Journal of Cleaner Production 9 (2001) 405–415

www.cleanerproduction.net

Progress toward pollution prevention and waste minimization in

the North American gold mining industry
Gavin Hilson a, Barbara Murck b,*

a
T.H. Huxley School of Environment, Earth Sciences and Engineering, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, Royal School of
Mines, Prince Consort Road, London, SW7 2BP, UK
b
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Toronto at Mississauga, 3359 Mississauga Road, Mississauga, Ontario, L5L 1C6, Canada

Received 9 August 2000; accepted 29 November 2000

Abstract

This paper presents a case study of pollution prevention and waste minimization in the North American gold mining industry.
Specifically outlined are: 1) the environmental options available to North American goldmines for use in cyanidation setups and
Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) control, generally recognized as the two most environmentally problematic areas in the industry; 2)
the progress made towards pollution prevention and waste minimization in each of these industrial areas; and 3) operational areas
in need of further environmental improvement. Analysis of selected data and questionnaire feedback indicates that most of the gold
mines operated by the larger Senior Mining companies have implemented the state-of-the-art measures that best prevent environmen-
tal problems in cyanidation practices and AMD setups, but that the remaining operations, which are owned by small- and medium-
sized Junior Mining companies, lag far behind, and are only doing what is necessary to comply with environmental regulations.
Senior Mining Companies clearly have the research, technologic, and financial resources to design and implement effective environ-
mental management practices at properties. Communications with the managers from Junior Mining Operations, however, reveal that
a number of barriers, which are economic and legislative in nature, are preventing implementation of the leading edge environmental
technologies needed to minimize problems with pollution and wastes. It is concluded that perpetuating a uniform pattern of pollution
prevention and waste minimization in the industry will require the complete removal of these barriers, the North American gold
mining industry to form research partnerships with governments and academic institutions, and a number of largely unexplored
environmental aspects of the industry to be heavily researched and improved, in particular, biological oxidation.  2001 Elsevier
Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Gold mines; Pollution prevention; Waste minimization; Cyanidation; Acid Mine Drainage (AMD); North American gold mining industry

1. Introduction problems in the industry, a series of preventative meas-

ures and state-of-the art environmental management
The wide-ranging environmental impacts of gold min- practices must be integrated into polluting modes of
ing have been well documented. From the extraction of operation. More specifically, it requires implementing a
gold-aggregated ore bodies to the crushing and refining number of highly efficient pollution prevention and
of the mineral, large quantities of pollutants are gener- waste minimization technologies and strategies that col-
ated both directly and indirectly. If mismanaged, these lectively reduce the quantities of pollutants released
pose serious threats to ecosystems and to human quality from goldmines to small, manageable amounts, and
of life, and can also deteriorate a number of important which effectively treat whatever toxic chemicals are des-
natural resources, particularly soils and water. To min- tined for discharge into the natural environment.
imize or avoid the potentially serious environmental In the case of North America, taken here as Canada
and the United States, gold mines are heavily regulated
by a stringent web of environmental legislation, and are
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-905-828-5426; fax: +1-905-828- frequently pressured by lobbying environmental groups,
3717. communities, and independent agencies to perform at
E-mail address: bmurck@credit.erin.utoronto.ca (B. Murck). environmentally acceptable levels. Given these chal-

0959-6526/01/$ - see front matter  2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 5 9 - 6 5 2 6 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 8 3 - 4
406 G. Hilson, B. Murck / Journal of Cleaner Production 9 (2001) 405–415

