.
B. Variance is unknown.
C. Standard deviation is small.
D. Standard deviation is large.

13. Which of the following formulas is used to calculate the population


standard deviation?

A. √


B. √


C. √


D. √

14. What does the Central Limit Theorem state?

A. The sample size is large.


B. All possible samples are selected.
C. The standard error of the sampling distribution is small.
D. The standard deviation is sufficiently large than the normal.

15. Which of the following descriptions does NOT illustrate the Central
Limit Theorem?
A. The Central Limit Theorem is used to approximate the distribution
of the sample mean over the distribution of the population mean.
B. If the sample size n, where n is sufficiently large is drawn from any
population with mean 𝜇 and a standard deviation , then the
sampling distribution of sample means approximates a normal
distribution.
C. Whenever the population is not normally distributed, or if we do
not know distribution, the Central Limit Theorem allows us to
conclude that the distribution of sample means will be normal if the
sample size is sufficiently large.
D. Given a random variable X with mean 𝜇 and variance, then
regardless of whether the population distribution of X is normally
distributed or not, the shape of the distribution of the sample
means taken from the population approaches a normal
distribution.

4
Lesson
The Central Limit Theorem
1
If samples of size n are randomly selected from a population with mean 𝜇 and
variance , the sampling distribution of the sample means will approach a normal
distribution even when the original population is not normally distributed, as long
as the sample size n is sufficiently large.

For a normal population with known variance, sampling distribution of the sample
means is normally distributed for any sample size. If the population variance is
unknown, samples of size n can still be drawn from the population and the mean of
sampling distribution of the means can still be determined. The population mean
can then be estimated and it will be equal to the mean of sampling distribution of
the sample means.

What’s In

Activity 1 A

Activity 1 B

5
What’s New

Activity 2
1. Consider a population consisting of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Suppose samples of size 2
are drawn from this population.
Describe the sampling distribution of the sample means.

2. Consider a population consisting of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Suppose samples of size 2


are drawn from this population.
Compute the variance the sampling distribution of the sample means.

What is It

The Central Limit Theorem


If random samples of size n are drawn from a population, then as n becomes
larger, the sampling distribution of the mean approaches the normal distribution,
regardless of the shape of the population distribution.

Example 1

Consider a population consisting of the values 1, 2, 3 and 4.

1. Compute the following

a. population mean

b. population variance

c. population standard deviation

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2. Draw the probability histogram of the population

Solution:

Observation 𝜇 𝜇

1 1 2.25

2 2 0.25

3 3 0.25

4 4 2.25
∑ ∑ 𝜇 ∑

∑ ∑ ∑
a. 𝜇 b. c. √

The population mean 𝜇 can also be obtained using probabilities:

𝜇 ∑ [ ]

The probability histogram of the population is shown below. Here n=1

PROBABILITY HISTOGRAM
0.3

0.25

0.2
P(𝑥 ̅)

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
1 2 3 4
𝑥̅

7
The histogram has a uniform distribution and does not approximate a normal
curve.

Now consider all possible samples of size 2 that can be drawn with replacement
from the population 1, 2, 3 and 4.

1. Compute the ff:

a. mean of the sampling distribution of the means

b. variance of the sampling distribution of the means

c. standard deviation of the sampling distribution of the means

2. Draw the probability histogram of the sampling distribution of the means

Random samples of size 2 from the population with replacement (1, 2, 3 and 4)

Observation Sample ̅ ̅ 𝜇 ̅
̅̅̅̅ 𝜇 ̅

1 (1,1) 1 -1.5 2.25


2 (1,2) 1.5 -1 1.00
3 (1,3) 2 -0.5 0.25
4 (1,4) 2.5 0 0
5 (2,2) 2 -0.5 0.25
6 (2,1) 1.5 -1 1.00
7 (2,3) 2.5 0 0
8 (2,4) 3 0.5 0.25
9 (3,3) 3 0.5 0.25
10 (3,1) 2 -0.5 0.25
11 (3,2) 2.5 0 0
12 (3,4) 3.5 1 1.00
13 (4,4) 4 1.5 2.25
14 (4,1) 2.5 0 0
15 (4,2) 3 0.5 0.25
16 (4,3) 3.5 1 1.00
∑ ̅ ∑ ̅ 𝜇 ̅

