http://www.ece.msstate.

edu/~donohoe/

EE 4990/6990
Antennas
Fall 2002
Page Lecture Material from Balanis Problems

1 Ch. 1, Introduction, antenna types

2 Radiation, Ch. 2, Antenna patterns 2.2
3 Average power, radiation intensity 2.4, 2.7
4 Directivity, numerical evaluation of directivity 2.4, 2.7
5 Antenna gain 2.11, 2.13,
6 Antenna efficiency and impedance 2.17(a), 2.21
7 Loss resistance, transmission lines 2.27, 2.39
8 Transmit/receive systems, Polarization 2.41, 2.46
9 Equivalent areas, effective aperture 2.29, 2.48
10 Friis transmission equation 2.53, 2.56, 2.58
11 Radar systems, radar cross section 2.62, 2.66
12 Problem Session
13 Quiz #1 [Ch. 1,2]
14 Ch. 3, Radiated fields
15 Use of potential functions
16 Far fields, duality, reciprocity 4.1
85 Ch. 4, Wire antennas, infinitesimal dipole 4.3
18 Infinitesimal dipole 4.5
19 Poynting’s theorem, total power 4.11, 4.15
20 Radiation resistance, Short dipole 4.18(b), 4.21
21 Center-fed dipole 4.31
123 Half-wave dipole 4.25, 4.26
23 Dipole characteristics 4.27, 4.33
24 Image theory, antennas over ground 4.37
25 Monopole 4.41, 4.44
26 Ground Effects on Antennas
27 Quiz #2 [Ch. 3,4]
28 Ch. 5, Small loop antenna 5.4
29 Dual sources 5.17
30 Loop characteristics 5.21
162 Ch. 6, Antenna arrays 6.3
32 Broadside arrays 6.6
33 Endfire arrays 6.16
34 Hansen-Woodyard array, Binomial arrays 6.24, 6.28
35 Dolph-Chebyshev array, 6.41
191 Ch. 9, folded dipole 9.8, 9.10, 9.12
37 Ch. 10, Traveling wave antennas 10.4, 10.6
38 Terminations, vee antenna, 10.28
39 rhombic antenna, Yagi-Uda arrays 10.28
40 Ch. 11, Log-periodic antenna 11.8
41 Problem Session
42 Quiz #3 [Ch. 5,6,9,10,11]
43 Ch. 12, Aperture antennas
44 Ch. 13, Horn antennas 13.7, 13.12
45 Course review
 Antennas

Antenna - a device used to efficiently transmit and/or receive

electromagnetic waves.

Example Antenna Applications

Wireless communications
Personal Communications Systems (PCS)
Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) Systems
Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN)
Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) Television
Mobile Communications
Telephone Microwave/Satellite Links
Broadcast Television and Radio, etc.

Remote Sensing
Radar [active remote sensing - radiate and receive]
Military applications (target search and tracking)
Weather radar, Air traffic control
Automobile speed detection
Traffic control (magnetometer)
Ground penetrating radar (GPR)
Agricultural applications
Radiometry [passive remote sensing - receive emissions]
Military applications
(threat avoidance, signal interception)

Antenna Types
Wire antennas (monopoles, dipoles, loops, etc.)
Aperture antennas (sectoral horn, pyramidal horn, slots, etc.)
Reflector antennas (parabolic dish, corner reflector, etc.)
Lens antennas
Microstrip antennas
Antenna arrays
Antenna Performance Parameters

Radiation pattern - angular plot of the radiation.

Omnidirectional pattern - uniform radiation in one plane
Directive patterns - narrow beam(s) of high radiation

Directivity - ratio of antenna power density at a distant point relative

to that of an isotropic radiator [isotropic radiator - an antenna
that radiates uniformly in all directions (point source radiator)].

Gain - directivity reduced by losses.

Polarization - trace of the radiated electric field vector (linear,

circular, elliptical).

Impedance - antenna input impedance at its terminals.

Bandwidth - range of frequencies over which performance is

acceptable (resonant antennas, broadband antennas).

Beam scanning - movement in the direction of maximum radiation

by mechanical or electrical means.

Other system design constraints - size, weight, cost, power handling,

radar cross section, etc.
 Fundamentals of Antenna Radiation

An antenna may be thought of as a matching network between a

wave-guiding device (transmission line, waveguide) and the surrounding
medium.
Transmitting antenna
guided wave input 6 antenna 6 unguided wave output
Receiving antenna
unguided wave input 6 antenna 6 guided wave output

Antenna as the termination of a transmission line

The open-circuited transmission line does not radiate effectively because

the transmission line currents are equal and opposite (and very close
together). The radiated fields of these currents tend to cancel one another.
The current on the arms of the dipole antenna are aligned in the same
direction so that these radiated fields tend to add together making the
dipole and efficient radiator.
Antenna as the termination of a waveguide

The open-ended waveguide will radiate, but not as effectively as the

waveguide terminated by the horn antenna. The wave impedance inside
the waveguide does not match that of the surrounding medium creating a
mismatch at the open end of the waveguide. Thus, a portion of the
outgoing wave is reflected back into the waveguide. The horn antenna acts
as a matching network, with a gradual transition in the wave impedance
from that of the waveguide to that of the surrounding medium. With a
matched termination, the reflected wave is minimized and the radiated
field is maximized.
 Antenna Patterns
(Radiation Patterns)

Antenna Pattern - a graphical representation of the antenna radiation

properties as a function of position (spherical coordinates).

Common Types of Antenna Patterns

Power Pattern - normalized power vs. spherical coordinate position.
Field Pattern - normalized *E* or *H* vs. spherical coordinate
position.

Antenna Field Types

Reactive field - the portion of the antenna field characterized by
standing (stationary) waves which represent stored energy.
Radiation field - the portion of the antenna field characterized by
radiating (propagating) waves which represent transmitted
energy.

Antenna Field Regions

Reactive Near Field Region - the region immediately surrounding
the antenna where the reactive field (stored energy - standing
waves) is dominant.
Near-Field (Fresnel) Region - the region between the reactive near-
field and the far-field where the radiation fields are dominant
and the field distribution is dependent on the distance from the
antenna.
Far-Field (Fraunhofer) Region - the region farthest away from the
antenna where the field distribution is essentially independent
of the distance from the antenna (propagating waves).
Antenna Field Regions
Antenna Pattern Definitions
Isotropic Pattern - an antenna pattern defined by uniform radiation
in all directions, produced by an isotropic radiator (point
source, a non-physical antenna which is the only nondirectional
antenna).
Directional Pattern - a pattern characterized by more efficient
radiation in one direction than another (all physically realizable
antennas are directional antennas).
Omnidirectional Pattern - a pattern which is uniform in a given
plane.
Principal Plane Patterns - the E-plane and H-plane patterns of a
linearly polarized antenna.
E-plane - the plane containing the electric field vector
and the direction of maximum radiation.
H-plane - the plane containing the magnetic field vector
and the direction of maximum radiation.

Antenna Pattern Parameters

Radiation Lobe - a clear peak in the radiation intensity surrounded
by regions of weaker radiation intensity.
Main Lobe (major lobe, main beam) - radiation lobe in the direction
of maximum radiation.
Minor Lobe - any radiation lobe other than the main lobe.
Side Lobe - a radiation lobe in any direction other than the
direction(s) of intended radiation.
Back Lobe - the radiation lobe opposite to the main lobe.
Half-Power Beamwidth (HPBW) - the angular width of the main
beam at the half-power points.
First Null Beamwidth (FNBW) - angular width between the first
nulls on either side of the main beam.

Antenna Pattern Parameters

(Normalized Power Pattern)
 Maxwell’s Equations
(Instantaneous and Phasor Forms)

Maxwell’s Equations (instantaneous form)

%
(

'
+  -

'
%

( + ' % - - instantaneous vectors [( =( (x,y,z,t), etc.]

   

Dt - instantaneous scalar

Maxwell’s Equations (phasor form, time-harmonic form)

E, H, D, B, J - phasor vectors [E=E(x,y,z), etc.]

D - phasor scalar

Relation of instantaneous quantities to phasor quantities ...

( (x,y,z,t) = Re{E(x,y,z)e jTt}, etc.
 Average Power Radiated by an Antenna

To determine the average power radiated by an antenna, we start with

the instantaneous Poynting vector 6 (vector power density) defined by

6 ( +
 ð  (V/m × A/m = W/m2)

Assume the antenna is enclosed by some surface S.

= S
s=

ds

The total instantaneous radiated power 3rad leaving the surface S is found
by integrating the instantaneous Poynting vector over the surface.
=
3
rad  ç 6 @ds = ç ((
   ð + ) @ds
  ds = s ds
S S

= ds= differential surface

s = unit vector normal to ds
 For time-harmonic fields, the time average instantaneous Poynting
vector (time average vector power density) is found by integrating the
instantaneous Poynting vector over one period (T) and dividing by the
period.
1
Pavg = ç((ð+ ) dt
TT
( = Re{Ee jTt}
+ = Re{He jTt}

The instantaneous magnetic field may be rewritten as

+ = Re{½ [ He jTt + H*e !jTt ]}

which gives an instantaneous Poynting vector of

( +
ð   ½ Re {[E ð H]e j2Tt + [E ð H *]}
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~
time-harmonic independent of time
(integrates to zero over T )

and the time-average vector power density becomes

1
Pavg =  Re [E ð H *] çdt
2T T

= ½ Re [E ð H *]

The total time-average power radiated by the antenna (Prad) is found by

integrating the time-average power density over S.

Prad  ç Pavg@ds = ½ Re ç [E
 ð H *]@ds
S S
 Radiation Intensity

Radiation Intensity - radiated power per solid angle (radiated power

normalized to a unit sphere).

Prad  ç Pavg@ds


In the far field, the radiation electric and magnetic fields vary as 1/r and
the direction of the vector power density (Pavg) is radially outward. If we
assume that the surface S is a sphere of radius r, then the integral for the
total time-average radiated power becomes

If we defined Pavg r 2 = U(2,N) as the radiation intensity, then

where d S = sin2d2dN defines the differential solid angle. The units on the
radiation intensity are defined as watts per unit solid angle. The average
radiation intensity is found by dividing the radiation intensity by the area
of the unit sphere (4B) which gives

The average radiation intensity for a given antenna represents the radiation
intensity of a point source producing the same amount of radiated power
as the antenna.
ƒRadian
2S radians in full circle
arc length of circle r T

Fig. 2.10(a) Geometrical arrangements for defining a radian

19

ƒSteradian

one steradian subtends an area of

A r2

4ʌ steradians in entire sphere

dA r 2 sin T dT dI

dA
d: sin T dT dI
r2
Fig. 2.10(b) Geometrical arrangements
for defining a steradian.

20
ƒ Radiation power density
ƒ Instantaneous ƒ Time average
Poynting vector Poynting vector
G G G
W EuH [ W/m ² ]
G
Wavg
1
2
G G
>
Re E u H @ [ W/m ² ]
[2-8]
[2-3]

ƒ Total instantaneous ƒ Average radiated

Power Power
G G G G [W]

P ³³ W x d
G
s [W] Prad ³³
s
W avg x d s
[2-9]
s [2-4]

21

ƒ Radiation intensity
“Power radiated per unit solid angle”

U r 2 Wavg [W/unit solid angle]

r2 G 2
U (T , I ) E( r , T , M )
2K


r2
2K
> E (r ,T , I )
T
2
 EI (r , T , I )
2
@ [2-12a]

far zone fields without 1/r factor

22
 Directivity

Directivity (D) - the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction

from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all
directions.

The directivity of an isotropic radiator is D(2,N) = 1.

The maximum directivity is defined as [D(2,N)]max = Do.

The directivity range for any antenna is 0 #D(2,N) #Do.

Directivity in dB

Directivity in terms of Beam Solid Angle

We may define the radiation intensity as

where Bo is a constant and F(2,N) is the radiation intensity pattern

function. The directivity then becomes

and the radiated power is

Inserting the expression for Prad into the directivity expression yields

The maximum directivity is

where the term SA in the previous equation is defined as the beam solid
angle and is defined by

Beam Solid Angle - the solid angle through which all of the antenna
power would flow if the radiation intensity were [U(2,N)]max for all
angles in SA.
Example (Directivity/Beam Solid Angle/Maximum Directivity)
Determine the directivity [D(2,N)], the beam solid angle SA and the
maximum directivity [Do] of an antenna defined by F(2,N) =
sin2 2 cos2 2.
In order to find [F(2,N)]max, we must solve
MATLAB m-file for plotting this directivity function
for i=1:100
theta(i)=pi*(i-1)/99;
d(i)=7.5*((cos(theta(i)))^2)*((sin(theta(i)))^2);
end
polar(theta,d)

90
2
120 60

1.5

150 1 30

0.5

180 0

210 330

240 300

270
Directivity/Beam Solid Angle Approximations

Given an antenna with one narrow major lobe and negligible radiation
in its minor lobes, the beam solid angle may be approximated by

where 21 and 22 are the half-power beamwidths (in radians) which are
perpendicular to each other. The maximum directivity, in this case, is
approximated by

If the beamwidths are measured in degrees, we have

Example (Approximate Directivity)

A horn antenna with low side lobes has half-power beamwidths of

o
29 in both principal planes (E-plane and H-plane). Determine the
approximate directivity (dB) of the horn antenna.
 Numerical Evaluation of Directivity

The maximum directivity of a given antenna may be written as

where U(2N) = Bo F(2,N). The integrals related to the radiated power in

the denominators of the terms above may not be analytically integrable.
In this case, the integrals must be evaluated using numerical techniques.
If we assume that the dependence of the radiation intensity on 2 and N is
separable, then we may write

The radiated power integral then becomes

Note that the assumption of a separable radiation intensity pattern function
results in the product of two separate integrals for the radiated power. We
may employ a variety of numerical integration techniques to evaluate the
integrals. The most straightforward of these techniques is the rectangular
rule (others include the trapezoidal rule, Gaussian quadrature, etc.) If we
first consider the 2-dependent integral, the range of 2 is first subdivided
into N equal intervals of length

The known function f (2) is then evaluated at the center of each

subinterval. The center of each subinterval is defined by

The area of each rectangular sub-region is given by

The overall integral is then approximated by

Using the same technique on the N-dependent integral yields

Combining the 2 and N dependent integration results gives the

approximate radiated power.