lenges, it is practical for North American gold mining slightly on an annual basis, but is typically in the range
companies to install preventative technologies at their of 9500–10,000.
sites, since it puts them in the best position to satisfy In eleven US states, most of which are located in the
stakeholders, and to avoid environmental accidents, fines west, some 200 gold mining operations exist, including
from over-pollution, and potentially high environmental close to 120 lode mines, a dozen or more large placer
cleanup costs. Most of the environmental technologies mines, and a number of small placer projects. Combined,
on the market are readily available to North American they produce over 350,000 kg of gold annually, a market
goldmines, which also have a wealth of environmental value of approximately US$3.5 billion. Thirty mines
educational and training facilities available to them. yield 92% of gold produced, and most of these are
Selected North American goldmines, based upon their located in Nevada, where close to 75% of domestic gold
environmental performance, have already installed a supply is derived. In terms of employment in the indus-
number of systems that foster pollution prevention and try, the number of jobs has declined in recent years, prin-
waste minimization, but to what degree has the industry cipally because of the recent decline in the market value
embraced pollution prevention and waste minimization of gold, which has forced a number of North American
in operations, and what changes are needed to ensure properties to suspend operations. However, the number
continuous environmental improvements? of people employed in the industry ranges between
The purpose of this paper is to examine the progress 12,000 and 16,000 annually, with the latest statistics
made toward pollution prevention and waste minimiz- indicating that a total of 13,400 Americans were
ation by the North American gold mining industry in employed at US gold mines and mills in 1998 [2,4,5].
gold cyanidation practices and Acid Mine Drainage While gold mining has brought wealth and socioecon-
(AMD) control, which are generally recognized as the omic benefits to North American society, it has also
two most environmentally problematic areas in the caused several environmental complications. To ensure
industry, and to discuss important changes that must be that impacts are kept at a minimum, individual mines
made in order to further perpetuate industrial environ- must have in place highly effective pollution prevention
mental improvement. The paper begins with a brief equipment and waste minimization apparatuses, in com-
economic overview of the North American gold mining bination with comprehensive environmental strategies.
industry and an assessment of the major environmental
challenges it faces. Next, the major pollution prevention 2.2. Primary environmental challenges faced
and waste minimization options available to North
American gold mines for use in cyanidation practices As already indicated, the extraction and processing of
and AMD control are discussed. A detailed analysis of gold in North America has not come without its share
pollution prevention and waste minimization in the of environmental grievances. The removal of ore from
North American gold mining industry is then made using the ground leads to a number of unavoidable environ-
data from selected mineral publications as well as infor- mental problems such as sedimentation, erosion, and
mation obtained from questionnaires distributed to the habitat destruction. Each mineral has a set of unique
industry. The paper concludes by prescribing some physical and chemical properties, and therefore requires
major changes that if made, could lead to further indus- the use of specific extraction and refining techniques. In
trial improvements in the arenas of pollution prevention the case of gold mining, environmental complications
and waste minimization. vary at the sites found throughout the world principally
because of differences in geological setting, and the fact
that different chemical reagents and processing tech-
2. Profile of the North American gold mining niques are used on different continents. For example,
industry gold roasting, a process in which gold-aggregated ore is
heated to remove sulphur compounds that would other-
2.1. Economic overview wise interfere with chemical leaching processes [6], is a
common activity in a number of developing countries,
Close to 25% of world gold is mined in North Amer- but is no longer practiced in North America. Similarly,
ica, with the US and Canada ranking as the second- and mercury amalgamation, which occurs in a number of
fourth- leading producers of the mineral. Combined, the gold mining regions throughout the world, including
two countries house over 260 goldmines of both the open those found in Brazil, Indonesia, and in many African
pit and underground design, in addition to a number of countries, has been replaced almost completely by cyani-
smaller placer operations [1,2]. In terms of economic dation technologies in both the US and Canada.
value, gold is by far Canada’s most important mineral, The processing and excavation strategies employed at
with annual production accounting for over CAN$2.3 North American gold mines are not environmentally
billion dollars [3]. Over the past 10–15 years, total benign. For North American gold mining operations
employment at Canadian gold mines has fluctuated occurring on a large scale, to ensure minimal environ-
 G. Hilson, B. Murck / Journal of Cleaner Production 9 (2001) 405–415 407

mental impact, each must invest in state-of-the-art excavation practices. Because the grades of gold ores are
environmental technologies and must implement a wide measured in grams per ton, the volume of tailings pro-
range of environmental management practices. Of the duced is higher than with almost any other ore: the tonn-
many environmental challenges faced, however, the two age of waste rock is almost equal to the amount of ore
most serious are cyanide contamination and Acid Mine extracted, and tailings amount to approximately 60% of
Drainage (AMD). Cyanide is used throughout the indus- the ore [8]. Gold, like most nonferrous metals, is usually
try in heap leaching, a process in which dilute cyanide accompanied by iron sulphides, which can oxidize to
is sprinkled on crushed, gold-aggregate ore and stacked become sulphuric acid and in turn solubilize residual
on a permeable pad. The percolating cyanide forms an metals when flushed with rainwater or melted snow [9].
amalgam with the gold as it leaches through the ore, after The ensuing AMD is toxic to surrounding environments
which the gold is removed from the pregnant solution in and their organisms, making it imperative that sulphide
a refining process (Fig. 1). As Korte and Coulston [7] tailings be contained appropriately.
explain, cyanide leakages from heap leaching operations Minimizing the environmental impacts of cyanide and
can cause serious damage to the environment. For AMD requires implementation of effective preventative
example, it can cause neurological damages to those ani- strategies, as well as utilization of efficient treatment
mals that ingest it, and if accumulated in sufficient con- equipment. The next section of the paper describes the
centrations in rivers, lakes, and swamps, threaten the pollution prevention and waste minimization options
well being of aquatic organisms. Further, it can be a available to North American gold mines for cyanide
major threat to human health. The lethal dose is 1–3 and AMD.
mg/kg body wt, and long-term exposure to sub-lethal
doses causes irritation of the eyes, loss of appetite, head-
aches and dizziness, and damage to the nervous system 3. Pollution prevention and waste minimization
and thyroid gland. options for North American gold mines
The issue of AMD is certainly not exclusive to gold
mining but is very significant in this context because of Before outlining the leading-edge environmental tech-
the quantity of waste rock (tailings) produced from gold nologies and strategies that are available to North Amer-

Fig. 1. The heap leaching process [2].