∑ ̅ ∑ ̅ ∑ ̅
a. 𝜇 b. ̅
̅
c. ̅ √ ̅

= = =√

= 2.5 =0.625 =0.79

8
PROBABILITY HISTOGRAM
0.3

0.25

0.2
P(𝑥 ̅ )

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
𝑥̅

The probability histogram of the sampling distribution of ̅ when n=2.

It can be seen that the sampling distribution of ̅ is approximately normally


distributed.

What’s More

1. Consider all possible samples of size 3 that can be drawn with replacement from
the population 1, 2, 3 and 4 then compute the mean

2. Draw a probability histogram of the sampling distribution of the sample means.

3. What can you say about the difference between the sample sizes n=2 and n=3
which are drawn from the same population 1, 2, 3 and 4 with replacement?

9
What I Have Learned

Let us see what you have learned in this module by completing the following
statements. The Central Limit Theorem implies the following important ideas in
statistics:

1. When the sample size tends to infinity (a very large sample) the
distribution of the sample mean X will be ______________ distributed.

2. If the sample size tends to infinity, the sample mean _____________ the
population mean.

3. When the original variable is normally distributed, the distribution of the


sample means will be __________________ distributed, for any sample size n.

4. When the distribution of the original variable might not be normal, a


sample size of ______ or more is needed to use a normal distribution to
approximate the distribution of the sample means. The larger the sample,
the better the approximation will be.

What I Can Do

A. Consider a population consisting of values (1,3,5).


1. List all the possible samples of size 2 that can be drawn from the population
with replacement.
2. Compute for the mean of the sampling distribution of the sample means.
3. Compute for the variance of the sampling distribution of the sample means.
4. Construct the probability histogram of means with replacements when n = 2.

10
Assessment

Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on
a separate sheet of paper.

1. Which of the following does not illustrate the Central Limit Theorem?

A. The Central Limit Theorem is used to approximate the distribution of the


sample means over the population means.
B. If the sample size n, where n is sufficiently large is drawn from any
population with mean 𝜇 and a standard deviation , then the sampling
distribution of sample means approximates the normal distribution.
C. Whenever the population is not normally distributed, or if we do not know
of its distribution, the Central Limit Theorem allows us to conclude that
the distribution of sample means will be normal if the sample size is
sufficiently large.
D. Given a random variable X with mean 𝜇 and variance , then regardless of
whether the population distribution of X is normally distributed or not,
the shape of the distribution of the sample means taken from the
population approaches a normal distribution.

2. The Central Limit Theorem states that:

A. the sample size is large.


B. all possible samples are selected.
C. the standard error of the sampling distribution is small.
D. the standard deviation is sufficiently large than the normal.

3. The Central Limit Theorem states that the mean of the sampling distribution
of the sample mean is _____.
A. larger than the population mean
B. exactly equal to the population mean
C. equal to the population mean divided by the square root of the sample
size
D. close to the population means if the sample size is large

4. Which of the following descriptions about Central Limit Theorem is NOT


essential?
A. The larger the sample, the better approximation will be.
B. The smaller the sample, the bigger the approximation will be.
C. When the original variable is normally distributed, the distribution of the
sample means will be normally distributed for any sample size n.
D. When the distribution of the original variable might not be normal, a
sample size of 30 or more is needed to use a normal distribution to
approximate the distribution of the sample means.