The approximate radiated power for antennas that are omnidirectional with
respect to N [g(N) = 1] reduces to
The approximate radiated power for antennas that are omnidirectional with
respect to 2 [ f(2) = 1] reduces to

For antennas which have a radiation intensity which is not separable in 2

and N, the a two-dimensional numerical integration must be performed
which yields

Example (Numerical evaluation of directivity)

Determine the directivity of a half-wave dipole given the radiation

intensity of
The maximum value of the radiation intensity for a half-wave dipole
occurs at 2 = B/2 so that

MATLAB m-file
sum=0.0;
N=input(’Enter the number of segments in the theta direction’)
for i=1:N
thetai=(pi/N)*(i-0.5);
sum=sum+(cos((pi/2)*cos(thetai)))^2/sin(thetai);
end
D=(2*N)/(pi*sum)

N Do
5 1.6428
10 1.6410
15 1.6409
20 1.6409
 Antenna Efficiency

When an antenna is driven by a voltage source (generator), the total

power radiated by the antenna will not be the total power available from
the generator. The loss factors which affect the antenna efficiency can be
identified by considering the common example of a generator connected
to a transmitting antenna via a transmission line as shown below.

Zg - source impedance

ZA - antenna impedance

Zo - transmission line characteristic impedance

Pin - total power delivered to the antenna terminals

Pohmic - antenna ohmic (I2R) losses

[conduction loss + dielectric loss]

Prad - total power radiated by the antenna

The total power delivered to the antenna terminals is less than that
available from the generator given the effects of mismatch at the source/t-
line connection, losses in the t-line, and mismatch at the t-line/antenna
connection. The total power delivered to the antenna terminals must equal
that lost to I2R (ohmic) losses plus that radiated by the antenna.
We may define the antenna radiation efficiency (ecd) as

which gives a measure of how efficient the antenna is at radiating the

power delivered to its terminals. The antenna radiation efficiency may be
written as a product of the conduction efficiency (ec) and the dielectric
efficiency (ed).

ec - conduction efficiency (conduction losses only)

ed - dielectric efficiency (dielectric losses only)

However, these individual efficiency terms are difficult to compute so that

they are typically determined by experimental measurement. This antenna
measurement yields the total antenna radiation efficiency such that the
individual terms cannot be separated.
Note that the antenna radiation efficiency does not include the
mismatch (reflection) losses at the t-line/antenna connection. This loss
factor is not included in the antenna radiation efficiency because it is not
inherent to the antenna alone. The reflection loss factor depends on the t-
line connected to the antenna. We can define the total antenna efficiency
(eo), which includes the losses due to mismatch as

eo - total antenna efficiency (all losses)

er - reflection efficiency (mismatch losses)

The reflection efficiency represents the ratio of power delivered to the

antenna terminals to the total power incident on the t-line/antenna
connection. The reflection efficiency is easily found from transmission
line theory in terms of the reflection coefficient ( ' ).

The total antenna efficiency then becomes

The definition of antenna efficiency (specifically, the antenna radiation

efficiency) plays an important role in the definition of antenna gain.

Antenna Gain

The definitions of antenna directivity and antenna gain are essentially

the same except for the power terms used in the definitions.

Directivity [D(2,N)] - ratio of the antenna radiated power density at a

distant point to the total antenna radiated power (Prad) radiated
isotropically.

Gain [G(2,N)] - ratio of the antenna radiated power density at a distant

point to the total antenna input power (Pin) radiated isotropically.

Thus, the antenna gain, being dependent on the total power delivered to the
antenna input terminals, accounts for the ohmic losses in the antenna while
the antenna directivity, being dependent on the total radiated power, does
not include the effect of ohmic losses.
The equations for directivity and gain are

The relationship between the directivity and gain of an antenna may be

found using the definition of the radiation efficiency of the antenna.

Gain in dB
 Antenna Impedance

The complex antenna impedance is defined in terms of resistive (real)

and reactive (imaginary) components.

RA - Antenna resistance
[(dissipation ) ohmic losses + radiation]

XA - Antenna reactance
[(energy storage) antenna near field]

We may define the antenna resistance as the sum of two resistances which
separately represent the ohmic losses and the radiation.

Rr - Antenna radiation resistance (radiation)

RL - Antenna loss resistance (ohmic loss)

The typical transmitting system can be defined by a generator,

transmission line and transmitting antenna as shown below.

The generator is modeled by a complex source voltage Vg and a complex

source impedance Zg.
In some cases, the generator may be connected directly to the antenna.

Inserting the complete source and antenna impedances yields

The complex power associated with any element in the equivalent circuit
is given by

where the * denotes the complex conjugate. We will assume peak values
for all voltages and currents in expressing the radiated power, the power
associated with ohmic losses, and the reactive power in terms of specific
components of the antenna impedance. The peak current for the simple
series circuit shown above is
The power radiated by the antenna (Pr) may be written as

The power dissipated as heat (PL ) may be written

The reactive power (imaginary component of the complex power) stored

in the antenna near field (PX) is
From the equivalent circuit for the generator/antenna system, we see that
maximum power transfer occurs when

The circuit current in this case is

The power radiated by the antenna is

The power dissipated in heat is

The power available from the generator source is

The power dissipated in the generator resistance is

Transmitting antenna system summary (maximum power transfer)

Power dissipated in
the generator [P/2]

Power available from

the generator [P] Power dissipated by the
antenna [(1!ecd)(P/2)]

Power delivered to
the antenna [P/2]

Power radiated by the

antenna [ecd (P/2)]

With an ideal transmitting antenna (ecd = 1) given maximum power

transfer, one-half of the power available from the generator is radiated by
the antenna.
The typical receiving system can be defined by a generator (receiving
antenna), transmission line and load (receiver) as shown below.

Assuming the receiving antenna is connected directly to the receiver

For the receiving system, maximum power transfer occurs when

The circuit current in this case is

The power captured by the receiving antenna is

Some of the power captured by the receiving antenna is re-radiated

(scattered). The power scattered by the antenna (Pscat) is

The power dissipated by the receiving antenna in the form of heat is

The power delivered to the receiver is

Receiving antenna system summary (maximum power transfer)

Power delivered to
the receiver [P/2]

Power captured by Power dissipated by the

the antenna [P] antenna [(1!ecd)(P/2)]

Power delivered to
the antenna [P/2]

Power scattered by the

antenna [ecd (P/2)]

With an ideal receiving antenna (ecd = 1) given maximum power transfer,

one-half of the power captured by the antenna is re-radiated (scattered) by
the antenna.
 Antenna Radiation Efficiency

The radiation efficiency (ecd) of a given antenna has previously been

defined in terms of the total power radiated by the antenna (Prad) and the
total power dissipated by the antenna in the form of ohmic losses (Pohmic).

The total radiated power and the total

ohmic losses were determined for the
general case of a transmitting antenna
using the equivalent circuit. The total
radiated power is that “dissipated” in
the antenna radiation resistance (Rr).

The total ohmic losses for the antenna are those dissipated in the antenna
loss resistance (RL).

Inserting the equivalent circuit results for Prad and Pohmic into the equation
for the antenna radiation efficiency yields

Thus, the antenna radiation efficiency may be found directly from the
antenna equivalent circuit parameters.
 Antenna Loss Resistance

The antenna loss resistance (conductor and dielectric losses) for many
antennas is typically difficult to calculate. In these cases, the loss
resistance is normally measured experimentally. However, the loss
resistance of wire antennas can be calculated easily and accurately.
Assuming a conductor of length l and cross-sectional area A which carries
a uniform current density, the DC resistance is

where F is the conductivity of the conductor. At high frequencies, the

current tends to crowd toward the outer surface of the conductor (skin
effect). The HF resistance can be defined in terms of the skin depth *.

where : is the permeability of the material and f is the frequency in Hz.

The skin depth for copper (F = 5.8×107 ®/m, : = :o = 4B×10!7 H/m) may
be written as
If we define the perimeter distance of the conductor as dp, then the HF
resistance of the conductor can be written as

where Rs is defined as the surface resistance of the material.

For the RHF equation to be accurate, the skin depth should be a small
fraction of the conductor maximum cross-sectional dimension. In the case
of a cylindrical conductor (dp . 2Ba), the HF resistance is

f * R
0 4 RDC = 0.818 mS
1 kHz 2.09 mm ~
10 kHz 0.661 mm RHF = 1.60 mS
100 kHz 0.209 mm RHF = 5.07 mS
1 MHz 0.0661 RHF = 16.0 mS
mm

Resistance of 1 m of #10 AWG (a = 2.59 mm) copper wire.

The high frequency resistance formula assumes that the current through the
conductor is sinusoidal in time and independent of position along the
conductor [Iz(z,t) = Io cos(Tt)]. On most antennas, the current is not
necessarily independent of position. However, given the actual current
distribution on the antenna, an equivalent RL can be calculated.

Example (Problem 2.44) [Loss resistance calculation]

A dipole antenna consists of a circular wire of length l. Assuming the
current distribution on the wire is cosinusoidal, i.e.,

Equivalent circuit equation

(uniform current, Io - peak)

Integration of incremental
power along the antenna
Thus, the loss resistance of a dipole antenna of length l is one-half that of
a the same conductor carrying a uniform current.
 Lossless Transmission Line Fundamentals

Transmission line equations (voltage and current)

~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~
+z directed !z directed
waves waves
 Transmitting/Receiving Systems with Transmission Lines

Using transmission line theory, the impedance seen looking into

the input terminals of the transmission line (Zin) is

The resulting equivalent circuit is shown below.

The current and voltage at the transmission line input terminals are
The power available from the generator is

The power delivered to the transmission line input terminals is

The power associated with the generator impedance is

Given the current and the voltage at the input to the transmission line, the
values at any point on the line can be found using the transmission line
equations.

The unknown coefficient Vo+ may be determined from either V(0) or I(0)
which were found in the input equivalent circuit. Using V(0) gives
where

Given the coefficient Vo+, the current and voltage at the load, from the
transmission line equations are

The power delivered to the load is then

The complexity of the previous equations leads to solutions which are

typically determined by computer or Smith chart.
MATLAB m-file (generator/t-line/load)
Vg=input(’Enter the complex generator voltage ’);
Zg=input(’Enter the complex generator impedance ’);
Zo=input(’Enter the lossless t-line characteristic impedance ’);
l=input(’Enter the lossless t-line length in wavelengths ’);
Zl=input(’Enter the complex load impedance ’);
j=0+1j;
betal=2*pi*l;
Zin=Zo*(Zl+j*Zo*tan(betal))/(Zo+j*Zl*tan(betal));
gammal=(Zl-Zo)/(Zl+Zo);
gamma0=gammal*exp(-j*2*betal);
Ig=Vg/(Zg+Zin);
Pg=0.5*Vg*conj(Ig);
V0=Ig*Zin;
P0=0.5*V0*conj(Ig);
Vcoeff=V0/(1+gamma0);
Vl=Vcoeff*exp(-j*betal)*(1+gammal);
Il=Vcoeff*exp(-j*betal)*(1-gammal)/Zo;
Pl=0.5*Vl*conj(Il);
s=(1+abs(gammal))/(1-abs(gammal));
format compact
Generator_voltage=Vg
Generator_current=Ig
Generator_power=Pg
Generator_impedance_voltage=Vg-V0
Generator_impedance_current=Ig
Generator_impedance_power=Pg-P0
T_line_input_voltage=V0
T_line_input_current=Ig
T_line_input_power=P0
T_line_input_impedance=Zin
T_line_input_reflection_coeff=gamma0
T_line_standing_wave_ratio=s
Load_voltage=Vl
Load_current=Il
Load_power=Pl
Load_reflection_coeff=gammal

Given Vg = (10+j0) V, Zg = (100+j0) S and l = 5.1258, the following results are found.

Zo ZL Zin * '(0)*=*'(l)* Pg s P(l)

100 75 96+j28 0.1429 0.25 1.3333 0.1224
100 100 100 0 0.25 1 0.125
100 125 98!j22 0.1111 0.25 1.25 0.1235
75 100 72!j21 0.1429 0.2864 1.3333 0.1199
100 100 100 0 0.25 1 0.125
125 100 122+j27 0.1111 0.2219 1.25 0.1219
 Antenna Polarization

The polarization of an plane wave is defined by the figure traced by

the instantaneous electric field at a fixed observation point. The following
are the most commonly encountered polarizations assuming the wave is
approaching.
The polarization of the antenna in a given direction is defined as the
polarization of the wave radiated in that direction by the antenna. Note
that any of the previous polarization figures may be rotated by some
arbitrary angle.

Polarization loss factor

Incident wave polarization

Antenna polarization

Polarization loss factor (PLF)

PLF in dB
 General Polarization Ellipse

The vector electric field associated with a +z-directed plane wave can
be written in general phasor form as

where Ex and Ey are complex phasors which may be defined in terms of

magnitude and phase.
The instantaneous components of the electric field are found by
multiplying the phasor components by e jT t and taking the real part.

(x (z,t)

(y (z,t)

The relative positions of the instantaneous electric field components on the

general polarization ellipse defines the polarization of the plane wave.

Linear Polarization

If we define the phase shift between the two electric field

components as

we find that a phase shift of

defines a linearly polarized wave.

(x (z,t)

(y (z,t)

Examples of linear polarization:

If Eyo = 0 Y Linear polarization in the x-direction (J = 0)

If Exo = 0 Y Linear polarization in the y-direction (J = 90o)
If Exo = Eyo and n is even Y Linear polarization (J = 45o)
If Exo = Eyo and n is odd Y Linear polarization (J = 135o)
Circular Polarization

If Exo = Eyo and

then
(x (z,t)

(y (z,t)

This is left-hand circular polarization.

If Exo = Eyo and

then
(x (z,t)

(y (z,t)

This is right-hand circular polarization.

Elliptical Polarization

Elliptical polarization follows definitions as circular polarization

except that Exo ú Eyo.

Exo ú Eyo, )N = (2n+½)B Y left-hand elliptical polarization

Exo ú Eyo, )N = !(2n+½)B Y right-hand elliptical polarization
 Antenna Equivalent Areas

Antenna Effective Aperture (Area)

Given a receiving antenna oriented for maximum response,

polarization matched to the incident wave, and impedance matched to its
load, the resulting power delivered to the receiver (Prec) may be defined in
terms of the antenna effective aperture (Ae) as

where S is the power density of the incident wave (magnitude of the

Poynting vector) defined by

According to the equivalent circuit under matched conditions,

We may solve for the antenna effective aperture which gives

Antenna Scattering Area

The total power scattered by the receiving antenna is defined as the

product of the incident power density and the antenna scattering area (As).