408 G. Hilson, B. Murck / Journal of Cleaner Production 9 (2001) 405–415

ican gold mining operations for use in cyanidation pro- 앫 “Good” housekeeping measures, including instal-
cesses and AMD control, it is important to clarify the lation of proper safeguards and implementation of
exact application of the concepts pollution prevention better cleanup practices
and waste minimization in the context of mining. 앫 Substituting raw and auxiliary materials with less
Although de facto definitions of pollution prevention and harmful ones that can be more efficiently recycled
waste minimization have emerged, it is difficult to apply 앫 Modifying products and technologies to eliminate
most of these theoretical explanations to mining, simply unnecessary production steps
because a number of unavoidable disturbances come 앫 Making process modifications to minimize (mine)
about with the construction of a mine, the bulk of which wastes
can only be addressed following mine closure. Realisti- 앫 Reusing mineral processing materials, including
cally, complete pollution prevention at a mine cannot be water, antifreeze, industrial solvents and chemicals
achieved, since it would require no excavation in order 앫 Introducing waste into external recycling networks:
to avoid inevitable environmental problems like erosion industrial ecology
and sedimentation. Such, is impossible, since earth must
be upturned in order to remove ore from the ground. Virtually every North American goldmine features sev-
Because poorly managed mineral processing activities eral basic pollution prevention measures similar to those
can cause additional environmental damages, however, outlined, as well as numerous simple housekeeping tech-
a number of other opportunities exist for pollution pre- niques.
vention and waste minimization in the industry. Pol-
lution prevention and waste minimization as defined in 3.2. Environmental technologies and strategies for use
the context of the gold mining industry requires inte- in cyanidation practices
gration of state-of-the art environmental technologies,
strategies, and safeguards, particularly those available The environmental challenge with cyanide is two-part.
for use in cyanidation setups and in AMD control. First, appropriate safeguards must be in place to ensure
no “accidental” release of the chemical. This requires
3.1. General pollution prevention strategies use of technical cyanide monitoring and detection sys-
tems in storage ponds, but more importantly, the use of
Several governmental organizations have outlined impermeable pad liners — similar to those used in waste
many of the general, often generic pollution prevention disposal sites — that contain the leach solution in the
options available to mines. Most are inexpensive tech- facility, and prevent accidental leakage of cyanide and
niques that can be readily adopted at North American valuable gold solution into soils and groundwater. Clay
goldmines. Further, most require minimal planning to lining has long been the most popular method used to
design and implement, a feature that commonly discour- contain chemicals in a number of industries [11]. Here,
ages a number of industries from engaging in pollution clay is placed into a containment facility as an attenu-
prevention in the first place. ation layer. Because it contains tiny pores and particles
For example, in the case of mine water, simple meas- that are non-aggregated, the clay layer inhibits any con-
ures can be taken to ensure that certain water pollution taminating liquid from seeping downward. Clay liners
problems are controlled in and around the mine. Major are relatively inexpensive to install though, studies [12]
examples include [2]: have shown that solutions of hydrocarbons, acids, and
caustic leachates can seriously affect the impermeability
앫 Erosion control measures, such as retention ponds to of clays, and if dried out, clay liners crack, which can
intercept runoff lead to further leakage. Geomembrane (plastic) liners,
앫 Protection of stream banks to prevent grazing impacts which are most commonly made from high-density poly-
앫 Rerouting groundwater springs near open pits ethylene (HDPE) or polyvinyl chloride, are perceived
앫 Baseline and continual monitoring of ground and sur- industry-wide as being more practical for cyanide con-
face water tainment because of their negligible permeability and
앫 Diversion ditches to carry runoff away from solvent excellent chemical resistance [13]. They are, however,
exchange, leach and tailings disposal areas susceptible to tears and punctures, and can deteriorate
앫 Channeling runoff and spills to artificial basins and if exposed excessively to sunlight. The most effective
surge ponds technology for cyanide containment is the composite
liner, which consists of a geomembrane in combination
In addition, simple management and housekeeping tech- with a low permeability soil. Such a design offers a
niques can be adopted that both individually and collec- “second line of defense” and thus provides superior
tively improve the environmental conditions at mines, or seepage control [14].
can facilitate the implementation of low-waste mining The second major environmental challenge faced in
technologies. Some notable examples include [10]: cyanidation projects occurs during the decommissioning
 G. Hilson, B. Murck / Journal of Cleaner Production 9 (2001) 405–415 409