11
5. Suppose the average age of family members is 34 with a standard deviation
of 4. If 100 members of the community decided to have a summer outing
bonding and relaxation, find the probability that the average of these
members is less than 35?
A. 91.32%
B. 94.45%
C. 95%
D. 99.38%

6. If a population has a mean of 12.8, what is the mean of the sampling


distribution?
A. less than 12.8
B. larger than 12.8
C. closer to 12.8
D. exactly the same as 12.8

7. If the mean of the sampling distribution of the means is 6.5, which of the
following statements best describes the population mean?
A. The population decreases by 6.5.
B. The population is greater than 6.5.
C. The population mean is also equal to 6.5.
D. The population mean and mean of the sampling distribution of the
means cannot be compared

8. Which of the following statements is NOT true about Central Limit


Theorem?

A. The population mean and the mean of the sampling distribution of the
means are equal.
B. If you take repeatedly independent random samples of size n from any
population, then when n is large, the distribution of the sample means
will approach a normal distribution.
C. The central limit theorem tells us exactly what the shape of the
distribution of the means will be when we draw repeated samples from
a given population.
D. The mean of the sampling distributions of the means, the standard
deviation of the sampling distribution of the means, and variance is the
same as the population means, variance of the population, and standard
deviation.

9. Consider the population consisting of values {2, 4, 6}. List all the possible
samples of size 2 which can be drawn with replacement.
A. {2,4,6}
B. {(4,2),(4,4),(4,6),(6,2),(6,4),(6,6)
C. {(2,2),(2,4),(2,6) ,(4,2),(4,4),(4,6)}
D. {(2,2),(2,4),(2,6),(4,2),(4,4),(4,6),(6,2),(6,4),(6,6)}

12
10. If the population has a variance of 4.6, what is the variance of the
sampling distribution of its means if the sampling distribution was
derived with sample size n = 2 and all possible samples are drawn with
replacements?
A. 21.16
B. 19.22
C. 10.58
D. 2.3

11. If a population has a mean of 16.7, what is the mean of the sampling
distribution?
A. less than 16.7
B. larger than 16.7
C. closer to 16.7
D. exactly the same as 16.7

12. If the mean of the sampling distribution of the means is 29.2, which of the
following statements best describes the population mean?
A. The population decreases by 29.2
B. The population is greater than 29.2
C. The population mean is also equal to 29.2
D. The population mean and mean of the sampling distribution of the
means cannot be compared.

13. As the sample size n increases, the mean of the sampling distribution
____________
A. increases
B. decreases
C. stays the same
D. not enough information is given

14. Consider the population consisting of values (1, 3, 5). List all the possible
samples of size 2 which can be drawn without replacement.
A. {1,3,5}
B. {(3,1), (5,1), (5,3)}
C. {(1,2), (1,3), (1,5), (3,1), (3,3), (3,5)}
D. {(1,1), (1,3), (1,5), (3,1), (3,3), 3,5), (5,1), (5,3), (5,5)}

15. If the variance of a certain probability distribution is 16, find its standard
deviation.
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4

13
Additional Activities

Complete the following table and solve for the unknowns. A population of a certain
ethnic group is consisting of three numbers (3, 5, 7). If samples of size 2 will be
taken with replacements, complete the following table, and answer the questions
that follow.

Observation Sample ̅ ̅ 𝜇 ̅ ̅ 𝜇 ̅

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Total
1. What is the value of the following?
a. population mean

b. population variance

c. population standard deviation


d. mean of the sampling distribution of the sample mean

e. variance of the sampling distribution of the sample mean

f. standard deviation of the sampling distribution of the sample mean


2. Illustrate the probability histogram of the sampling distribution of the means.

14
Lesson
Illustrating t-distribution
2
What I Know

Direction: Read and analyze each item carefully. Choose the letter of the best
answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of paper.

1. In the absence of the population variance and/or if the sample size is small,
which sampling distribution is being used?

A. chi distribution
B. z-distribution
C. t-distribution
D. p distribution
2. Who developed the t-distribution in 1908?
A. William S. Gosset
B. Wilhem G. Student
C. Ronald A. Fisher
D. a student from Gosset Academy
3. When do we say that the sample size is sufficiently large?