From the equivalent circuit, the total scattered power is

which gives

Antenna Loss Area

The total power dissipated as heat by the receiving antenna is defined

as the product of the incident power density and the antenna loss area
(AL).

From the equivalent circuit, the total dissipated power is

which gives
Antenna Capture Area

The total power captured by the receiving antenna (power delivered

to the load + power scattered by the antenna + power dissipated in the form
of heat) is defined as the product of the incident power density and the
antenna capture area (Ac).

The total power captured by the antenna is

which gives

Note that Ac = Ae + As + AL.

 Maximum Directivity and Effective Aperture

Assume the transmitting and receiving antennas are lossless and

oriented for maximum response.

Aet, Dot - transmit antenna effective aperture and maximum directivity

Aer, Dor - receive antenna effective aperture and maximum directivity

If we assume that the total power transmitted by the transmit antenna is Pt,
the power density at the receive antenna (Wr) is

The total power received by the receive antenna (Pr) is

which gives

If we interchange the transmit and receive antennas, the previous

equation still holds true by interchanging the respective transmit and
receive quantities (assuming a linear, isotropic medium), which gives
These two equations yield

or

If the transmit antenna is an isotropic radiator, we will later show that

which gives

Therefore, the equivalent aperture of a lossless antenna may be defined in

terms of the maximum directivity as

The overall antenna efficiency (eo) may be included to account for the
ohmic losses and mismatch losses in an antenna with losses.

The effect of polarization loss can also be included to yield

Effective Area and Gain___________________________________________________________________________________Hon Tat Hui

λ2 λ2
Proof of A e (θ, φ) = D(θ, φ) = g (θ, φ)
4π 4π

Extracted from the book:

Kai Fong Lee, Principles of Antenna Theory, John Wiley & Sons, 1984, pp. 74-76.

1
Effective Area and Gain___________________________________________________________________________________Hon Tat Hui

2
 Friis Transmission Equation

The Friis transmission equation defines the relationship between

transmitted power and received power in an arbitrary transmit/receive
antenna system. Given arbitrarily oriented transmitting and receiving
antennas, the power density at the receiving antenna (Wr) is

where Pt is the input power at the terminals of the transmit antenna and
where the transmit antenna gain and directivity for the system performance
are related by the overall efficiency

where ecdt is the radiation efficiency of the transmit antenna and 't is the
reflection coefficient at the transmit antenna terminals. Notice that this
definition of the transmit antenna gain includes the mismatch losses for the
transmit system in addition to the conduction and dielectric losses. A
manufacturer’s specification for the antenna gain will not include the
mismatch losses.
The total received power delivered to the terminals of the receiving
antenna (Pr) is

where the effective aperture of the receiving antenna (Aer) must take into
account the orientation of the antenna. We may extend our previous
definition of the antenna effective aperture (obtained using the maximum
directivity) to a general effective aperture for any antenna orientation.

The total received power is then

such that the ratio of received power to transmitted power is

Including the polarization losses yields

For antennas aligned for maximum response, reflection-matched and

polarization matched, the Friis transmission equation reduces to
 Radar Range Equation and Radar Cross Section

The Friis transmission formula can be used to determine the radar

range equation. In order to determine the maximum range at which a given
target can be detected by radar, the type of radar system (monostatic or
bistatic) and the scattering properties of the target (radar cross section)
must be known.

Monostatic radar system - transmit and receive antennas at the

same location.

Bistatic radar system- transmit and receive antennas at separate

locations.
Radar cross section (RCS) - a measure of the ability of a target to reflect
(scatter) electromagnetic energy (units = m2). The area which intercepts
that amount of total power which, when scattered isotropically,
produces the same power density at the receiver as the actual target.

If we define
F = radar cross section (m2)
Wi = incident power density at the target (W/m2)
Pc = equivalent power captured by the target (W)
Ws = scattered power density at the receiver (W/m2)

According to the definition of the target RCS, the relationship between the
incident power density at the target and the scattered power density at the
receive antenna is

The limit is usually included since we must be in the far-field of the target
for the radar cross section to yield an accurate result.
The radar cross section may be written as

where (Ei, Hi) are the incident electric and magnetic fields at the target and
(Es, Hs) are the scattered electric and magnetic fields at the receiver. The
incident power density at the target generated by the transmitting antenna
(Pt, Gt, Dt, eot, 't, at ) is given by

The total power captured by the target (Pc) is

The power captured by the target is scattered isotropically so that the

scattered power density at the receiver is

The power delivered to the receiving antenna load is

Showing the conduction losses, mismatch losses and polarization losses
explicitly, the ratio of the received power to transmitted power becomes

where

aw - polarization unit vector for the scattered waves

ar - polarization unit vector for the receive antenna

Given matched antennas aligned for maximum response and polarization

matched, the general radar range equation reduces to
Example

Problem 2.65 A radar antenna, used for both transmitting and

receiving, has a gain of 150 at its operating frequency of 5 GHz. It
transmits 100 kW, and is aligned for maximum directional radiation and
reception to a target 1 km away having a cross section of 3 m2. The
received signal matches the polarization of the transmitted signal. Find the
received power.
 Determination of Antenna Radiation Fields
Using Potential Functions

Sources of Antenna
Radiation Fields
6 J - vector electric current density (A/m2)
M - vector magnetic current density (V/m2)

Some problems involving electric currents can be cast in equivalent forms

involving magnetic currents (the use of magnetic currents is simply a
mathematical tool, they have never been proven to exist).

A - magnetic vector potential (due to J)

F - electric vector potential (due to M)

In order to account for both electric current and/or magnetic current

sources, the symmetric form of Maxwell’s equations must be utilized to
determine the resulting radiation fields. The symmetric form of Maxwell’s
equations include additional radiation sources (electric charge density - D
and magnetic charge density Dm). However, these charges can always be
related directly to the current via conservation of charge equations.
Maxwell’s equations (symmetric, time-harmonic form)

The use of potentials in the solution of radiation fields employs the concept
of superposition of fields.

Electric current
source (J, D)
Y Magnetic vector
potential (A)
Y Radiation fields
(EA, H A)

Magnetic current
source (M, Dm)
Y Electric vector
potential (F)
Y Radiation fields
(EF, H F)

The total radiation fields (E, H) are the sum of the fields due to electric
currents (EA, H A) and the fields due to the magnetic currents (EF, H F).

Maxwell’s Equations (electric sources only Y F = 0)

Maxwell’s Equations (magnetic sources only Y A = 0)

Based on the vector identity,

any vector with zero divergence (rotational or solenoidal field) can be

expressed as the curl of some other vector. From Maxwell’s equations with
electric or magnetic sources only [Equations (1d) and (2c)], we find

so that we may define these vectors as

where A and F are the magnetic and electric vector potentials, respectively.
The flux density definitions in Equations (3a) and (3b) lead to the
following field definitions:

Inserting (3a) into (1a) and (3b) into (2b) yields

Equations (5a) and (5b) can be rewritten as

Based on the vector identity

the bracketed terms in (6a) and (6b) represent non-solenoidal (lamellar or

irrotational fields) and may each be written as the gradient of some scalar

where Ne is the electric scalar potential and Nm is the magnetic scalar

potential. Solving equations (7a) and (7b) for the electric and magnetic
fields yields

Equations (4a) and (8a) give the fields (EA, HA) due to electric sources
while Equations (4b) and (8b) give the fields (EF, HF) due to magnetic
sources. Note that these radiated fields are obtained by differentiating the
respective vector and scalar potentials.
The integrals which define the vector and scalar potential can be
found by first taking the curl of both sides of Equations (4a) and (4b):

According to the vector identity

and Equations (1b) and (2a), we find

Inserting Equations (7a) and (7b) into (10a) and (10b), respectively
gives

We have defined the rotational (curl) properties of the magnetic and

electric vector potentials [Equations (3a) and (3b)] but have not yet defined
the irrotational (divergence) properties. If we choose

Then, Equations (11a) and (11b) reduce to

The relationship chosen for the vector and scalar potentials defined in
Equations (12a) and (12b) is defined as the Lorentz gauge [other choices
for these relationships are possible]. Equations (13a) and (13b) are defined
as inhomogenous Helmholtz vector wave equations which have solutions
of the form
where r locates the field point (where the field is measured) and rN locates
the source point (where the current is located). Similar inhomogeneous
Helmholtz scalar wave equations can be found for the electric and
magnetic scalar potentials.

The solutions to the scalar potential equations are

Determination of Radiation Fields Using Potentials - Summary
Notice in the previous set equations for the radiated fields in terms of
potentials that the equations for EA and HF both contain a complex
differentiation involving the gradient and divergence operators. In order
to avoid this complex differentiation, we may alternatively determine EA
and HF directly from Maxwell’s equations once EF and HA have been
determined using potentials. From Maxwell’s equations for electric
currents and magnetic currents, we have
(1)
(2)
In antenna problems, the regions where we want to determine the radiated
fields are away from the sources. Thus, we may set J = 0 in Equation (1)
to solve for EA and set M = 0 in Equation (2) to solve for HF. This yields

The total fields by superposition are

which gives
 Antenna Far Fields in Terms of Potentials

As shown previously, the magnetic vector potential and electric

vector potentials are defined as integrals of the (antenna) electric or
magnetic current density.

If we are interested in determining the antenna far fields, then we must

determine the potentials in the far field. We will find that the integrals
defining the potentials simplify in the far field. In the far field, the vectors
r and r !rN becomes nearly parallel.

(1)
Using the approximation in (1) in the appropriate terms of the potential
integrals yields

(2)

If we assume that r >> (rN )max, then the denominator of (2) may be
simplified to give

(3)

Note that the rN term in the numerator complex exponential term in (3)
cannot be neglected since it represents a phase shift term that may still be
significant even in the far field. The r-dependent terms can be brought
outside the integral since the potential integrals are integrated over the
source (primed) coordinates. Thus, the far field integrals defining the
potentials become

(4)

(5)

The potentials have the form of spherical waves as we would expect in the
far field of the antenna. Also note that the complete r-dependence of the
potentials is given outside the integrals. The rN term in the potential
integrands can be expressed in terms of whatever coordinate system best
fits the geometry of the source current. Spherical coordinates should
always be used for the field coordinates in the far field based on the
spherical symmetry of the far fields.
Rectangular coordinate source

Cylindrical coordinate source

Spherical coordinate source

The results of the far field potential integrations in Equations (4) and (5)
may be written as
The electric field due to an electric current source (EA) and the magnetic
field due to a magnetic current source (HF) are defined by

(6)

(7)

If we expand the differential operators in Equations (6) and (7) in spherical

coordinates, given the known r-dependence, we find that the ar-dependent
terms cancel and all of the other terms produced by this differentiation are
of dependence r!2 or lower. These field contributions are much smaller in
the far field than the contributions from the first terms in Equations (6) and
(7) which vary as r!1. Thus, in the far field, EA and HF may be
approximated as
(8)

(9)

The corresponding components of the fields (HA and EF) can be found
using the basic plane wave relationship between the electric and magnetic
field in the far field of the antenna. Since the radiated far field must
behave like a outward propagating spherical wave which looks essentially
like a plane wave as r 64, the far field components of HA and EF are
related to the far field components of EA and HF by
Solving the previous equations for the individual components of HA and
EF yields

Thus, once the far field potential integral is evaluated, the corresponding
far field can be found using the simple algebraic formulas above (the
differentiation has already been performed).
 Duality

Duality - If the equations governing two different phenomena are

identical in mathematical form, then the solutions also take on the same
mathematical form (dual quantities).

Dual Equations

Electric Sources Magnetic Sources

 Dual Quantities

Electric Sources Magnetic Sources

 Reciprocity

Consider two sets of sources defined by (Ja , Ma) within the volume
Va and (Jb , Mb) within the volume Vb radiating at the same frequency. The
sources (Ja , Ma) radiate the fields (Ea , Ha) while the sources (Jb , Mb)
radiate the fields (Eb , Hb). The sources are assumed to be of finite extent
and the region between the antennas is assumed to be isotropic and linear.
We may write two separate sets of Maxwell’s equations for the two sets of
sources.

If we dot (1a) with Eb and dot (2b) with Ha, we find

Adding Equations (3a) and (3b) yields

The previous equation may be rewritten using the following vector identity.

which gives

If we dot (1b) with Ea and dot (2a) with Hb, and perform the same
operations, then we find

Subtracting (4a) from (4b) gives

If we integrate both sides of Equation (5) throughout all space and apply
the divergence theorem to the left hand side, then

The surface on the left hand side of Equation (6) is a sphere of infinite
radius on which the radiated fields approach zero. The volume V includes
all space. Therefore, we may write
Note that the left hand side of the previous integral depends on the “b” set
of sources while the right hand side depends on the “a” set of sources.
Since we have limited the sources to the volumes Va and Vb, we may limit
the volume integrals in (7) to the respective source volumes so that

Equation (8) represents the general form of the reciprocity theorem.

We may use the reciprocity theorem to analyze a transmitting-
receiving antenna system. Consider the antenna system shown below. For
mathematical simplicity, let’s assume that the antennas are perfectly-
conducting, electrically short dipole antennas.

The source integrals in the general 3-D reciprocity theorem of Equation (8)
simplify to line integrals for the case of wire antennas.

Furthermore, the electric field along the perfectly conducting wire is zero
so that the integration can be reduced to the antenna terminals (gaps).
If we further assume that the antenna current is uniform over the
electrically short dipole antennas, then

The line integral of the electric field transmitted by the opposite antenna
over the antenna terminal gives the resulting induced open circuit voltage.

If we write the two port equations for the antenna system, we find

Note that the impedances Zab and Zba have been shown to be equal from the
reciprocity theorem.
Therefore, if we place a current source on antenna a and measure the
response at antenna b, then switch the current source to antenna b and
measure the response at antenna a, we find the same response (magnitude
and phase). Also, since the transfer impedances (Zab and Zba) are identical,
the transmit and receive patterns of a given antenna are identical. Thus, we
may measure the pattern of a given antenna in either the transmitting mode
or receiving mode, whichever is more convenient.
 Wire Antennas

Electrical Size of an Antenna - the physical dimensions of the antenna

defined relative to wavelength.