of heap leach complexes, when residual cyanide must 3.3. Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) technologies and
be detoxified before the heap is closed. There is a wide strategies
range of treatment options available for spent heaps,
some more environmentally benign than others. The Minimizing the environmental impacts of Acid Mine
most commonly used techniques for cyanide detox- Drainage (AMD) requires treating mine water before its
ification, however, are as follows [15]: release, as well as taking action to prevent acidification
from occurring in the first place. Individual treatment
앫 Alkaline chlorination oxidation and prevention methods can be grouped into three basic
앫 Hydrogen peroxide categories. The first category includes passive tech-
앫 SO2/INCO Process niques, which describe any system that exists naturally.
앫 Natural degradation The most common approaches involve wetlands, lime-
앫 Barren/Fresh water rinse stone drains, water covers and naturally occurring
앫 Biological oxidation geochemical/biological processes. In wetlands, dilution
occurs, and heavy metals are filtered from water, settle
Of these, the most widely used is the alkaline–chlori- atop the marsh, and gradually break down. Further, a
nation–oxidation process [16]. However, the sodium number of anaerobic (mine water oxidation) and aerobic
hypochlorate and chlorine gas reagents commonly used (sulphate reduction) processes are present that naturally
in the technique can cause considerable damages to the neutralize the water [20]. Limestone drains are a series
environment since both, in excessive amounts, can affect of pipes containing limestone that neutralize AMD as it
the pH levels of recipient water bodies, and are lethal flows downward. Such systems, however, are site-spe-
to fish. The use of hydrogen peroxide, unlike alkaline cific since their application depends upon the level of pH
chlorination, does not introduce additional contaminants of the AMD. If water is too acidic, these are inadequate
into treated solution, but has the tendency to be very treatment systems [21]. Water covers serve as excellent
costly. The effectiveness of natural degradation and barriers to atmospheric oxygen, which otherwise com-
water rinse treatments is undeterminable since a number bines with the sulphides to produce the acid water. By
of unpredictable occurrences such as wind, floods and submerging tailings in water, the AMD process is
rain could cause environmental disturbances. The prem- slowed, and related problems are avoided altogether.
ise behind both is to allow natural agents to degrade the Finally, naturally occurring geochemical/biological (slag
cyanide heaps but because the chemical is a persistent treatment) processes can also be utilized, where water is
toxin, any of the above mentioned events could disrupt discharged into a water body with a high buffering
the detoxification process and in turn create problems capacity, the most common instance being a river or lake
with chemical pollution. containing bicarbonate rock that neutralizes the AMD.
Arguably, the two most effective technologies avail- Tests must be done upfront, however, to determine the
able to North American goldmines for treatment of spent ecological sensitivity of the water body before dis-
cyanide heaps are the SO2/INCO Process and biological charge occurs.
oxidation. In the SO2/INCO Process, a technology pat- Second, active methods can be employed, which
ented by INCO Inc., a Canadian-based multinational involves investment in technologies to treat and control
metal mining company, SO2 gas is catalyzed by a small the AMD. These methods require adding an alkali to
amount of copper and is then used to oxidize cyanide neutralize, then separating solids and liquids to remove
[17]. It can save as much as half the cost of any other metal hydroxides, and finally, disposing of the metallic
method of cyanide destruction, and the resulting waste sludge. Major examples include chemical precipitation,
streams are free of all base metals and have a miniscule fluidized bed-ion, alkaline addition, plasmotech, and ion
cyanide concentration that ranges between 0.1 and 0.5 exchange (see e.g. [22–24] for detailed summaries of
ppm [18]. In the case of biological oxidization, spent these processes, and the technologies involved). Most of
heaps are treated with naturally occurring agents. Vari- these processes are costly [25] and involve using chemi-
ous species of bacteria, fungi, algae, yeasts, and plants, cals that can lead to additional cleanup problems. Of the
along with their associated enzymes and amino acids, active methods used at mines around the world, how-
are known to oxidize cyanide naturally [19]. The idea ever, the most effective is internal neutralization with
here, therefore, is to breed cultures and populations of lime, which best ensures that solution, prior to its dis-
these agents in the laboratory, and then apply them to charge into the natural environment, is at a nontoxic
the spent heap. Many biological oxidation projects are level for organisms. Lime additive can be extremely
still in the pilot stages of development, but once success- expensive, and it is therefore only a realistic AMD treat-
fully implemented, the technique can be very inexpen- ment technique for a mine with financial flexibility.
sive, and ensures environmentally sound results since the Finally, bacterial and algal methods can be used to
waste products produced by these agents are nontoxic to remediate AMD [26]. Algae utilize CO2, sulphates,
the environment. nitrates, phosphates, water and sunlight to synthesize
410 G. Hilson, B. Murck / Journal of Cleaner Production 9 (2001) 405–415