A. when it is greater than or equal to 10


B. when it is greater than or equal to 20
C. when it is greater than or equal to 30
D. when it is greater than or equal to 40

4. In student’s t-distribution, if the sample size is 25, what is the degree of


freedom?

A. 5
B. 24
C. 25
D. 26
5. How does t-distribution differ from a normal distribution?
A. The t-distribution has a thicker tail.
B. The t-distribution has a higher peak.
C. The t-distribution is centered at 0.
D. The t-distribution is symmetric in the middle.

15
6. When do you use t-distribution instead of normal distribution?

A. when the sample size is less than 30


B. if the sample standard deviation is unknown
C. if the population standard deviation is known
D. when the sample size is greater than or equal to 30
7. In the estimation of a parameter using the t statistic , why did we replace

the population standard deviation, by the sample standard deviation s?

A. because the given sample size is small


B. because and s differ by a very small amount
C. because is unknown and s is a good estimator of
D. because is equal to s when we are estimating parameters

8. The t-distribution curve has thicker tails than the normal curve.
What does it imply?
A. The normal distribution has a greater mean than the t-distribution.
B. The t-distribution has lesser variability than the normal distribution.
C. The t-distribution has a greater chance for extreme values than the
normal distribution.
D. Estimation of the parameter using the z-distribution is more accurate
than using the t-distribution.
For numbers 9 to 11
The CEO of Flying Fire Corporation claims that an average flying fire light bulb
lasts 300 days. A researcher randomly selects 15 bulbs for testing. The sampled
bulbs last an average of 290 days, with a standard deviation of 50 days.

9. Identify the population mean.

A. 300 days
B. 290 days
C. 50 days
D. 15 bulbs

10. What is the number of degrees of freedom?


A. 299
B. 289
C. 49
D. 14

11. Compute for the variance of the t-distribution using the formula, 𝑣 /𝑣−2 where
𝑣 is the number of degrees of freedom.

A. 1.17
B. 1.10
C. 1.04
D. 1.01

16
12. Which property of t-distribution is also a property of normal distribution?

A. In t-distribution, the variance is always greater than 1.


B. In t-distribution, the standard deviation is always greater than 1.
C. The tails of the t-distribution curve are asymptotic to the horizontal axis.
D. The shape of the t-distribution curve depends on the degrees of freedom.
13. Which of the following statements is NOT true about the t-distribution?

A. The variance of the t-distribution is equal to 1.


B. The t-distribution has thicker tails than the normal distribution.
C. As the degrees of freedom increase, the t-distribution tends to normal
distribution.
D. The exact shape of the t-distribution depends on the number of degrees of
freedom.
14. Which of the following probability distribution curves has the lowest peak?

A. the standard normal distribution


B. a t-distribution with 20 degrees of freedom
C. a t-distribution with 15 degrees of freedom
D. a t-distribution with 10 degrees of freedom
15. Which of the following probability distribution curves has the thickest tails?

A. the standard normal distribution


B. a t-distribution with 21 degrees of freedom
C. a t-distribution with 19 degrees of freedom
D. a t-distribution with 20 degrees of freedom

How do you find this pre-test? Did you encounter both familiar and unfamiliar
terms? Kindly compare your answer in the Answer Key on the last part of this
module. If you obtain 100% or a perfect score, skip the module and immediately
move to the next module. But if you missed a point, please proceed with the
module as it will enrich your knowledge in t-distribution.

Lesson
The t-distribution
2
This module is about the t-distribution (Student’s t-distribution) and its
properties. Information about the t-distribution will help you in solving for the
interval estimates of a population when the population variance is unknown. This
module will illustrate the t-distribution and discuss its uses.

After completing this module, you are expected to illustrate the t-


distribution, enumerate its properties, and state its similarities and/ or differences
with the z- distribution. It is assumed that you already learned the topic about the
normal distribution before proceeding in this module.