Electrically small antenna - the dimensions of the antenna are small

relative to wavelength.

Electrically large antenna - the dimensions of the antenna are large

relative to wavelength.

Example Consider a dipole antenna of length L = 1m. Determine the

electrical length of the dipole at f = 3 MHz and f = 30 GHz.

f = 3 MHz f = 30 GHz
(8 = 100m) (8 = 0.01m)
Electrically small Electrically large
 Infinitesimal Dipole
()l . 8/50, a << 8)

We assume that the axial current along the infinitesimal dipole is

uniform. With a << 8, we may assume that any circumferential currents
are negligible and treat the dipole as a current filament.

The infinitesimal dipole with a constant current along its length is a non-
physical antenna. However, the infinitesimal dipole approximates several
physically realizable antennas.
Capacitor-plate antenna (top-hat-loaded antenna)

The “capacitor plates” can be actual conductors or simply the wire

equivalent. The fields radiated by the radial currents tend to cancel each
other in the far field so that the far fields of the capacitor plate antenna can
be approximated by the infinitesimal dipole.

Transmission line loaded antenna

If we assume that L . 8/4, then the current along the antenna resembles
that of a half-wave dipole.
Inverted-L antenna

Using image theory, the inverted-L antenna is equivalent to the

transmission line loaded antenna.

Based on the current distributions on these antennas, the far fields of the
capacitor plate antenna, the transmission line loaded antenna and the
inverted-L antenna can all be approximated by the far fields of the
infinitesimal dipole.
 To determine the fields radiated by the infinitesimal dipole, we first
determine the magnetic vector potential A due to the given electric current
source J (M = 0, F = 0).

The infinitesimal dipole magnetic vector potential given in the previous

equation is a rectangular coordinate vector with the magnitude defined in
terms of spherical coordinates. The rectangular coordinate vector can be
transformed into spherical coordinates using the standard coordinate
transformation.
The total magnetic vector potential may then be written in vector form as

Because of the true point source nature of the infinitesimal dipole ()l .
8/50), the equation above for the magnetic vector potential of the
infinitesimal dipole is valid everywhere. We may use this expression for
A to determine both near fields and far fields.

The radiated fields of the infinitesimal dipole are found by

differentiating the magnetic vector potential.
The electric field is found using either potential theory or Maxwell’s
equations.

Potential Theory

Maxwell’s Equations (J = 0 away from the source)

Note that electric field expression in terms of potentials requires two levels
of differentiation while the Maxwell’s equations equation requires only one
level of differentiation. Thus, using Maxwell’s equations, we find
fields radiated by an
infinitesimal dipole
 Field Regions of the Infinitesimal Dipole

We may separate the fields of the infinitesimal dipole into the three
standard regions:

³ Reactive near field kr << 1

´ Radiating near field kr > 1
µ Far field kr >> 1

4.5

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Considering the bracketed terms [ ] in the radiated field expressions for the
infinitesimal dipole ...

³ Reactive near field (kr << 1) (kr)-2 terms dominate

´ Radiating near field (kr > 1) constant terms dominate if present
otherwise, (kr)-1 terms dominate
µ Far field (kr >> 1) constant terms dominate
Reactive near field [ kr << 1 or r << 8/2B ]

When kr << 1, the terms which vary inversely with the highest power
of kr are dominant. Thus, the near field of the infinitesimal dipole is given
by

Infinitesimal dipole
near fields

Note the 90o phase difference between the electric field components and
the magnetic field component (these components are in phase quadrature)
which indicates reactive power (stored energy, not radiation). If we
investigate the Poynting vector of the dominant near field terms, we find

The Poynting vector (complex vector power density) for the infinitesimal
dipole near field is purely imaginary. An imaginary Poynting vector
corresponds to standing waves or stored energy (reactive power).
 The vector form of the near electric field is the same as that for an
electrostatic dipole (charges +q and !q separated by a distance )l).

If we replace the term (Io0/k) by in the near electric field terms by its
charge equivalent expression, we find

The electric field expression above is identical to that of the electrostatic

dipole except for the complex exponential term (the infinitesimal dipole
electric field oscillates). This result is related to the assumption of a
uniform current over the length of the infinitesimal dipole. The only way
for the current to be uniform, even at the ends of the wire, is for charge to
build up and decay at the ends of the dipole as the current oscillates.
The near magnetic field of the infinitesimal dipole can be shown to
be mathematically equivalent to that of a short DC current segment
multiplied by the same complex exponential term.
Radiating near field [ kr ù 1 or r ù 8/2B ]

The dominant terms for the radiating near field of the infinitesimal
dipole are the terms which are constant with respect to kr for E2 and HN
and the term proportional to (kr)-1 for Er.

Infinitesimal dipole
radiating near field

Note that E2 and HN are now in phase which yields a Poynting vector for
these two components which is purely real (radiation). The direction of
this component of the Poynting vector is outward radially denoting the
outward radiating real power.

Far field [ kr >> 1 or r >> 8/2B ]

The dominant terms for the far field of the infinitesimal dipole are the
terms which are constant with respect to kr.

Infinitesimal dipole
far field
Note that the far field components of E and H are the same two
components which produced the radially-directed real-valued Poynting
vector (radiated power) for the radiating near field. Also note that there is
no radial component of E or H so that the propagating wave is a transverse
electromagnetic (TEM) wave. For very large values of r, this TEM wave
approaches a plane wave. The ratio of the far electric field to the far
magnetic field for the infinitesimal dipole yields the intrinsic impedance
of the medium.
 Far Field of an Arbitrarily Oriented Infinitesimal Dipole

Given the equations for the far field of an infinitesimal dipole

oriented along the z-axis, we may generalize these equations for an
infinitesimal dipole antenna oriented in any direction. The far fields of
infinitesimal dipole oriented along the z-axis are

If we rotate the antenna by some arbitrary angle " and define the new
direction of the current flow by the unit vector a" , the resulting far fields
are simply a rotated version of the original equations above. In the rotated
coordinate system, we must define new angles (",$) that correspond to the
spherical coordinate angles (2,N) in the original coordinate system. The
angle $ is shown below referenced to the x-axis (as N is defined) but can
be referenced to any convenient axis that could represent a rotation in the
N-direction.
 Note that the infinitesimal far fields in the original coordinate system
depend on the spherical coordinates r and 2. The value of r is identical in
the two coordinates systems since it represents the distance from the
coordinate origin. However, we must determine the transformation from
2 to ". The transformations of the far fields in the original coordinate
system to those in the rotated coordinate system can be written as

Specifically, we need the definition of sin ". According to the

trigonometric identity

we may write

Based on the definition of the dot product, the cos " term may be written
as

so that

Inserting our result for the sin " term yields

Example

Determine the far fields of an infinitesimal dipole oriented along the

y-axis.
 Poynting’s Theorem (Conservation of Power)

Poynting’s theorem defines the basic principle of conservation of

power which may be applied to radiating antennas. The derivation of the
time-harmonic form of Poynting’s vector begins with the following vector
identity

If we insert the Poynting vector (S = E × H*) in the left hand side of the
above identity, we find

From Maxwell’s equations, the curl of E and H are

such that

Integrating both sides of this equation over any volume V and applying the
divergence theorem to the left hand side gives

The current density in the equation above consists of two components: the
impressed (source) current (Ji) and the conduction current (Jc).
Inserting the current expression and dividing both sides of the equation by
2 yields Poynting’s theorem.

The individual terms in the above equation may be identified as

Poynting’s theorem may then be written as

 Total Power and Radiation Resistance

To determine the total complex power (radiated plus reactive)

produced by the infinitesimal dipole, we integrate the Poynting vector over
a spherical surface enclosing the antenna. We must use the complete field
expressions to determine both the radiated and reactive power. The time-
average complex Poynting vector is

The total complex power passing through the spherical surface of radius
r is found by integrating the normal component of the Poynting vector over
the surface.
The terms WeN and WmN represent the radial electric and magnetic energy
flow through the spherical surface S.

The total power through the sphere is

The real and imaginary parts of the complex power are

The radiation resistance for the infinitesimal dipole is found according to

Infinitesimal dipole
radiation resistance
 Infinitesimal Dipole Radiation Intensity and Directivity

The radiation intensity of the infinitesimal dipole may be found by

using the previously determined total fields.

Infinitesimal dipole
directivity function
Infinitesimal dipole
Maximum directivity
 Infinitesimal Dipole Effective Aperture and Solid Beam Angle

The effective aperture of the infinitesimal dipole is found from the

maximum directivity:

Infinitesimal dipole
effective aperture

The beam solid angle for the infinitesimal dipole can be found from the
maximum directivity,

or can be determined directly from the radiation intensity function.

Infinitesimal dipole
beam solid angle
 Short Dipole
(8/50 # l # 8/10, a <<8)
Note that the magnetic vector potential of the short dipole (length = l, peak
current = Io) is one half that of the equivalent infinitesimal dipole (length
)l = l, current = Io).
The average current on the short dipole is one half that of the equivalent
infinitesimal dipole. Therefore, the fields produced by the short dipole are
exactly one half those produced by the equivalent infinitesimal dipole.

Short dipole
radiated fields

Short dipole
near fields

Short dipole
radiating near field
 Short dipole
far field

Since the fields produced by the short dipole are one half those of the
equivalent infinitesimal dipole, the real power radiated by the short dipole
is one fourth that of the infinitesimal dipole. Thus, Prad for the short dipole
is

and the associated radiation resistance is

Short dipole
radiation resistance

The directivity function, the maximum directivity, effective area and beam
solid angle of the short dipole are all identical to the corresponding value
for the infinitesimal dipole.
 Center-Fed Dipole Antenna
(a << 8)

If we assume that the dipole antenna is driven at its center, we may

assume that the current distribution is symmetrical along the antenna.

We use the previously defined approximations for the far field magnetic
vector potential to determine the far fields of the center-fed dipole.
 field coordinates (spherical)

Source coordinates (rectangular)

For the center-fed dipole lying along the z-axis, xN = yN = 0, so that

Transforming the z-directed vector potential to spherical coordinates gives

(Center-fed dipole far field magnetic vector potential )

The far fields of the center-fed dipole in terms of the magnetic vector
potential are

(Center-fed dipole far field electric field)

(Center-fed dipole far field magnetic field)

The time-average complex Poynting vector in the far field of the center-fed
dipole is

The radiation intensity function for the center-fed dipole is given by

(Center-fed dipole radiation intensity function)

We may plot the normalized radiation intensity function [U(2) = BoF(2)]

to determine the effect of the antenna length on its radiation pattern.
 l = 8 /10 l = 8 /2

l=8 l = 38/2

In general, we see that the directivity of the antenna increases as the length
goes from a short dipole (a fraction of a wavelength) to a full wavelength.
As the length increases above a wavelength, more lobes are introduced into
the radiation pattern.
 l = 8 /10 l = 8 /2

1 1

0.9 0.9

0.8 0.8

0.7 0.7

0.6 0.6
I(z) / Io

I(z) / Io
0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1

0 0
-0.05 -0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 -0.25 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
z/ λ z/ λ

l=8 l = 38/2

1 1

0.9 0.8

0.8 0.6

0.7 0.4

0.6 0.2
I(z) / Io

I(z) / Io

0.5 0

0.4 -0.2

0.3 -0.4

0.2 -0.6

0.1 -0.8

0 -1
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
z/ λ z/ λ
The total real power radiated by the center-fed dipole is

The 2-dependent integral in the radiated power expression cannot be

integrated analytically. However, the integral may be manipulated, using
several transformations of variables, into a form containing some
commonly encountered special functions (integrals) known as the sine
integral and cosine integral.

The radiated power of the center-fed dipole becomes

The radiated power is related to the radiation resistance of the antenna by

which gives

(Center-fed dipole radiation resistance)

The directivity function of the center-fed dipole is given by

 Center-fed dipole
directivity function

The maximum directivity is

Center-fed dipole
maximum directivity

The effective aperture is

Center-fed dipole
effective aperture

Center-fed dipole
Solid beam angle
Half-Wave Dipole

Center-fed
half-wave dipole
far fields

Center-fed
half-wave dipole
radiation intensity
function
Center-fed half-wave dipole
radiation resistance (in air)
 Center-fed
half-wave dipole
directivity
function

Center-fed half-wave dipole

maximum directivity

Center-fed half-wave dipole

effective aperture
 Dipole Input Impedance

The input impedance of the dipole is defined as the ratio of voltage

to current at the antenna feed point.

The real and reactive time-average power delivered to the terminals of the
antenna may be written as

If we assume that the antenna is lossless (RL = 0), then the real power
delivered to the input terminals equals that radiated by the antenna. Thus,
and the antenna input resistance is related to the antenna radiation
resistance by

In a similar fashion, we may equate the reactive power delivered to the

antenna input terminals to that stored in the near field of the antenna.

or

The general dipole current is defined by

The current Iin is the current at the feed point of the dipole (zN = 0) so that

The input resistance and reactance of the antenna are then related to the
equivalent circuit values of radiation resistance and the antenna reactance
by
The dipole reactance may be determined in closed form using a technique
known as the induced EMF method (Chapter 8) but requires that the radius
of the wire (a) be included. The resulting dipole reactance is

(Center-fed dipole reactance)

The input resistance and reactance are plotted in Figure 8.16 (p.411) for a
dipole of radius a = 10-58. If the dipole is 0.58 in length, the input
impedance is found to be approximately (73 + j42.5) S. The first dipole
resonance (Xin = 0) occurs when the dipole length is slightly less than one-
half wavelength. The exact resonant length depends on the wire radius, but
for wires that are electrically very thin, the resonant length of the dipole is
approximately 0.488. As the wire radius increases, the resonant length
decreases slightly [see Figure 8.17 (p.412)].
 Antenna and Scatterers

All of the antennas considered thus far have been assumed to be

radiating in a homogeneous medium of infinite extent. When an antenna
radiates in the presence of a conductor(inhomogeneous medium), currents
are induced on the conductor which re-radiate (scatter) additional fields.
The total fields produced by an antenna in the presence of a scatterer are
the superposition of the original radiated fields (incident fields, [E inc,H inc]
those produced by the antenna in the absence of the scatterer) plus the
fields produced by the currents induced on the scatterer (scattered fields,
[E scat,H scat]).