their own organic material and give off free oxygen as progress made towards pollution prevention and waste
a waste product [27]. The oxygen produced is available minimization in the North American gold mining indus-
to bacteria and other microbes. Further, microorganisms try. The questionnaires were distributed to the industry
can oxidize sulphide minerals and compounds directly, over the course of four months. The primary focus of
therefore decontaminating the AMD. Several authors the research was on environmental measures for use in
[25,26,28] discuss the applicability of bacteria and algae cyanidation practices and AMD control at North Amer-
as AMD treatment technologies, which, at present, are ican goldmines; therefore, most of the questions con-
the most environmentally benign and cost-effective for- cerned the environmental management techniques being
mulas for treating AMD (though in selected cases, may used in each of these areas.
not work because of technological or locational
limitations). For example, some biological reactors 4.1. Analysis of mining information sources
require a continuous supply of biomass feed to operate
[29], and if unavailable, cannot function. Analysis of environmental information contained in
As indicated before, the most practical environmental selected mineral publications and databases reveals that
approach in AMD management is one that makes use of the North American gold mining industry is moving into
the most effective treatment and prevention techniques. a mode of pollution prevention and waste minimization.
From this review, it is apparent that a system that makes The most accurate indication is improved environmental
good use of natural and bacterial (biological) techniques, management in cyanidation practices. In Canada, the
internally neutralizes mine water prior its disposal into information contained in the most recent editions of the
the natural environment, and which uses natural water Mining Sourcebook, an annual compilation of mining
covers for tailings to prevent possibility of oxidation, statistics obtained from industry surveys, reveals a sig-
would have minimal problems with AMD. nificant improvement. In 1995, of the gold mine respon-
Table 1 provides a summary of the most practical pol- dents specifying the type of cyanide destruction method
lution prevention and waste minimization systems avail- used, 26% reported using chemical treatment techniques
able to North American goldmines for both AMD con- (e.g. chlorination, lime barium chloride, hydrogen per-
trol and use in cyanidation systems. The next section of oxide, sodium hypochlorate), which are more prone to
the paper uses this information to interpret the degree to environmental degradation while only 5% reported using
which the industry has embraced pollution prevention the SO2/INCO Process. By 1997, the number using
and waste minimization. chemical treatment techniques declined to 18%, and the
total using the SO2/INCO Process rose to 23%. The
latest (1999) data shows that only 17% use chemical
4. An analysis of pollution prevention and waste treatment techniques and that 35% use the SO2/INCO
minimization practices in the North American gold Process [30–32]. The utilization of more efficient
mining industry environmental techniques was reflected in environmental
performance. For example, at gold mines operated by
Using results obtained from questionnaires, in combi- companies belonging to the Mining Association of Can-
nation with information contained in selected mining ada (MAC) — the national body of the Canadian mining
environmental publications, this section interprets the industry, comprising companies that produce 83% of

Table 1
Summary of best available options for pollution prevention and waste minimization in cyanidation setups and Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) control
at goldmines

Cyanidation technology/strategy Acid Mine Drainage technology/strategy

SO2/INCO process Internal neutralization before discharge

쐌Expensive initially but over the long term saves as much as half the 쐌Using alkaline lime agents to chemically treating acid mine water as
cost of any other form of cyanide destruction it moves downward
Natural degradation 쐌Long-term cost effectiveness
쐌Primarily accomplished through using wetlands but must be carefully AMD watercovers
monitored 쐌Inhibits oxidation, thus slowing the rate of AMD production
Biological oxidation 쐌Cost-effective
쐌Environmentally benign and inexpensive but most setups to date, Biological/natural degradation
although successful, are site specific, and further development will 쐌Harnessing acid-consuming bacteria and fungi that exist naturally in
require research nature and using them on acid tails and waters before their release into
the natural environment
쐌Requires maintenance
쐌Use of wetland technology
 G. Hilson, B. Murck / Journal of Cleaner Production 9 (2001) 405–415 411