17
What’s In

Let us review your lesson on the properties of z-distribution. Write “YES” if the
statement is true about the z-distribution and “NO” if it’s not. Then check your
answer by going back to the previous module on z-distribution.

__________1. The z-distribution is a normal distribution with a mean of 0 and


standard deviation of 1.
__________2. The normal curve is bell-shaped.

__________ 3. The tails of the normal curve approach the horizontal axis but never
touch it.
__________ 4. The mean is always greater than either the median or the mode.
__________ 5. The curve is symmetrical about the mean.
__________ 6. The total area under the normal curve is always less than 1.
__________ 7. The mean, median and mode coincide at the center.

__________ 8. The width of the normal curve depends on the standard deviation of
the distribution.
__________9. Almost 99.7% of the distribution falls within three standard
deviations from the mean.
__________10. The left tail of the normal curve is flatter than its right tail.

What Is It

According to the Central Limit Theorem, the sampling distribution of a


statistic (like a sample mean, ̅) will follow a normal distribution, as long as the
sample size (𝑛) is sufficiently large. Therefore, when we know the standard
deviation of the population, we can compute a z-score and use the normal
distribution to evaluate probabilities with the sample mean.
But sample sizes are sometimes small, and often we do not know the
standard deviation of the population. When either of these problems occurs, the
solution is to use a different distribution. The t-distribution is a probability
distribution that is used to estimate population parameters when the sample size is
small (𝑖.𝑒.𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 < 30) and/or when the population variance is unknown. It
was developed by William Sealy Gosset in 1908. He used the pseudonym or pen
name “Student” when he published his paper which describes the distribution.
That is why it is called “Student’s t-distribution”. He worked at a brewery and was
interested in the problems of small samples, for example, the chemical properties of
barley. In the problem he analyzed, the sample size might be as low as three.

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Suppose you are about to draw a random sample of n observations from a normally
distributed population, you previously learned that,

𝑧 , where 𝑧 is the z-score, is the sample mean, 𝜇 is the population mean,



is the population standard deviation and 𝑛 is the sample size, have the standard
normal distribution. (Note that if we are standardizing a single observation, the
value of n is 1. Hence, the formula becomes 𝑧 = − 𝜇 . You can use this concept to
construct a confidence interval for the population mean, 𝜇. But in practice, you
encounter a problem, and that problem is that you don’t know the value of the
population standard deviation, . The standard deviation for the entire population
is a parameter and you don’t typically know its value, so you can’t use that in your
formula. If that happens, you could do the next best thing, instead of using the
“population” standard deviation, ; you are going to use your “sample” standard
deviation s, to estimate it. And instead of , you are going to have
√ √
where s is your sample standard deviation. You must take note of the change in
the formula. The quantity is a constant but you don’t know its value, so you used
s which is a statistic and this statistic s has a sampling distribution and its value
would vary from sample to sample. And so, the quantity would no longer

have the standard normal distribution. This quantity is labeled as t because it has
a t-distribution. When you are sampling from a normally distributed population,
the quantity has the t-distribution with n-1 degrees of freedom. Note that

the number of degrees of freedom is one less than the sample size. So, if the sample
size n is 25, the number of degrees of freedom is 24. Similarly, at t distribution
having 16 degrees of freedom, the sample size is 17. What does the t-distribution
look like? If you look at the statistic , it looks like a z-statistic which has

standard normal distribution except that you replaced the population standard
deviation, , by the sample standard deviation s. You are estimating a parameter
with a statistic, so there is a greater variability. Hence, your t-distribution is going
to look like the normal distribution except with greater variance

Properties of t-distribution
The t-distribution has the following properties:

1. The t-distribution is symmetrical about 0. That means if you draw a segment


from the peak of the curve down to the 0 mark on the horizontal axis, the curve
is divided into two equal parts or areas. The t- scores on the horizontal axis will
be divided also with half of the t-scores being positive and half negative.
2. The t-distribution is bell-shaped like the normal distribution but has
heavier tails. That means it is more prone to producing values that fall
far from the mean. The tails are asymptotic to the horizontal axis. (Each
tail approaches the horizontal axis but never touches it.)
3. The mean, median, and mode of the t-distribution are all equal to zero.