To evaluate the total fields, we must first determine the scattered

fields which depend on the currents flowing on the scatterer. The
determination of the scatterer currents typically requires a numerical
scheme (integral equation in terms of the scatterer currents or a differential
equation in the form of a boundary value problem). However, for simple
scatterer shapes, we may use image theory to simplify the problem.
 Image Theory

Given an antenna radiating over a perfect conducting ground plane,

[perfect electric conductor (PEC), perfect magnetic conductor (PMC)] we
may use image theory to formulate the total fields without ever having to
determine the surface currents induced on the ground plane. Image theory
is based on the electric or magnetic field boundary condition on the surface
of the perfect conductor (the tangential electric field is zero on the surface
of a PEC, the tangential magnetic field is zero on the surface of a PMC).
Using image theory, the ground plane can be replaced by the equivalent
image current located an equal distance below the ground plane. The
original current and its image radiate in a homogeneous medium of infinite
extent and we may use the corresponding homogeneous medium equations.

Example (vertical electric dipole)

Currents over a PEC

Currents over a PMC

 Vertical Infinitesimal Dipole Over Ground

Give a vertical infinitesimal electric dipole (z-directed) located a

distance h over a PEC ground plane, we may use image theory to
determine the overall radiated fields.

The individual contributions to the electric field by the original dipole and
its image are

In the far field, the lines defining r, r1 and r2 become almost parallel so that
The previous expressions for r1 and r2 are necessary for the phase terms in
the dipole electric field expressions. But, for amplitude terms, we may
assume that r1. r2 . r. The total field becomes

The normalized power pattern for the vertical infinitesimal dipole over a
PEC ground is

h = 0.18 h = 0.258
h = 0.58 h=8

h = 28 h = 108
 Since the radiated fields of the infinitesimal dipole over ground are
different from those of the isolated antenna, the basic parameters of the
antenna are also different. The far fields of the infinitesimal dipole are

The time-average Poynting vector is

The corresponding radiation intensity function is

The maximum value of the radiation intensity function is found at 2 = B/2.

The radiated power is found by integrating the radiation intensity function.

 (Infinitesimal dipole over ground radiation resistance)

The directivity function of the infinitesimal dipole over ground is

so that the maximum directivity (at 2 = B/2) is given by

(Infinitesimal dipole over ground maximum directivity)

Given an infinitesimal dipole of length )l = 8/50, we may plot the
radiation resistance and maximum directivity as a function of the antenna
height to see the effect of the ground plane.

0.8 8

0.7 7

0.6 6

0.5 5
Rr (Ω)

Do
0.4 4

0.3 3

0.2 2

0.1 1

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
h/λ h/λ

For an isolated infinitesimal dipole of length )l = 8/50, the radiation

resistance is

and the maximum directivity (independent of antenna length) is Do = 1.5.

Note that Rr of the infinitesimal dipole over ground approaches twice that
of Rr for an isolated dipole as h 60 (see the relationship between a
monopole antenna and its equivalent dipole antenna in the next section).
As the height is increased, the radiation resistance of the infinitesimal
dipole over ground approaches that of an isolated dipole. The directivity
of the infinitesimal dipole over ground approaches a value twice that of the
isolated dipole as h 6 0 and four times that of the isolated dipole as h
grows large. This follows from our definition of the total radiated power
and maximum directivity for the isolated antenna and the antenna over
ground.
First, we note the relationship between Umax for the isolated dipole and the
dipole over ground.

Note that Umax for the antenna over ground is independent of the height of
the antenna over ground.

h60

h 6 large
 Monopole

Using image theory, the monopole antenna over a PEC ground plane
may be shown to be equivalent to a dipole antenna in a homogeneous
region. The equivalent dipole is twice the length of the monopole and is
driven with twice the antenna source voltage. These equivalent antennas
generate the same fields in the region above the ground plane.
The input impedance of the equivalent antennas is given by

The input impedance of the monopole is exactly one-half that of the

equivalent dipole. Therefore, we may determine the monopole radiation
resistance for monopoles of different lengths according to the results of the
equivalent dipole.

Infinitesimal dipole
[length = )l < 8/50]

Infinitesimal monopole
[length = )l < 8/100]

Short dipole
[length = l, (8/50 # l # 8/10)]

Short monopole
[length = l, (8/100 # l # 8/20)]

Lossless half-wave dipole

[length = l = 8/2]

Lossless quarter-wave monopole

[length = l = 8/4]
The total power radiated by the monopole is one-half that of the equivalent
dipole. But, the monopole radiates into one-half the volume of the dipole
yielding equivalent fields and power densities in the upper half space.

The directivities of the two equivalent antennas are related by

Infinitesimal dipole
[length = )l < 8/50]

Infinitesimal monopole
[length = )l < 8/100]

Lossless half-wave dipole

[length = l = 8/2]

Lossless quarter-wave monopole

[length = l = 8/4]
 Ground Effects on Antennas

At most frequencies, the conductivity of the earth is such that the

ground may be accurately approximated by a PEC. Given an antenna
located over a PEC ground plane, the radiated fields of the antenna over
ground can be determined easily using image theory. The fields radiated
by the antenna over a PEC ground excite currents on the surface of the
ground plane which re-radiate (scatter) the incident waves from the
antenna. We may also view the PEC ground plane as a perfect reflector of
the incident EM waves. The direct wave/reflected wave interpretation of
the image theory results for the infinitesimal dipole over a PEC ground is
shown below.

~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~
direct wave reflected wave
 At lower frequencies (approximately 100 MHz and below), the
electric fields associated with the incident wave may penetrate into the
lossy ground, exciting currents in the ground which produce ohmic losses.
These losses reduce the radiation efficiency of the antenna. They also
effect the radiation pattern of the antenna since the incident waves are not
perfectly reflected by the ground plane. Image theory can still be used for
the lossy ground case, although the magnitude of the reflected wave must
be reduced from that found in the PEC ground case. The strength of the
image antenna in the lossy ground case can be found by multiplying the
strength of the image antenna in the PEC ground case by the appropriate
plane wave reflection coefficient for the proper polarization ('V).
 If we plot the radiation pattern of the vertical dipole over ground for
cases of a PEC ground and a lossy ground, we find that the elevation plane
pattern for the lossy ground case is tilted upward such that the radiation
maximum does not occur on the ground plane but at some angle tilted
upward from the ground plane (see Figure 4.28, p. 183). This alignment
of the radiation maximum may or may not cause a problem depending on
the application. However, if both the transmit and receive antennas are
located close to a lossy ground, then a very inefficient system will result.
The antenna over lossy ground can be made to behave more like an
antenna over perfect ground by constructing a ground plane beneath the
antenna. At low frequencies, a solid conducting sheet is impractical
because of its size. However, a system of wires known as a radial ground
system can significantly enhance the performance of the antenna over lossy
ground.

Monopole with a radial ground system

The radial wires provide a return path for the currents produced within the
lossy ground. Broadcast AM transmitting antennas typically use a radial
ground system with 120 quarter wavelength radial wires (3o spacing).
The reflection coefficient scheme can also be applied to horizontal
antennas above a lossy ground plane. The proper reflection coefficient
must be used based on the orientation of the electric field (parallel or
perpendicular polarization).

The Effect of Earth Curvature

Antennas on spacecraft and aircraft in flight see the same effect that
antennas located close to the ground experience except that the height of
the antenna over the conducting ground means that the shape of the ground
(curvature of the earth) can have a significant effect on the scattered field.
In cases like these, the curvature of the reflecting ground must be
accounted for to yield accurate values for the reflected waves.

Antennas in Wireless Communications

Wire antennas such as dipoles and monopoles are used extensively

in wireless communications applications. The base stations in wireless
communications are most often arrays (Ch. 6) of dipoles. Hand-held units
such as cell phones typically use monopoles. Monopoles are simple, small,
cheap, efficient, easy to match, omnidirectional (according to their
orientation) and relatively broadband antennas. The equations for the
performance of a monopole antenna presented in this chapter have
assumed that the antenna is located over an infinite ground plane. The
monopole on the hand-held unit is not driven relative to the earth ground
but rather (a.) the conducting case of the unit or (b.) the circuit board of the
unit. The resonant frequency and input impedance of the hand-held
monopole are not greatly different than that of the monopole over a infinite
ground plane. The pattern of the hand-held unit monopole is different than
that of the monopole over an infinite ground plane due to the different
distribution of currents. Other antennas used on hand-held units are loops
(Ch. 5), microstrip (patch) antennas (Ch. 14) and the planar inverted F
antenna (PIFA). In wireless applications, the antenna can be designed to
perform in a typical scenario, but we cannot account for all scatterer
geometries which we may encounter (power lines, buildings, etc.). Thus,
the scattered signals from nearby conductors can have an adverse effect on
the system performance. The detrimental effect of these unwanted
scattered signals is commonly referred to as multipath.
 Loop Antennas

Loop antennas have the same desirable characteristics as dipoles and

monopoles in that they are inexpensive and simple to construct. Loop
antennas come in a variety of shapes (circular, rectangular, elliptical, etc.)
but the fundamental characteristics of the loop antenna radiation pattern
(far field) are largely independent of the loop shape.
Just as the electrical length of the dipoles and monopoles effect the
efficiency of these antennas, the electrical size of the loop (circumference)
determines the efficiency of the loop antenna. Loop antennas are usually
classified as either electrically small or electrically large based on the
circumference of the loop.

electrically small loop Y circumference î 8/10

electrically large loop Y circumference . 8

The electrically small loop antenna is the dual antenna to the

electrically short dipole antenna when oriented as shown below. That is,
the far-field electric field of a small loop antenna is identical to the far-field
magnetic field of the short dipole antenna and the far-field magnetic field
of a small loop antenna is identical to the far-field electric field of the short
dipole antenna.
 Given that the radiated fields of the short dipole and small loop
antennas are dual quantities, the radiated power for both antennas is the
same and therefore, the radiation patterns are the same. This means that
the plane of maximum radiation for the loop is in the plane of the loop.
When operated as a receiving antenna, we know that the short dipole must
be oriented such that the electric field is parallel to the wire for maximum
response. Using the concept of duality, we find that the small loop must
be oriented such that the magnetic field is perpendicular to the loop for
maximum response.
The radiation resistance of the small loop is much smaller than that
of the short dipole. The loss resistance of the small loop antenna is
frequently much larger than the radiation resistance. Therefore, the small
loop antenna is rarely used as a transmit antenna due to its extremely small
radiation efficiency. However, the small loop antenna is acceptable as a
receive antenna since signal-to-noise ratio is the driving factor, not antenna
efficiency. The fact that a significant portion of the received signal is lost
to heat is not of consequence as long as the antenna provides a large
enough signal-to-noise ratio for the given receiver. Small loop antennas
are frequently used for receiving applications such as pagers, low-
frequency portable radios, and direction finding. Small loops can also be
used at higher frequencies as field probes providing a voltage at the loop
terminals which is proportional to the field passing through the loop.
 Electrically Small Loop Antenna

The far fields of an electrically small loop antenna are dependent on

the loop area but are independent of the loop shape. Since the magnetic
vector potential integrations required for a circular loop are more complex
than those for a square loop, the square loop is considered in the derivation
of the far fields of an electrically small loop antenna. The square loop,
located in the x-y plane and centered at the coordinate origin, is assumed
to have an area of )l 2 and carry a uniform current Io.

The square loop may be viewed as four segments which each represent an
infinitesimal dipole carrying current in a different direction. In the far
field, the distance vectors from the centers of the four segments become
almost parallel.
As always in far field expressions, the above approximations are used in
the phase terms of the magnetic vector potential, but we may assume that
R1 . R2 . R3 . R4 . r for the magnitude terms. The far field magnetic
vector potential of a z-directed infinitesimal dipole centered at the origin
is

The individual far field magnetic vector potential contributions due to the
four segments of the current loop are

Combining the x-directed and y-directed terms yields

For an electrically small loop ()l << 8), the arguments of the sine
functions above are very small and may be approximated according to

which gives

The overall vector potential becomes

where )S = )l2 = loop area. The bracketed term above is the spherical
coordinate unit vector aN.

Electrically small current loop

far field magnetic vector potential
The corresponding far fields are

Electrically small current loop

far fields

The fields radiated by an electrically small loop antenna can be increased

by adding multiple turns. For the far fields, the added height of multiple
turns is immaterial and the resulting far fields for a multiple turn loop
antenna can be found by simply multiplying the single turn loop antenna
fields by the number of turns N.

Electrically small multiple turn

current loop far fields
 Dual and Equivalent Sources
(Electric and Magnetic Dipoles and Loops)

If we compare the far fields of the infinitesimal dipole and the

electrically small current loop with electric and magnetic currents, we find
pairs of equivalent sources and dual sources.

Infinitesimal electric dipole Small electric current loop

Using duality, we may determine the far fields of the corresponding

magnetic geometries.

Electric source Magnetic source

Infinitesimal magnetic dipole Small magnetic current loop

If, for the small electric current loop and the infinitesimal magnetic dipole,
we choose

then the far fields radiated by these two sources are identical (the small
electric current loop and the infinitesimal magnetic dipole are equivalent
sources).

Similarly, for the small magnetic current loop and the infinitesimal electric
dipole, if we choose

then the far fields radiated by these two sources are identical (the small
magnetic current loop and the infinitesimal electric dipole are equivalent
sources).
The infinitesimal electric and magnetic dipoles are defined as dual sources
since the magnetic field of one is identical to the electric field of the other
when the currents and dimensions are chosen appropriately. Likewise, the
small electric and magnetic current loops are dual sources.
We also find from this discussion of dual and equivalent sources that
the polarization of the far fields for the dual sources are orthogonal. In the
plane of maximum radiation (x-y plane), the four sources have the
following far field polarizations

infinitesimal electric dipole Y vertical polarization

infinitesimal magnetic dipole Y horizontal polarization

small electric current loop Y horizontal polarization

small magnetic current loop Y vertical polarization

 Loop Antenna Characteristics

The time-average Poynting vector in the far field of the multiple-turn

electrically small loop is

The radiation intensity function is

Loop antenna radiation

intensity function

The maximum value of the radiation intensity function is

The radiated power is

Loop antenna radiated

power
The radiation resistance of the loop antenna is found from the radiated
power.