Canadian metal output — releases of cyanide totaled 185 related to cyanidation practices, and the second, AMD
tons in 1993, but declined to a mere 26 tons in 1998 control.
[33]. In the case of the US, few statistical environmental It was hypothesized that Junior Mining Operations
compilations for gold mining exist. However, the EPA have in place fewer environmental safeguards because
maintains a website that contains a database of environ- of economic difficulties and legislative pressures. It was
mental statistics [34] of all US industries. Using this dat- further hypothesized that unless given the necessary
abase, the environmental technologies being used in gold assistance to overcome these barriers, the pattern of pol-
cyanidation practices was determined for the 30 largest lution prevention and waste minimization in the industry
US gold mines. Of those that have listed their treatment will continue to be uneven, with resource-deficient Jun-
methods, 100% use oxidation methods — either biologi- ior Operations continuing to lag well behind Senior
cal detoxification or the SO2/INCO Process, and each Operations.
has, on average, a wastewater treatment efficiency rate
of 92.5%. 4.3. General findings: cyanidation
These data, however, are not entirely indicative of the
state of pollution prevention and waste minimization in To reiterate, composite liners are the most prevent-
the North American gold mining industry. It is important ative design for cyanide control since they provide a
to clarify that the sector comprises large Senior Mining “second line of defense” in the event of a leak. A major
Companies as well as Junior Mining Companies. “Jun- example of a composite liner is compacted soil overlain
ior” was initially exclusively used as a label for mining with a flexible plastic membrane liner. Of the respon-
exploration companies but it is now increasingly being dents from Senior Mining Operations, all reported using
used as a classification for all small mining companies composite liner or double liner setups as well as having
that are most affected by mineral price fluctuations, and cyanide leak detection systems in place. Only 10% of
which represent the financially volatile and high-risk Junior Mining respondents reported using composite or
portion of the industry. Many Junior Companies own double-layered designs, while the balance reported hav-
large mining operations, but are labeled “Junior” because ing designs of inferior quality, including less expensive
they are newly formed enterprises. single layer designs, and liners constructed from
Almost all of the corporate environmental data avail- inferior materials.
able for the North American gold mining industry are As indicated earlier, the most environmentally
derived from Senior Mining Operations, which have the efficient technologies available for heap treatment are
information technologies to record and publish environ- the SO2-INCO Process, biological oxidation, and, to a
mental information pertaining to mining practices in cor- certain degree, natural degradation. Results revealed that
porate environmental reports and statistical compilations because of its relative inexpensiveness, a greater per-
of the industry. The reality, however, is that most of the centage (54%) of properties belonging to Junior Mining
environmental data relevant to Junior Mining Operations Companies rely on natural processes for cyanide heap
are not included. To help bridge this gap, and to deter- treatment than those of Senior Mining Companies
mine the degree to which pollution prevention and waste (25%). On the contrary, a greater portion (31%) of
minimization is being practiced in gold cyanidation pro- Senior Operations are using the more expensive SO2-
cesses and AMD control practices industry-wide, ques- INCO treatment than Junior Operations (7%). In
tionnaires were distributed randomly to goldmines addition, biological oxidation treatment processes are
throughout the continent. As the following discussion being used more widely at the operations of Senior Min-
shows, the results obtained from Junior Mining Oper- ing Companies (38%) than those of Junior Mining Com-
ations are markedly different from those obtained from panies (23%). Financing cyanide treatment can be costly,
Senior Mining Operations. and only 15% of Junior Mining Operations noted that
multiple detoxification strategies were being deployed,
compared to 40% of Senior Mining Operations.
4.2. Survey methods and hypotheses
Results clearly show that the Senior Mining Oper-
ations are more anticipatory of environmental problems,
The initial questionnaire was distributed to a total of and have invested more heavily in a wider range of pol-
148 goldmines, which included both Junior and Senior lution prevention and waste minimization practices in
Mining Operations. Every goldmine listed in Environ- gold cyanidation practices than Junior Mining Oper-
ment Canada’s Database of Mines and on the US Geo- ations.
logical Survey’s website of goldmines was surveyed. A
total of 45 responded, of which 32 (71%) were Senior 4.4. General findings: AMD treatment and control
Mining Operations and 13 (29%) were Junior Mining
Operations. The questionnaire was divided into two The most environmentally effective techniques avail-
major sections: the first asked environmental questions able to mitigate AMD are internal neutralization, water-
412 G. Hilson, B. Murck / Journal of Cleaner Production 9 (2001) 405–415

covers and biological/natural degradation. Of the Junior areas is sufficiently less than that of the Senior Mining
Mining respondents, 38% reported using naturally occur- Operations.
ring geochemical processes and natural systems com- The study verified that in the North American gold
pared to 56% of Senior Mining respondents. A major mining industry, Junior Mining Operations have in place
difference, however, was that every Senior Mining Com- fewer environmental safeguards than Senior Mining
pany operation indicated that AMD was also neutralized Operations, and communications with individual mine
with lime before discharge, whereas no Junior Mining managers verified the hypothesis of economic difficulties
operation reported such an effort. Further, 25% of Senior and legislative pressures. These barriers have both indi-
Mining Companies claimed using biological treatment vidually and collectively inhibited individual goldmines
techniques as well to remedy AMD, and 20% reported from taking a more preventative stance on environmental
using watercovers. Of the respondents from properties issues. Economically, it should be noted that a recent
owned by Junior Mining Companies, only 8% use water- crash in gold stocks has caused many North American
covers, and none reported using biological treatment gold mining companies to become more active in
techniques. restructuring and acquisitions, which in turn has impac-
Again, the findings reveal that Senior Mining Oper- ted environmental management practices. As Dobra [35]
ations have moved more towards pollution prevention summarizes, these activities have included mergers of
and waste minimization than Junior Mining Operations, medium-sized companies such as Kinross and Amax
in this case, in the area of AMD control. Gold to create larger, more stable million-ounce pro-
ducers, as well as proposed mergers of Junior Mining
4.5. Assessment Companies such as Rayrock and Glamis to create more
viable corporate structures in the current environment.
From the results obtained from the questionnaires, it Further, many North American gold mining companies
is clear that in both cyanidation setups and AMD control, have had to suspend operations at selected sites because
the environmental management measures employed at of low gold prices. For example, the Turquoise Ridge
mines of Senior Mining Companies differ significantly Project on the Getchell Property in Nevada, in an effort
to those of Junior Mining Companies (see Table 2 for to conserve money, suspended operations in its higher-
a summary of the findings from the study). From the grade Northwest ore zones. A similar situation occurred
standpoint of pollution prevention and waste minimiz- at Pegasus Gold Inc.’s Zortman Mine in Montana in
ation, there is strong evidence of more highly effective 1996, when operations were ceased. Residual leaching
waste treatment and control mechanisms at the gold continued into 1997 but in March of 1998, the company
mines of Senior Companies. Highly effective environ- decided not to construct the Zortman Extension Project
mental technologies and strategies are being used to treat because with then current gold prices, the project was
and prevent AMD and wastes from gold cyanidation not considered economically viable [4]. Others, such as
practices at a large percentage of Senior Mining Oper- Vista Gold’s Hycroft Mine have announced impending
ations. In the case of Junior Mining Operations, results closures unless gold prices improve.
indicate that while some environmental precautions have It is clear from the questionnaire feedback that the
been taken in gold cyanidation setups and for AMD con- economic crises in the gold industry have affected the
trol purposes, the progress made toward pollution pre- Junior and Senior Mining Operations of the North Amer-
vention and waste minimization in each of these two ican gold mining industry differently as far as pollution