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4. The variance is always greater than 1. It is equal to 𝑣/𝑣−2 where 𝑣 is the
number of degrees of freedom. As the number of degrees of freedom
increases and approaches infinity, the variance approaches 1. Using the
formula, if the number of degrees of freedom is 10, the variance is
10/10−2 = 10 /8 = 1.25

5. As the degrees of freedom increase, the t-distribution curve looks more and
more like the normal distribution. With infinite degrees of freedom, t-
distribution is the same as the normal distribution.

6. The standard deviation of the t-distribution varies with the sample size. It is
always greater than 1. Unlike the normal distribution, which has a standard
deviation of 1.

7. The total area under a t-distribution curve is 1 or 100%. One can say that the
area under the t-distribution curve represents the probability or the percentage
associated with specific sets of t-values.

What’s More

Activity 1. “Oh, Is That for Real?”

Most of us hate fake news, fake information, and even fake friends. We need to
develop our ability to distinguish what is real from what is not. Write “REAL” if the
statement is true about the t-distribution and “FAKE” if it’s not.
_________1. The t-distribution is used to estimate population parameters when the
sample size is small and/or the population variance is unknown.
_________2. The mean, median and mode are all equal to zero.
_________3. The variance is equal to 1.

_________4. The t-distribution curve is bell-shaped.

_________5. The standard deviation is always greater than 1.


_________6. Half of the total area under the t-distribution curve is equal to 1.
_________7. The curve is symmetrical about its zero.

_________8. The shape of the t-distribution curve depends on the sample mean.
_________9. The tails of the t-distribution curve approach the horizontal axis but
never touch it.
________10. As the degrees of freedom increase, the t-distribution curve
looks more and more like the normal distribution.

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What I Have Learned

Fill in the blank with the correct word or phrase to complete each sentence.

1. The Student’s t-distribution is a probability distribution that is used to estimate


population parameters when the sample size is ____________ and/or when
the_______________________ is unknown.

2. The t-distribution was developed by ___________________ in 1908.

3. Like the normal distribution, the t-distribution is ____________ -shaped,


symmetrical about ____________________ and has the total area under its curve
equal to ____________.

4. The t-distribution has tails that are asymptotic to the __________________ axis.

5. The mean, median and mode of t-distribution are equal to ___________.

6. The shape of the t-distribution curve depends on the number of ______________.

7. The t-distribution has _____________ peak and _____________ tails than the
normal curve.

8. As the degrees of freedom increases, the t-distribution tends to the


_____________.

9. The variance and the standard deviation of the t-distribution is always


_____________ than 1.

10. To compute for the variance, use the formula ____________.

What I Can Do

Tell whether each of the following statements describes a t-distribution, a normal


distribution, or both.

_________________1. The variance is equal to 1.


_________________2. The probability distribution curve is bell-shaped.
_________________3. The probability distribution curve symmetrical about
zero.
_________________4. The standard deviation is equal to 1.
_________________5. The shape of the distribution curve depends on the
degrees of freedom

21
________________6. It has the total area under its curve equal to 1 or 100%.
_________________7. It has lower peak and heavier tails.
_________________8. Sample size is small and population variance is
unknown.
_________________9. It has tails that are asymptotic to the horizontal axis.
_________________10. Its mean, median, and mode are equal to 0.

Assessment

Direction: Read and analyze each item carefully. Choose the letter of the best
answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of paper.

1. It is the probability distribution used when the population variance is unknown


and/or if the sample size is small.