Loop antenna in air

radiation resistance

The directivity of the loop antenna is defined by

Loop antenna
directivity function

Given the same directivity function as the infinitesimal dipole, the loop
antenna has the same maximum directivity, effective aperture and beam
solid angle as the infinitesimal dipole.

Loop antenna
maximum directivity,
effective aperture,
and beam solid angle
 If we compare the radiation resistances of the electrically short dipole
and the electrically small loop (both antennas in air), we find that the
radiation resistance of the small loop decreases much faster than that of the
short dipole with decreasing frequency since

Rr (short dipole) ~ 8!2

Rr (small loop) ~ 8!4

The radiation resistance of the small loop can be increased significantly by

adding multiple turns (Rr ~ N 2 ). However, the addition of more conductor
length also increases the antenna loss resistance which reduces the overall
antenna efficiency. To increase the radiation resistance without
significantly reducing the antenna efficiency, the number of turns can be
decreased when a ferrite material is used as the core of the winding. The
general radiation resistance formula for a small
loop with any material as its core is

A multiturn loop which is wound on a linear ferrite

core is commonly referred to as a loop-stick
antenna. The loop-stick antenna is commonly used
as a low-frequency receiving antenna.

Loop-stick antenna
 Impedance of Electrically Small Antennas

The current density was assumed to be uniform on the electrically

small current loop for our far field calculations. For a circular loop, the
assumption of uniform current is accurate up to a loop circumference of
about 0.28.

b = loop radius

a = wire radius

The restriction on the size of the constant current loop in terms of the loop
radius is

The electrically small current loop was found to be a dual source to

the infinitesimal dipole. If we investigate the reactance of these dual
electrically small antennas, we find that the dipole is capacitive while the
loop is inductive. The exact reactance of the current loop is dependent on
the shape of the loop. Approximate formulas for the reactance are given
below for a short dipole and an electrically small circular current loop.

Infinitesimal Dipole (length = )l, wire radius = a)

Electrically Small Circular Current Loop (loop radius = b, wire radius = a)

Example (Impedances of electrically small antennas)

Determine the total impedance and radiation efficiency of the

following electrically small antennas operating at 1, 10 and 100 MHz.
Both antennas are constructed using #10 AWG copper wire (a = 2.59 mm,
F = 5.8 × 107 ®/m).
Infinitesimal Dipole

f (MHz) )l Rr RL ecd jXA

1 0.00028 31.6 :S 0.962 mS 3.18 % !204 kS
10 0.0028 3.16 mS 3.04 mS 51.0 % !20.4 kS
100 0.028 0.316 S 9.62 mS 97.0 % !2.04 kS

Small Loop

f (MHz) b Rr RL ecd jXA

1 0.000328 3.09 nS 9.57 mS 3.2×10-5 % 2.76 S
10 0.00328 30.9 :S 30.3 mS 0.102 % 27.6 S
100 0.0328 0.309 S 95.7 mS 76.4% 276 S
 Antenna Arrays

Antennas with a given radiation pattern may be arranged in a pattern

(line, circle, plane, etc.) to yield a different radiation pattern.

Antenna array - a configuration of multiple antennas (elements)

arranged to achieve a given radiation pattern.

Linear array - antenna elements arranged along a straight line.

Circular array - antenna elements arranged around a circular

ring.

Planar array - antenna elements arranged over some planar

surface (example - rectangular array).

Conformal array - antenna elements arranged to conform to

some non-planar surface (such as an aircraft skin).

There are several array design variables which can be changed to achieve
the overall array pattern design.

Array Design Variables

1. General array shape (linear, circular, planar, etc.).

2. Element spacing.
3. Element excitation amplitude.
4. Element excitation phase.
5. Patterns of array elements.

Phased array - an array of identical elements which achieves a given

pattern through the control of the element excitation phasing.
Phased arrays can be used to steer the main beam of the
antenna without physically moving the antenna.
Given an antenna array of identical elements, the radiation pattern of the
antenna array may be found according to the pattern multiplication
theorem.

Pattern multiplication theorem

Array element pattern - the pattern of the individual array element.

Array factor - a function dependent only on the geometry of the array
and the excitation (amplitude, phase) of the elements.

Example (Pattern multiplication - infinitesimal dipole over ground)

The far field of this two element array was found using image theory to be

«®®®®®®®®®®®­®®®®®®®®®®®¬ «®®®®®®®®­®®®®®®®¬
element pattern array factor
 N-Element Linear Array

The array factor AF is independent of the antenna type assuming all

of the elements are identical. Thus, isotropic radiators may be utilized in
the derivation of the array factor to simplify the algebra. The field of an
isotropic radiator located at the origin may be written as (assuming 2-
polarization)

We assume that the elements of the array are uniformly-spaced with a

separation distance d.

In the far field of the array

The current magnitudes the array elements are assumed to be equal and the
current on the array element located at the origin is used as the phase
reference (zero phase).
The far fields of the individual array elements are

The overall array far field is found using superposition.

(Array factor for a uniformly-spaced N-element linear array)

 Uniform N-Element Linear Array
(uniform spacing, uniform amplitude, linear phase progression)

A uniform array is defined by uniformly-spaced identical elements

of equal magnitude with a linearly progressive phase from element to
element.

Inserting this linear phase progression into the formula for the general N-
element array gives

The function R is defined as the array phase function and is a function of

the element spacing, phase shift, frequency and elevation angle. If the
array factor is multiplied by e jR, the result is

Subtracting the array factor from the equation above gives

The complex exponential term in the last expression of the above equation
represents the phase shift of the array phase center relative to the origin.
If the position of the array is shifted so that the center of the array is
located at the origin, this phase term goes away.
The array factor then becomes

Below are plots of the array factor AF vs. the array phase function R as the
number of elements in the array is increased. Note that these are not
plots of AF vs. the elevation angle 2.

Some general characteristics of the array factor AF with respect to R:

(1) [AF ]max = N at R = 0 (main lobe).
(2) Total number of lobes = N!1 (one main lobe, N!2 sidelobes).
(3) Main lobe width = 4B/N, minor lobe width = 2B/N
The array factor may be normalized so that the maximum value for any
value of N is unity. The normalized array factor is

The nulls of the array function are found by determining the zeros of the
numerator term where the denominator is not simultaneously zero.

The peaks of the array function are found by determining the zeros of the
numerator term where the denominator is simultaneously zero.

The m = 0 term,

represents the angle which makes R = 0 (main lobe).

 Broadside and End-fire Arrays

The phasing of the uniform linear array elements may be chosen such
that the main lobe of the array pattern lies along the array axis (end-fire
array) or normal to the array axis (broadside array).

End-fire array main lobe at 2 = 0o or 2 = 180o

Broadside array main lobe at 2 = 90o

The maximum of the array factor occurs when the array phase function is
zero.

For a broadside array, in order for the above equation to be satisfied with
2 = 90o, the phase angle " must be zero. In other words, all elements of the
array must be driven with the same phase. With " = 0o, the normalized
array factor reduces to

Normalized array function

Broadside array, " = 0o

Consider a 5-element broadside array (" = 0o) as the element spacing is

varied. In general, as the element spacing is increased, the main lobe
beamwidth is decreased. However, grating lobes (maxima in directions
other than the main lobe direction) are introduced when the element
spacing is greater than or equal to one wavelength. If the array pattern
design requires that no grating lobes be present, then the array element
spacing should be chosen to be less than one wavelength.
If we consider the broadside array factor as a function of the number of
array elements, we find that, in general, the main beam is sharpened as the
number of elements increases. Below are plots of AF for a broadside array
(" = 0o) with elements separated by d = 0.258 for N = 2, 5, 10 and 20.
 Using the pattern multiplication theorem, the overall array pattern is
obtained by multiplying the element pattern by the array factor. As an
example, consider an broadside array (" = 0o) of seven short vertical
dipoles spaced 0.58 apart along the z-axis.

The normalized element field pattern for the infinitesimal dipole is

The array factor for the seven element array is

The overall normalized array pattern is

 90 1 90 1
120 60 120 60
0.8

0.6
150 30 150 0.5 30
0.4

0.2

180 0 180 0

element pattern array factor

210 330 210 330

240 300 240 300

270 270
If we consider the same array with horizontal (x-directed) short dipoles, the
resulting normalized element field pattern is

Since the element pattern depends on the angle N, we must choose a value
of N to plot the pattern. If we choose N = 0o, the element pattern becomes

and the array pattern is given by

 If we plot the array pattern for N = 90o, we find that the element
pattern is unity and the array pattern is the same as the array factor. Thus,
the main beam of the array of x-directed short dipoles lies along the y-axis.
The nulls of the array element pattern along the x-axis prevent the array
from radiating efficiently in that broadside direction. End-fire arrays
may be designed to focus the main beam of the array factor along the array
axis in either the 2=0o or 2=180o directions. Given that the maximum of
the array factor occurs when

in order for the above equation to be satisfied with 2 = 0o, the phase angle
" must be

For 2 = 180o, the phase angle " must be

which gives

The normalized array factor for an end-fire array reduces to

Normalized array function

Consider a 5-element end-fire array (2 = 0o) as the element spacing is

varied. Note that the phase angle " must change as the spacing changes
in order to keep the main beam of the array function in the same direction.
If the corresponding positive phase angles are chosen, the array factor plots
are mirror images of the above plots (about 2 = 90o ). Note that the end-
fire array grating lobes are introduced for element spacings of d $ 0.58.
7-element array end-fire array, vertical short dipoles (d = 0.258, " = !90o)

The normalized array factor for the 7-element end-fire array is

The overall array field pattern is

 90 90
1 1
120 60 120 60
0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6
150 30 150 30
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

180 0 180 0

element pattern array factor

210 330 210 330

240 300 240 300

270 270

90
0.5
120 60
0.4

0.3
150 30
0.2

0.1

180 0

array pattern

210 330

240 300
270

7-element end-fire array, x-directed horizontal short dipoles

(d = 0.258, " = !90o)

The overall array pattern in the N = 0o plane is

 90 90
1 1
120 60 120 60
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
150 30 150 30
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2

180 0 180 0

element pattern array factor

210 330 210 330

240 300 240 300

270 270
90
1
120 60
0.8

0.6
150 30
0.4

0.2

180 0

array pattern

210 330

240 300
270
 Hansen-Woodyard End-fire Array

The Hansen-Woodyard end-fire array is a special array designed for

maximum directivity.

Ordinary end-fire array Y " = ±kd

Hansen-Woodyard end-fire array Y " = ± (kd + *)
In order to increase the directivity in a closely-spaced electrically long end-
fire array, Hansen and Woodyard analyzed the patterns and found that a
additional phase shift of

increased the directivity of the array over that of the ordinary end-fire array
given an element spacing of

For very long arrays (N - large), the element spacing in the Hansen-
Woodyard end-fire array approaches one-quarter wavelength. The Hansen-
Woodyard design shown here does not necessarily produce the maximum
directivity for a given linear array but does produce a directivity larger than
that of the ordinary end-fire array [by a factor of approximately 1.79 (2.5
dB)]. The Hansen-Woodyard end-fire array design can be summarized as

where the upper sign produces a maximum in the 2 = 0o direction and the
lower sign produces a maximum in the 2 = 180o direction. The Hansen-
Woodyard end-fire design increases the directivity of the array at the
expense of higher sidelobe levels.
 Non-Uniformly Excited, Equally-Spaced Arrays

Given a two element array with equal current amplitudes and

spacing, the array factor is

For a broadside array (" = 0o) with element spacing d less than one-half
wavelength, the array factor has no sidelobes. An array formed by taking
the product of two arrays of this type gives

This array factor, being the square of an array factor with no sidelobes, also
has no sidelobes. Mathematically, the array factor above represents a 3-
element equally-spaced array driven by current amplitudes with ratios of
1:2:1. In a similar fashion, equivalent arrays with more elements may be
formed.

The current coefficients of the resulting N-element array take the form of
a binomial series. The array is known as a binomial array.

Binomial
array
The excitation coefficients for the binomial array are given by Pascal’s
triangle.

The binomial array has the special property that the array factor has no
sidelobes for element spacings of 8/2 or less. Sidelobes are introduced for
element spacings larger than 8/2.

N = 5, d = 0.58 N = 10, d = 0.58

 Array Factor - Uniform Spacing, Nonuniform Amplitude

Consider an array of isotropic elements positioned symmetrically

along the z-axis (total number of elements = P). The array factor for this
array will be determined assuming that all elements are excited with the
same current phase (N = 0o for simplicity) but nonuniform current
amplitudes. The amplitude distribution assumed to be symmetric about the
origin.

P = 2M + 1 (Odd) P = 2M (Even)
P = 2M + 1 (Odd) P = 2M (Even)
P = 2M + 1 (Odd)

where

P = 2M (Even)

Note that the array factors are coefficients multiplied by cosines with
arguments that are integer multiples of u. Using trigonometric identities,
these cosine functions can be written as powers of u.
Through the transformation of x = cos u, the terms may be written as a set
of polynomials [Chebyshev polynomials - Tn(x)].

Using properties of the Chebyshev polynomials, we may design arrays with

specific sidelobe characteristics. Namely, we may design arrays with all
sidelobes at some prescribed level.
 Chebyshev Polynomials

Properties of Chebyshev Polynomials

1. Even ordered Chebyshev polynomials are even functions.

2. Odd ordered Chebyshev polynomials are odd functions.
3. The magnitude of any Chebyshev polynomial is unity or less in the
range of !1 # x #1.
4. Tn (1) = 1 for all Chebyshev polynomials.
5. All zeros (roots) of the Chebshev polynomials lie within the range of
!1 # x #1.
Using the properties of Chebyshev polynomials, we may design arrays with
all sidelobes at a prescribed level below the main beam (Dolph-Chebyshev
array). The order of the Chebyshev polynomial should be one less than the
total number of elements in the array (P!1).
 Dolph-Chebyshev Array Design Procedure

(1.) Select the appropriate AF for the total number of elements (P).

(2.) Replace each cos(mu) term in the array factor by its expansion in
terms of powers of cos(u).
(3.) For the required main lobe to side lobe ratio (Ro), find xo such that

(4.) Substitute cos(u) = x/xo into the array factor of step 2. This
substitution normalizes the array factor sidelobes to a peak of unity.
(5.) Equate the array factor of step 4 to TP-1(x) and determine the array
coefficients.