Table 2
Summary of study findings from questionnaire feedback

Pollution prevention/waste minimization Percentage of junior mining respondents using Percentage of senior mining respondents using
technique technique technique

Cyanidation
Double-layered liners 10 100
SO2/INCO process 7 31
Natural degradation 54 25
Biological techniques 23 38
AMD control
Naturally occurring geochemical/biological
38 56
processes
Internal neutralization with lime 0 100
Biological treatment 0 25
Watercovers 8 20
 G. Hilson, B. Murck / Journal of Cleaner Production 9 (2001) 405–415 413

prevention and waste minimization efforts are con- tion of environmental technologies and strategies. To
cerned. Senior Mining Operations appear not to have improve pollution prevention and waste minimization, a
been impacted to any great extent. One mine manager number of key steps have to be taken, each of which is
indicated that funds were in great abundance, which has explored in the next and final section of this paper.
enabled the mine to remain “proactive in environmental
technologies even though gold prices are at a recent his-
toric low”. Another manager reported having the “latest 5. Recommended changes and areas requiring
environmental technologies in place” at the mine, and further research
also indicated that it is expected that these, like any new
environmental technology, would “pay itself off within It is suggested here that three major steps, if taken,
a short period of time”. The managers of Junior Mining would lead to improved pollution prevention and waste
Operations, however, expressed different opinions. One minimization in gold cyanidation setups and AMD con-
manager indicated that “for more than a year” the mine trol at North American goldmines. They are as follows:
has been dealing with severe cash flow problems that Increased Assistance to Junior Mining Operations;
have resulted in the company going into receivership. Expanded Government and Academic Partnerships; and
This in turn forced it to alter its corporate environmental Research into Biological Treatment. The discussion to
policy, which now instructs its mines to merely “comply follow briefly outlines how these three major changes
with all environmental legislation” since “there is little if could contribute to improved pollution prevention and
any funds available to invest in proactive technologies”. waste minimization in the industry.
Another manager indicated that in cyanide heap closure,
evaluations were conducted for biodetoxification, which 5.1. Step 1: increased assistance to Junior Mining
“would have likely been the most environmentally fri- Companies
endly method”, but “due to current economics”, it will
proceed with “chemical detoxification instead, which is Economic and legislative barriers are inhibiting Junior
more prone to environmental degradation”. Mining Operations from fully moving toward pollution
What has complicated things even further is that sub- prevention and waste minimization. Each lacks the
stantial changes have taken place in the already stringent requisite resources (e.g. time, money, personnel, etc.),
regulatory environment over the past two decades. Much and financial, technical, and manpower capability to
of the legislation regulating North American goldmines, implement state-of-the-art environmental technologies
both at the federal and provincial/state levels, has been and to remain consistently proactive. How can these bar-
amended on numerous occasions and even outright riers be overcome?
replaced. Examination of selected regulatory statutes Governments must play a lead role in disseminating
reveals that over 25 major changes have been made to information on pollution prevention and waste minimiz-
North American gold mining environmental legislation ation to Junior Mining Operations. With a shortage of
in the past 20 years alone, with more projected to come. resources, it is difficult enough to make an inventory of
From questionnaire feedback, it is clear that this chang- waste streams, let alone identify opportunities for pol-
ing regulatory environment has also played a pivotal role lution prevention and waste minimization. Since
in inhibiting pollution prevention and waste minimiz- increased environmental protection is of national inter-
ation at Junior Mining Operations. One manager com- est, governments need to provide smaller mining oper-
plained of “overlapping regulations”, arguing that it ations with incentives to improve environmentally.
“wasted millions of dollars” because of an “over com- Among the many tools and strategies governments can
mitment of funds”. Another manager expressed diffi- employ to help remove legislative and economic bar-
culties in hitting “a moving target”, indicating that for riers include:
“long-range planning purposes”, it is “difficult to invest
in proactive environmental measures”. 앫 Arranging environmental technology demonstration
To summarize, a number of North American gold projects at sites
mines have implemented highly effective pollution pre- 앫 Providing tax breaks, levies, and subsidies for the
vention and waste minimization measures for use in Junior Operations implementing equipment that fos-
cyanidation practices, and for AMD control purposes. ters pollution prevention and waste minimization
The pattern of pollution prevention and waste minimiz- 앫 Providing environmental training and education to
ation in these two areas, however, is uneven throughout Juniors
the industry. From responses obtained from mine man- 앫 Disseminating appropriate environmental information
agers, it appears that gold mining operations of Junior on low waste technologies, and outlining their contri-
Companies are in a constant struggle to “keep up” with bution to economic aims
Senior Companies and that economic constraints and 앫 Aiding in the development of environmental manage-
legislative pressures have only interfered with the selec- ment plans in all facets of mining operations
414 G. Hilson, B. Murck / Journal of Cleaner Production 9 (2001) 405–415