A. chi distribution
B. z-distribution
C. t-distribution
D. p-distribution

2. The t-distribution was developed by W.S. Gosset in 1908. Why was it called
“Student’s t-distribution”?

A. because it was first introduced to senior high school students in 1908


B. because he was still a college student when he first introduced the
t-distribution
C. because he used the pen name “Student” when he introduced his paper
about the t distribution
D. because he used the students as samples in his study about the
t-distribution
3. When do we consider that the sample size is small?
A. when it is less than 30
B. when it is between 20 to 40
C. when it is greater than 25 but less than 40
D. when it is only 1% of the total population

4. In Student’s t-distribution, what is the sample size if the degree of freedom is


25?
A. 5
B. 24
C. 25
D. 26

22
5. What is the difference between the normal distribution and the t-distribution?

A. The t-distribution has a lower peak.


B. The t-distribution is centered at 0.
C. The t-distribution is symmetric in the middle.
D. The t-distribution has tails that asymptotic to the horizontal axis
6. When do we use t-distribution instead of normal distribution?

A. If the sample variance is unknown


B. If the population variance is known
C. When the sample size is considered small.
D. When the sample size is sufficiently large.

7. In the estimation of a parameter using the t-distribution, is it possible to replace


the population standard deviation, by the sample standard deviation, s?

A. No, because the given sample size is small


B. No, because and s differ by a significant amount
C. Yes, because is unknown and s is a good estimator of .
D. Yes, because is equal to s when we are estimating parameters
8. What will be the effect on the t distribution curve when we replace by s?
A. The t-distribution curve will become bell-shaped.
B. The t-distribution curve will be symmetrical to zero.
C. The t-distribution curve will be the same as the normal curve.
D. The t-distribution curve will have a lower peak and thicker tails.
For numbers 9 to 11,

The principal of Mapayapa Integrated National High School claimed that the
average salary of their teachers is ₱24, 000 per month. A random sample of 15
teachers in the school has a mean of ₱23, 220, and a standard deviation of ₱400.

9. Identify the population mean.

A. ₱24,000
B. ₱23,220
C. ₱400
D. 15
10. Identify the sample mean.
A. ₱24,000
B. ₱23,220
C. ₱400
D. 15

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11. In testing the principal’s claim, can we use the t-distribution?

A. Yes, because the population standard deviation is unknown, and the sample
size is small.
B. Yes, because the sample standard deviation is small, and variance is
unknown.
C. No, because the population standard deviation is greater than the sample
standard deviation.
D. No, because the sample size is too small for the given sample standard
deviation.
12. Which property of t-distribution is NOT a property of normal distribution?

A. The t-distribution curve is bell-shaped.


B. The t-distribution curve is symmetrical about zero.
C. In t distribution, the variance is always greater than 1.
D. The total area under the t distribution curve equal to 1.

13. The following statements tell about the t-distribution EXCEPT _________________

A. The standard deviation of the t-distribution is equal to 1.


B. As the degrees of freedom increase, the t-distribution tends to normal
distribution.
C. The t-distribution has thicker tails than the normal distribution.
D. The exact shape of a t-distribution depends on the degrees of freedom.
14. Which of the following probability distribution curves has the lowest peak?
A. the standard normal distribution
B. a t-distribution with 5 degrees of freedom
C. a t-distribution with 7 degrees of freedom
D. a t-distribution with 9 degrees of freedom
15. Which of the following probability distribution curves has the thickest tails?

A. a t-distribution with 25 degrees of freedom


B. a t-distribution with 23 degrees of freedom
C. a t-distribution with 21 degrees of freedom
D. a t-distribution with 19 degrees of freedom

Additional Activities

Make a Venn diagram showing the comparison of the t-distribution and


normal distribution. List down the characteristics or properties of the two
distributions on the spaces provided.