Example

Design a 5-element Dolph-Chebyshev array with d = 0.58 and

sidelobes which are 20 dB below the main beam.

(1.) P = 5, M = 2
(2.)

(3.)

(4.)

(5.) Equate coefficients and solve for a1, a2, and a3.
 Folded Dipole

A folded dipole is formed by connecting two parallel dipoles of

radius a and length l at the ends to form a narrow loop. The center-to-
center separation of the parallel wires is s. The separation distance s is
always assumed to be small relative to wavelength.

The input impedance of the folded dipole is defined (as is any other
antenna) by the ratio of voltage to current at the antenna feed point.

The folded dipole operates as an unbalanced transmission line. The current

on the folded dipole can be decomposed into two distinct modes: an
antenna mode (currents flowing in the same direction yielding significant
radiation) and a transmission line mode (currents flowing in opposite
directions yielding little radiation).
 Transmission line mode Antenna mode

Note that the superposition of the two modes yields the folded dipole input
voltage V on the left wire and zero on the right wire. The transmission line
current It in both antenna conductors must be the same in order to satisfy
Kirchoff’s current law at the ends of the antenna. The total antenna current
Ia must be split equally between the two antenna conductors to yield the
proper results for the radiated fields (the folded dipole radiates like two
closely spaced dipoles). The total folded dipole input current can then be
defined as the sum of the transmission line and antenna currents such that

so that the folded dipole input impedance may be written as

The folded dipole impedance is determined by relating the transmission

line and antenna mode currents to the corresponding input voltage.
We may insert an equivalent set of voltage
sources into the transmission line mode
problem in order to view the folded dipole as a
set of two shorted transmission lines of length
l/2. Note that both of the shorted transmission
lines are driven with a source voltage of V/2
across its input terminals. The voltage and
current for the transmission lines are related by

where Zt is the input impedance of a shorted

two-wire line of length l/2 with wire of radii a
with a center-to-center spacing of s. The
general equation for the input impedance of a
transmission line of characteristic impedance Zo
and length l terminated with an load impedance
ZL is

For the shorted line, ZL = 0 and the length is

l/2 so that

The characteristic impedance of the two wire

line transmission line is
 The folded dipole antenna current can be related to an equivalent
dipole (treating the parallel currents as coincident for far field purposes)
by

where Zd is the input impedance of a dipole of length l and equivalent

radius ae. The equivalent radius is necessary because of the close
proximity of the two wires (capacitance) which alters the current
distribution from that seen on an isolated dipole. The equivalent radius is
given by

The impedance Zd is given by

Given the relationships between the transmission line and antenna mode
currents and voltages, the input impedance of the folded dipole can be
written as

For the special case of a folded dipole of length l = 8/2, the input
impedance of the equivalent transmission line is that of a shorted quarter-
wavelength transmission line (open-circuit).

The impedance of the half-wave folded dipole becomes

The half-wave folded dipole can be made resonant with an impedance of

approximately 300 S which matches a common transmission line
impedance (twin-lead). Thus, the half-wave folded dipole can be
connected directly to a twin-lead line without any matching network
necessary. In general, the folded dipole has a larger bandwidth than a
dipole of the same size.
 Traveling Wave Antennas

Antennas with open-ended wires where the current must go to zero

(dipoles, monopoles, etc.) can be characterized as standing wave antennas
or resonant antennas. The current on these antennas can be written as a
sum of waves traveling in opposite directions (waves which travel toward
the end of the wire and are reflected in the opposite direction). For
example, the current on a dipole of length l is given by

The current on the upper arm of the dipole can be written as

«­¬ «­¬
+z directed !z directed
wave wave

Traveling wave antennas are characterized by matched terminations (not

open circuits) so that the current is defined in terms of waves traveling in
only one direction (a complex exponential as opposed to a sine or cosine).
A traveling wave antenna can be formed by a single wire transmission line
(single wire over ground) which is terminated with a matched load (no
reflection). Typically, the length of the transmission line is several
wavelengths.

The antenna shown above is commonly called a Beverage or wave

antenna. This antenna can be analyzed as a rectangular loop, according to
image theory. However, the effects of an imperfect ground may be
significant and can be included using the reflection coefficient approach.
The contribution to the far fields due to the vertical conductors is typically
neglected since it is small if l >> h. Note that the antenna does not radiate
efficiently if the height h is small relative to wavelength. In an alternative
technique of analyzing this antenna, the far field produced by a long
isolated wire of length l can be determined and the overall far field found
using the 2 element array factor.
Traveling wave antennas are commonly formed using wire segments
with different geometries. Therefore, the antenna far field can be obtained
by superposition using the far fields of the individual segments. Thus, the
radiation characteristics of a long straight segment of wire carrying a
traveling wave type of current are necessary to analyze the typical traveling
wave antenna.
 Consider a segment of a traveling wave antenna (an electrically long
wire of length l lying along the z-axis) as shown below. A traveling wave
current flows in the z-direction.

" - attenuation constant

$ - phase constant

If the losses for the antenna are negligible (ohmic loss in the conductors,
loss due to imperfect ground, etc.), then the current can be written as

The far field vector potential is

If we let , then

The far fields in terms of the far field vector potential are

(Far-field of a traveling wave segment)

We know that the phase constant of a transmission line wave (guided
wave) can be very different than that of an unbounded medium (unguided
wave). However, for a traveling wave antenna, the electrical height of the
conductor above ground is typically large and the phase constant
approaches that of an unbounded medium (k). If we assume that the phase
constant of the traveling wave antenna is the same as an unbounded
medium ($ = k), then

Given the far field of the traveling wave segment, we may determine the
time-average radiated power density according to the definition of the
Poynting vector such that
The total power radiated by the traveling wave segment is found by
integrating the Poynting vector.

and the radiation resistance is

The radiation resistance of the ideal traveling wave antenna (VSWR = 1)

is purely real just as the input impedance of a matched transmission line
is purely real. Below is a plot of the radiation resistance of the traveling
wave segment as a function of segment length.

The radiation resistance of the traveling wave antenna is much more

uniform than that seen in resonant antennas. Thus, the traveling wave
antenna is classified as a broadband antenna.
 The pattern function of the traveling wave antenna segment is given
by

The normalized pattern function can be written as

The normalized pattern function of the traveling wave segment is shown

below for segment lengths of 58, 108, 158 and 208.

l = 58 l = 108
 l = 158 l = 208

As the electrical length of the traveling wave segment increases, the

main beam becomes slightly sharper while the angle of the main beam
moves slightly toward the axis of the antenna.
Note that the pattern function of the traveling wave segment always
has a null at 2 = 0o. Also note that with l >> 8, the sine function in the
normalized pattern function varies much more rapidly (more peaks and
nulls) than the cotangent function. The approximate angle of the main lobe
for the traveling wave segment is found by determining the first peak of the
sine function in the normalized pattern function.
The values of m which yield 0o#2m#180o (visible region) are negative
values of m. The smallest value of 2m in the visible region defines the
location of main beam (m = !1)

If we also account for the cotangent function in the determination of the

main beam angle, we find
The directivity of the traveling wave segment is

The maximum directivity can be approximated by

where the sine term in the numerator of the directivity function is assumed
to be unity at the main beam.
 Traveling Wave Antenna Terminations

Given a traveling wave antenna segment located horizontally above

a ground plane, the termination RL required to match the uniform
transmission line formed by the cylindrical conductor over ground (radius
= a, height over ground = s/2) is the characteristic impedance of the
corresponding one-wire transmission line. If the conductor height above
the ground plane varies with position, the conductor and the ground plane
form a non-uniform transmission line. The characteristic impedance of a
non-uniform transmission line is a function of position. In either case,
image theory may be employed to determine the overall performance
characteristics of the traveling wave antenna.

Two-wire transmission line

If s >> a, then

In air,
One-wire transmission line

If s >> a, then

In air,
 Vee Traveling Wave Antenna

The main beam of a single electrically long wire guiding waves in

one direction (traveling wave segment) was found to be inclined at an
angle relative to the axis of the wire. Traveling wave antennas are typically
formed by multiple traveling wave segments. These traveling wave
segments can be oriented such that the main beams of the component wires
combine to enhance the directivity of the overall antenna. A vee traveling
wave antenna is formed by connecting two matched traveling wave
segments to the end of a transmission line feed at an angle of 22o relative
to each other.

The beam angle of a traveling wave segment relative to the axis of the wire
(2max) has been shown to be dependent on the length of the wire. Given the
length of the wires in the vee traveling wave antenna, the angle 22o may be
chosen such that the main beams of the two tilted wires combine to form
an antenna with increased directivity over that of a single wire.
A complete analysis which takes into account the spatial separation effects
of the antenna arms (the two wires are not co-located) reveals that by
choosing 2o. 0.8 2max, the total directivity of the vee traveling wave
antenna is approximately twice that of a single conductor. Note that the
overall pattern of the vee antenna is essentially unidirectional given
matched conductors.
If, on the other hand, the conductors of the vee traveling wave
antenna are resonant conductors (vee dipole antenna), there are reflected
waves which produce significant beams in the opposite direction. Thus,
traveling wave antennas, in general, have the advantage of essentially
unidirectional patterns when compared to the patterns of most resonant
antennas.
 Rhombic Antenna

A rhombic antenna is formed by connecting two vee traveling wave

antennas at their open ends. The antenna feed is located at one end of the
rhombus and a matched termination is located at the opposite end. As with
all traveling wave antennas, we assume that the reflections from the load
are negligible. Typically, all four conductors of the rhombic antenna are
assumed to be the same length. Note that the rhombic antenna is an
example of a non-uniform transmission line.

A rhombic antenna can also be constructed using an inverted vee antenna

over a ground plane. The termination resistance is one-half that required
for the isolated rhombic antenna.
To produce an single antenna main lobe along the axis of the rhombic
antenna, the individual conductors of the rhombic antenna should be
aligned such that the components lobes numbered 2, 3, 5 and 8 are aligned
(accounting for spatial separation effects). Beam pairs (1, 7) and (4,6)
combine to form significant sidelobes but at a level smaller than the main
lobe.
 Yagi-Uda Array

In the previous examples of array design, all of the elements in the

array were assumed to be driven with some source. A Yagi-Uda array is
an example of a parasitic array. Any element in an array which is not
connected to the source (in the case of a transmitting antenna) or the
receiver (in the case of a receiving antenna) is defined as a parasitic
element. A parasitic array is any array which employs parasitic elements.
The general form of the N-element Yagi-Uda array is shown below.

Driven element - usually a resonant dipole or folded dipole.

Reflector - slightly longer than the driven element so that it is

inductive (its current lags that of the driven element).

Director - slightly shorter than the driven element so that it is

capacitive (its current leads that of the driven element).
Yagi-Uda Array Advantages

! Lightweight
! Low cost
! Simple construction
! Unidirectional beam (front-to-back ratio)
! Increased directivity over other simple wire antennas
! Practical for use at HF (3-30 MHz), VHF (30-300 MHz), and
UHF (300 MHz - 3 GHz)

Typical Yagi-Uda Array Parameters

Driven element ! half-wave resonant dipole or folded dipole,

(Length = 0.458 to 0.498, dependent on radius), folded dipoles
are employed as driven elements to increase the array input
impedance.

Director ! Length = 0.48 to 0.458 (approximately 10 to 20 % shorter

than the driven element), not necessarily uniform.

Reflector ! Length . 0.58 (approximately 5 to 10 % longer than the

driven element).

Director spacing ! approximately 0.2 to 0.48, not necessarily

uniform.

Reflector spacing ! 0.1 to 0.258

Example (Yagi-Uda Array)

Given a simple 3-element Yagi-Uda array (one reflector - length =

0.58, one director - length = 0.458, driven element - length = 0.4758)
where all the elements are the same radius (a = 0.0058). For sR = sD =
0.18, 0.28 and 0.38, determine the E-plane and H-plane patterns, the 3dB
beamwidths in the E- and H-planes, the front-to-back ratios (dB) in the E-
and H-planes, and the maximum directivity (dB). Also, plot the currents
along the elements in each case. Use the FORTRAN program provided
with the textbook (yagi-uda.for). Use 8 modes per element in the method
of moments solution.

The individual element currents given as outputs of the FORTRAN code

are all normalized to the current at the feed point of the antenna.
sR = sD = 0.18

sR = sD = 0.28

sR = sD = 0.38
sR = sD = 0.18

3-dB beamwidth E-Plane = 62.71o

3-dB beamwidth H-Plane = 86.15o
Front-to-back ratio E-Plane = 15.8606 dB
Front-to-back-ratio H-Plane = 15.8558 dB
Maximum directivity = 7.784 dB

sR = sD = 0.28

3-dB beamwidth E-Plane = 55.84o

3-dB beamwidth H-Plane = 69.50o
Front-to-back ratio E-Plane = 9.2044 dB
Front-to-back-ratio H-Plane = 9.1993 dB
Maximum directivity = 9.094 dB

sR = sD = 0.38

3-dB beamwidth E-Plane = 51.89o

3-dB beamwidth H-Plane = 61.71o
Front-to-back ratio E-Plane = 5.4930 dB
Front-to-back-ratio H-Plane = 5.4883 dB
Maximum directivity = 8.973 dB
Example
15-element Yagi-Uda Array (13 directors, 1 reflector, 1 driven element)
reflector length = 0.58 reflector spacing = 0.258
director lengths = 0.4068 director spacing = 0.348
driven element length = 0.478 conductor radii = 0.0038
3-dB beamwidth E-Plane = 26.79o
3-dB beamwidth H-Plane = 27.74o
Front-to-back ratio E-Plane = 36.4422 dB
Front-to-back-ratio H-Plane = 36.3741 dB
Maximum directivity = 14.700 dB
 Log-Periodic Antenna

A log-periodic antenna is classified as a frequency-independent

antenna. No antenna is truly frequency-independent but antennas capable
of bandwidth ratios of 10:1 ( fmax : fmin ) or more are normally classified as
frequency-independent.

The elements of the log periodic dipole are bounded by a wedge of

angle 2". The element spacing is defined in terms of a scale factor J such
that

(1)
where J < 1. Using similar triangles, the angle " is related to the element
lengths and positions according to

(2)

or

(3)

Combining equations (1) and (3), we find that the ratio of adjacent element
lengths and the ratio of adjacent element positions are both equal to the
scale factor.