앫 Financing a research centre that investigates environ- and contaminating acidic material in both rock and
mental technologies and strategies water, and produces detoxified waste material. The main
problem encountered thus far with biological techniques
These and related efforts would significantly improve is that most are site specific, requiring a specific tem-
environmental protection in the North American gold perature and moisture to be highly effective. For cyan-
mining industry, mainly because each would facilitate ide, microorganisms serve as catalysts in the oxidation
the implementation of low waste technologies in Junior process and require certain elements to be present, or a
Mining Operations, which is a current challenge given nutrient supplement such as phosphorus to be added in
the major legislative and economic obstacles. order to survive. Conversely, the presence of other
elements or compounds can be toxic or inhibitory to the
5.2. Step 2: expanded industrial partnerships with bacteria. However, if successfully piloted, biological
government and academic institutions techniques for cyanide detoxification are of great benefit,
particularly because of low reagent and capital costs
It is critical that the North American gold mining [16].
industry and regional governments operate collabor- In the case of AMD, some research has been under-
atively. The formation of industry–governmental part- taken to determine the role of acidophilic bacteria in
nerships can help accomplish this. In Canada, the Mining detoxifying mine water before its release. Webb et al.
Association of Canada (MAC) is the national body of [14] examined the feasibility of metal removal by sul-
the Canadian mining industry, and is comprised of phate-reducing bacteria from natural and constructed
government and industry representatives. It has estab- wetlands. The authors report on the effectiveness of
lished an environmental policy and code of conduct for three separate wetlands in Southern England, and explain
its members. Member companies produce some 83% of the biological processes involved. Bernoth et al. [36]
Canada’s metal products, but all representatives are present a number of case studies on biolotechnological
Senior Mining Companies. It is critical that governments use within the mining industry. One case study describes
and industry bodies get Junior Mining Companies more an Australian company using a passive biological system
involved. Each may account for a small proportion of to remove manganese from AMD. Again, most AMD
production but can contribute significantly to environ- biological treatment setups are still in their pilot stages,
mental degradation. and most projects that have been up and running for
It is equally important that the industry establish close years are site-specific. Unquestionably, more laboratory
ties with academic facilities, which can serve as rela- research is needed in these two areas to improve
tively inexpensive but highly efficient platforms for con- environmental management in the North American gold
ducting mining environmental research. In Canada, a mining industry.
number of high-quality academic institutions have well Following these three steps would lead to improve-
established mining units. Some notable examples ments in pollution prevention and waste minimization in
include: University of British Columbia (minerals the North American gold mining industry. The key is
engineering), Laval University (mining engineering), minimizing environmental impacts from gold cyani-
University of Toronto (geological engineering), Lauren- dation processes and AMD, and these improvements
tian University (multidisciplinary), and the University of would help best ensure this.
Alberta (oil and mining research). In the United States,
some examples of mining academic facilities include:
The Colorado School of Mines (all disciplines), South 6. Conclusion
Dakota School of Mines (all disciplines), North Carolina
State University (Minerals Research Laboratory), Uni- This paper has presented a case study of pollution pre-
versity of Utah (mining engineering), and the Columbia vention and waste minimization in the North American
University’s Henry Krumb School of mines (all gold mining industry, with special emphasis on gold
disciplines). cyanidation and AMD control. A number of practical
mechanisms are available for pollution prevention and
5.3. Step 3: intensifying research into biological waste minimization in each of these industrial areas, but
oxidation an analysis reveals that different sites are using environ-
mental technologies of varying effectiveness, causing the
On the technology side, it is argued in the mining pattern of environmental behaviour to be far from uni-
industry that use of biotechnologies have proven to be form throughout the industry. Most of the larger Senior
the most environmentally benign strategies for reme- Gold Mining Operations have done much in the way of
diating problems with pollution. In the case of cyanide environmental protection, implementing many of the
heap closure and AMD, the premise is to apply a bac- leading-edge environmental technologies in gold cyani-
terial, fungal or algal culture that consumes free cyanides dation practices, and for AMD control purposes. The
 G. Hilson, B. Murck / Journal of Cleaner Production 9 (2001) 405–415 415

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