24
25
Activity 2 What’s In
Step 1.Determine the number of possible samples of size n = 2. Use the Activity 1A
formula NCn. Here N = 5 and n = 2. 5C2 = 10 1. 5.4
2. 7.67
So, there are 10 possible samples of size 2 that can be drawn. 3. 7
4. 15.57
Step 2. List all the possible samples that can be drawn and their 5. 22.125
corresponding means
Activity 1B
1. 10
2. 70
3. 84
4. 120
5. 495
What I know Assessment
1. A 1. A
2. A 2. A
3. B 3. B
4. B 4. B
5. C 5. D
6. A 6. D
7. A 7. C
8. A 8. D
9. C 9. D
10. D 10. D
11. A 11. D
12. A 12. C
13. D 13. C
14. A 14. B
15. A 15. D
Lesson 1
Answer Key
26
Additional Activities
Additional What I
Activities Observation Sampl 𝑥̅ 𝑥̅ 𝜇𝑥̅ 𝑥̅ 𝜇𝑥̅ Have
e Learned
1. a=5
b= 1.33 1. normally
1 (3,3) 3 -2 4
c= 1.15 2. equals
d= 5 2 (3,5) 4 -1 1 3. normally
e=1.33 4. 30
f=1.15 3 (3,7) 5 0 0
4 (5,5) 5 0 0
5 (5,3) 4 -1 1
6 (5,7) 6 1 1
7 (7,7) 7 2 4
8 (7,3) 5 0 0
9 (7,5) 6 1 1
Total ∑ 𝑥̅ ∑ 𝑥̅ 𝜇𝑥̅
2
Activity 2 Activity 2
Step 4. Compute the mean of the sampling distribution of Step 3. Construct the sampling distribution of the sample
the sample means (μX). Follow these steps: Multiply the means.
sample mean by the corresponding probability and add the
results.
Answer Key
What Can I Do
27
A. 1. 2. 3 3. 1.33
(1,1)
(1,3)
(1,5)
(3,1)
(3,3)
(3,5)
(5,1)
(5,3)
(5,5)
What I Can Do
Observation Sample 𝑥̅ 𝑥̅ 𝜇𝑥̅ 𝑥̅ 𝜇𝑥̅
1 (1,1) 1 -2 4
2 (1,3) 2 -1 1
3 (1,5) 3 0 0
4 (3,1) 2 -1 1
5 (3,3) 3 0 0
6 (3,5) 4 1 1
7 (5,1) 3 0 0
8 (5,3) 4 1 1
9 (5,5) 5 2 4
Total ∑ 𝑥̅ ∑ 𝑥̅ 𝜇𝑥̅
27 2
Answer Key
28
What I Have Learned What’s In
1. small, population variance/standard 1. YES
deviation 2. YES
2. William S. Gosset 3. NO
3. bell, zero, 1 4. NO
4. horizontal axis 5. NO
5. zero 6. NO
7. NO
6. degrees of freedom
8. YES
7. lower, thicker
9. YES
8. normal distribution 10. NO
9. greatr
10. v/v-2
What’s More
What I Can Do
1. normal distribution 1. REAL 6. FAKE
2. both 2. REAL 7. REAL
3. both 3. FAKE 8. FAKE
4. normal distribution 4. REAL 9. REAL
5. t-distribution 5. REAL 10. REAL
6. both
7. t-distribution
8. t-distribution
9. both
10. both
What I know Assessment
1. C 1. C
2. A 2. C
3. C 3. A
4. B 4. D
5. A 5. A
6. A 6. C
7. C 7. C
8. C 8. D
9. A 9. A
10. D 10. B
11. A 11. A
12. C 12. C
13. A 13. A
14. D 14. B
15. C 15. D
Lesson 2
Answer Key
References

Printed Materials:

Mateo, Efren B. et al, Statistics and Probability-2016, Rex Book Store

Mercado, Jesus P. et al., Next Century Mathematics Statistics and Probability-2016,


Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.

Internet Sources:

https://www.cliffnotes.com/study-guides/statistics/sampling

https://www.investopedia.com

https://www.slideshare.net

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