(4)

The spacing factor F of the log periodic dipole is defined by

where dn is the distance from element n to element n+1 .

(5)

From (2), we may write

(6)

Inserting (6) into (5) yields

 (7)

Combining equation (3) with equation (7) gives

(8)

or

(9)

According to equation (8), the ratio of element spacing to element length

remains constant for all of the elements in the array.

(10)

Combining equations (3) and (10) shows that z-coordinates, the element
lengths, and the element separation distances all follow the same ratio.

(11)

Log Periodic Dipole Design

We may solve equation (9) for the array angle " to obtain an equation
for " in terms of the scale factor J and the spacing factor F.

Figure 11.13 (p. 561) gives the spacing factor as a function of the scale
factor for a given maximum directivity Do.
 The designed bandwidth Bs is given by the following empirical
equation.

The overall length of the array from the shortest element to the longest
element (L) is given by

where

The total number of elements in the array is given by

Operation of the Log Periodic Dipole Antenna

The log periodic dipole antenna basically behaves like a Yagi-Uda

array over a wide frequency range. As the frequency varies, the active set
of elements for the log periodic antenna (those elements which carry the
significant current) moves from the long-element end at low frequency to
the short-element end at high frequency. The director element current in
the Yagi array lags that of the driven element while the reflector element
current leads that of the driven element. This current distribution in the
Yagi array points the main beam in the direction of the director.
In order to obtain the same phasing in the log periodic antenna with
all of the elements in parallel, the source would have to be located on the
long-element end of the array. However, at frequencies where the smallest
elements are resonant at 8/2, there may be longer elements which are also
resonant at lengths of n8/2. Thus, as the power flows from the long-
element end of the array, it would be radiated by these long resonant
elements before it arrives at the short end of the antenna. For this reason,
the log periodic dipole array must be driven from the short element end.
But this arrangement gives the exact opposite phasing required to point the
beam in the direction of the shorter elements. It can be shown that by
alternating the connections from element to element, the phasing of the log
periodic dipole elements points the beam in the proper direction.

Sometimes, the log periodic antenna is terminated on the long-

element end of the antenna with a transmission line and load. This is done
to prevent any energy that reaches the long-element end of the antenna
from being reflected back toward the short-element end. For the ideal log
periodic array, not only should the element lengths and positions follow the
scale factor J, but the element feed gaps and radii should also follow the
scale factor. In practice, the feed gaps are typically kept constant at a
constant spacing. If different radii elements are used, two or three different
radii are used over portions of the antenna.
Example

Design a log periodic dipole antenna to cover the complete VHF TV

band from 54 to 216 MHz with a directivity of 8 dB. Assume that the
input impedance is 50 S and the length to diameter ratio of the elements
is 145.

From Figure 11.13, with Do = 8 dB, the optimum value for the
spacing factor F is 0.157 while the corresponding scale factor J is
0.865. The angle of the array is

The computer program “log-perd.for” performs an analysis of the log

periodic dipole based on the previously defined design equations.
Please see Log-Perd.DOC for information about these parameters
1 Design Title
2 Upper Design Frequency (MHz) 236.20000 MHz
3 Lower Design Frequency (MHz) 33.70000 MHz
4 Tau, Sigma and Directivity Choices...
Directivity: 8.00000 dBi
5 Length to Diameter Ratio 145.00000
6 Source Resistance .00000 Ohms
7 Length of Source Transmission Line .00000 m
8 Impedance of Source Transmission Line 50.00000 +j0 Ohms
9 Boom Spacing Choices...
Boom Diameter : 1.90000 cm
Desired Input Impedance : 45.00000 Ohms
10 Length of Termination Transmission Line .00000 m
11 Termination Impedance 50.00000 +j0 Ohms
12 Tube Quantization Choices...
13 Design Summary and Analysis Choices...
Design Summary :
E- and H-plane Patterns :
Custom Plane Patterns :
Swept Frequency Analysis :
14 Begin Design and Analysis :
Please enter a line number or enter 15 to save and exit.

DIPOLE ARRAY DESIGN

Ele. Z L D
(m) (m) (cm)
Term. .8861 ******* *******
1 .8861 .3780 .26066
2 1.0243 .4369 .30134
3 1.1842 .5051 .34837
4 1.3690 .5840 .40273
5 1.5827 .6751 .46559
6 1.8297 .7805 .53825
7 2.1153 .9023 .62226
8 2.4454 1.0431 .71937
9 2.8271 1.2059 .83164
10 3.2683 1.3941 .96144
11 3.7784 1.6117 1.11149
12 4.3680 1.8632 1.28496
13 5.0498 2.1540 1.48550
14 5.8379 2.4901 1.71734
15 6.7490 2.8788 1.98537
16 7.8023 3.3281 2.29522
17 9.0200 3.8475 2.65344
18 10.4277 4.4480 3.06756
Source 10.4277 ******* *******

Design Parameters
Upper Design Frequency (MHz) : 236.20000
Lower Design Frequency (MHz) : 33.70000
 Tau : .86500
Sigma : .15825
Alpha (deg) : 12.03942
Desired Directivity : 8.00000

Source and Source Transmission Line

Source Resistance (Ohms) : .00000
Transmission Line Length (m) : .00000
Characteristic Impedance (Ohms) : 50.00000 + j
.00000

Antenna and Antenna Transmission Line

Length-to-Diameter Ratio : 145.00000
Boom Diameter (cm) : 1.90000
Boom Spacing (cm) : 2.07954
Characteristic impedance (Ohms) : 51.76521 + j
.00000
Desired Input Impedance (Ohms) : 45.00000

Termination and Termination Transmission Line

Termination impedance (Ohms) : 50.00000 + j
.00000
Transmission Line Length (m) : .00000
Characteristic impedance (Ohms) : 51.76521 + j
.00000

DIPOLE ARRAY DESIGN

Ele. Z L D
(m) (m) (cm)
Term. .9877 ******* *******
1 .9877 .4213 .29056
2 1.1419 .4871 .33591
3 1.3201 .5631 .38833
4 1.5261 .6510 .44894
5 1.7643 .7526 .51901
6 2.0396 .8700 .60001
7 2.3580 1.0058 .69365
8 2.7260 1.1628 .80191
9 3.1514 1.3442 .92706
10 3.6433 1.5540 1.07175
11 4.2119 1.7966 1.23902
12 4.8692 2.0770 1.43239
13 5.6291 2.4011 1.65594
14 6.5077 2.7759 1.91438
Source 6.5077 ******* *******

Design Parameters
Upper Design Frequency (MHz) : 216.00000
Lower Design Frequency (MHz) : 54.00000
Tau : .86500
Sigma : .15825
Alpha (deg) : 12.03942
 Desired Directivity : 8.00000
Source and Source Transmission Line
Source Resistance (Ohms) : .00000
Transmission Line Length (m) : .00000
Characteristic Impedance (Ohms) : 50.00000 + j .00000

Antenna and Antenna Transmission Line

Length-to-Diameter Ratio : 145.00000
Boom Diameter (cm) : 1.90000
Boom Spacing (cm) : 2.07954
Characteristic impedance (Ohms) : 51.76521 + j .00000
Desired Input Impedance (Ohms) : 45.00000

Termination and Termination Transmission Line

Termination impedance (Ohms) : 50.00000 + j .00000
Transmission Line Length (m) : .00000
Characteristic impedance (Ohms) : 51.76521 + j .00000

90
5
120 60
4

3
150 30
2

180 0

210 E-Plane, f = 54 MHz 330

240 300
270

90
5
120 60
4

3
150 30
2

180 0

210 330
H-Plane, f = 54 MHz

240 300
270
 90
8
120 60
6

150 4 30

180 0

210 E-Plane, f = 216 MHz 330

240 300
270

90
8
120 60
6

150 4 30

180 0

210 H-Plane, f = 216 MHz 330

240 300
270

10

6
Gain (dB)

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Frequency (MHz)
 Aperture Antennas

An aperture antenna contains some sort of opening through which

electromagnetic waves are transmitted or received. Examples of aperture
antennas include slots, waveguides, horns, reflectors and lenses. The
analysis of aperture antennas is typically quite different than the analysis
of wire antennas. Rather than using the antenna current distribution to
determine the radiated fields, the fields within the aperture are used to
determine the antenna radiation patterns.
Aperture antennas are commonly used in aircraft or spacecraft
applications. The aperture can be mounted flush with the surface of the
vehicle, and the opening can be covered with a dielectric which allows
electromagnetic energy to pass through.

Open Ended Rectangular Waveguide

Consider an open-ended rectangular waveguide which connects to a

conducting ground plane which covers the x-y plane. If we assume that the
waveguide carries only the dominant TE10 mode, the field distribution in
the aperture of the waveguide is
where

The resulting radiated far fields are

The fields in the E-plane (N = 90o) and H-plane (N = 0o) reduce to

a = 38, b = 28

a = 98, b = 68
 Horn Antennas

The horn antenna represents a transition or matching section from the

guided mode inside the waveguide to the unguided (free-space) mode
outside the waveguide. The horn antenna, as a matching section, reduces
reflections and leads to a lower standing wave ratio. There are three basic
types of horn antennas: (a.) the E-plane sectoral horn (flared in the
direction of the E-plane only), (b.) the H-plane sectoral horn (flared in the
direction of the H-plane only), and (c.) the pyramidal horn antenna (flared
in both the E-plane and H-plane). The flare of the horns considered here
is assumed to be linear although some horn antennas are formed by other
flare types such as an exponential flare.
The horn antenna is mounted on a waveguide that is almost always
excited in single-mode operation. That is, the waveguide is operated at a
frequency above the cutoff frequency of the TE10 mode but below the
cutoff frequency of the next highest mode.

E-Plane Sectoral Horn

E-plane Sectoral Horn E-plane Far Field (N = B/2)
E-plane Sectoral Horn H-plane Far Field (N = B/2)

The directivity of the E-plane sectoral horn (DE) is given by

A plot of the E-plane and H-plane patterns for the E-plane horn
shows that the H-plane pattern is much broader than the E-plane pattern.
Thus, the E-plane sectoral horn tends to focus the beam of the antenna in
the E-plane (see Figures 13.3 and 13.4).
Design curves for the E-plane sectoral horn are given in Figure 13.8.
Example (E-plane sectoral horn design, Problem 13.6)

An E-plane horn is fed by a WR 90 (X-band) rectangular waveguide

(a = 2.286 cm, b = 1.016 cm). Design the horn so that its maximum
directivity at 11 GHz is 30 (14.77 dB).
H-Plane Sectoral Horn
H-plane Sectoral Horn E-plane Far Field (N = B/2)

H-plane Sectoral Horn H-plane Far Field (N = B/2)

The directivity of the H-plane sectoral horn (DH) is given by

 A plot of the E-plane and H-plane patterns for the H-plane horn
shows that the E-plane pattern is much broader than the H-plane pattern.
Thus, the H-plane sectoral horn tends to focus the beam of the antenna in
the H-plane (see Figures 13.11 and 13.12). Design curves for the H-plane
sectoral horn are given in Figure 13.16.

Pyramidal Horn

Based on the pattern characteristics of the E-plane and H-plane

sectoral horns, the pyramidal horn should focus the beam patterns in both
the E-plane and the H-plane. In fact, the E-plane and H-plane patterns of
the pyramidal horn are identical to the E-plane pattern of the E-plane
sectoral horn and the H-plane pattern of the H-plane sectoral horn,
respectively (See Figure 13.19).
The directivity of the pyramidal horn (DP) can be written in terms of
the directivities of the E-plane and H-plane sectoral horns:
 Reflector Antennas

A reflector antenna utilizes some sort of reflecting (conducting)

surface to increase the gain of the antenna. A typical reflector antenna
couples a small feed antenna with a reflecting surface that is large relative
to wavelength. Reflector antennas can achieve very high gains and are
commonly used in such applications as long distance communications,
radioastronomy and high-resolution radar.

Corner Reflector

The corner reflector antenna shown below utilizes a reflector formed

by two plates (each plate area = l × h) connected at an included angle ".
The feed antenna, located within the included angle, can be one of many
antennas although simple dipoles are the most commonly used.
 The most commonly used included angle " for corner reflectors is
o
90 . The electrical size of the aperture (Da) for the corner reflector antenna
is typically between one and two wavelengths. Given a linear dipole as the
feed element of a 90o corner reflector antenna, the far field of this antenna
can be approximated using image theory. If the two plates of the reflector
are electrically large, they can be approximated by infinite plates. This
allows the use of image theory in the determination of the antenna far field.

For analysis purposes, the current on the feed element is assumed to

be z-directed. The image element #2 represents the image of the feed
element (#1) to plate #1. Together, elements #1 and #2 satisfy the electric
field boundary condition on plate #1. Similarly, image element #3
represents the image of the feed element to plate #2. In order for image
element #2 to satisfy the electric field boundary condition on plate #2, an
additional image element (#4) is required. Note that the inclusion of image
element #4 also allows image element #3 to satisfy the electric field
boundary condition on plate #1. The system of four elements (four-
element array) yields the overall field within the included angle of the
reflector antenna (!45o # N # 45o). The four- element array can be treated
as 2 two-element arrays (a two-element array along the x-axis and the two-
element array along the y-axis).
 Given a two-element array aligned along the
z-axis with equal amplitude, equal phase elements
which are separated by a distance 2s, the resulting
array factor was found to be

If we rotate this 2-element array so that it lies along

the x-axis, we must transform the array factor
according to

which yields

Similarly, rotating the two-element array so that it lies along the y-axis, and
noting that the current is opposite to that of the array along the x-axis, we
find

The overall array factor for the 90o corner reflector becomes

In the azimuth plane (2 = B/2), the 90o corner reflector array factor is

The corner reflector array factor can be shown to be quite sensitive to the
placement of the feed element, as would be expected. The following plots
show the azimuth plane array factor for various feed spacings.
s = 0.18 s = 0.78

s = 0.88 s = 1.08
 A variety of reflecting surface shapes are utilized in reflector
antennas. Some reflector antennas employ a parabolic cylinder as the
reflecting surface while a more common reflecting surface shape is the
paraboloid (parabolic dish antenna). The so-called Cassegrain antenna
uses dual reflecting surfaces (the main reflector is a paraboloid, the sub-
reflector is a hyperboloid).