PIA Training Centre (PTC) Module 4 – ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTALS

Category – B1

MODULE 4
Sub Module 4.3

SERVOMECHANISM

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Contents TYPES OF SERVOMECHANISM………………………………………….. 8

INTRODUCTION- SYNCHROS…………………………………………….1 OPEN LOOP SERVOMECHANISM………………………………………. 8
CONTROL SYNCHRO SYSTEMS – CX…………………………………..3 CLOSED LOOP SERVOMECHANISM…………………………………… 8
BASIC DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHRO – dx…………………………………5 TRANSDUCERS…………………………………………………………………… 9
RESOLVER SYNCHRO – RS…………………………………………………5 RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS…………………………………………………. 10
ANGLE SENSING TRANSDUCER – introduction………………….. 5 INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS……………………………………………….. 10
SERVOMECHANISM .................................................................. 7 CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS………………………………………………. 11

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4.3.1 INTRODUCTION- SYNCHROS The size and phase of the induced output voltage is dependent
on the direction and angular displacement of the primary and
SYNCHRO is a name given to a variety of rotary, secondary windings. The induced voltage is determined by the
electromechanical, position-sensing devices or transducers for maximum voltage times the cosine of the angle between the
measuring the angle of a rotating machine. primary rotor and secondary stator coils. As the angle between
the coils increases to 900, the induced voltage is reduced to
A basic synchronous system is analogous to a pair of pulleys zero.
joined together through some belt or a chain so that each and
every movement of one pulley is instantaneously and The relative magnitudes of secondary currents are measured
simultaneously transmitted directly to the other pulley. and used to determine the angle of the rotor relative to the
stator, or the currents can be used to directly drive a receiver
In earlier days direct reading instrument were implied but with synchro that will rotate in unison with the synchro transmitter.
the improvement in aircraft design and size the effectiveness of
the mechanical drive indicator became limited.

In an effort to improve the means of transmitting information

from remote points of an aircraft, an electrical system was
devised for detecting the changes of state and transmits the
information synchronously onto an indicator, such Remote
Indicating Systems are sometimes referred to as DATA
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS or SYNCHROS.
OPERATION PRINCIPLE

A synchro operates as a variable coupling transformer. It is a

transformer which primary-to-secondary coupling can be varied
physically by changing the relative orientation of the two
windings. The primary winding of the transformer fixed to the
rotor, is excited by an alternating current, which by Fig 4.3.1 A Basic Synchro Model
electromagnetic induction, causes currents to flow in three Y-
connected secondary windings fixed at 120 degrees to each
other on the stator, as shown in the figure 4.3.1

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SYNCHRO SYSTEM CATEGORIES systems. Some torque units can be used as control
units, but control units cannot replace torque units.
The synchronous systems are divided into two categories
depending upon the source of electrical power (DC or AC) they BASIC TORQUE SYNCHRO
utilize for their operation. The DC powered synchro or DESYNN
have limited application whilst the AC powered AC SYNCHROS Like all synchros, a Torque synchro also comprises of
have a very wide application. transmitter Tx and a Receiver Rx unit, which are electrically
similar but not identical as the Rx synchro has an oscillation
SYNCHRO SYSTEM TYPES damper for preventing oscillation about the position before
coming to rest.
The Synchro systems are basically of two types called:
1- Torque Synchro systems and The rotors of both Tx and Rx synchros are energized from the
2- Control Synchro systems. same a.c. supply, so that excitation of both Tx and Rx rotors
match in phase and voltages.
Torque Synchro Systems:
The magnitudes of the voltages induced in the stator windings
In a Torque synchro system, the synchro provides a low- depend upon both the flux density and orientation of the rotor
power mechanical output sufficient to position an indicating with the stator coils and is determined by the max voltage times
device, actuate a sensitive switch or move light loads without the cosine of the angle between the primary rotor and
power. A torque synchro system is a system in which the torque secondary stator coil.
output from synchro does the usable work. In such a system,
accuracy on the order of one degree is attainable. Equal voltages are induced in the 120o and 240o stator windings
and max voltage in the 0o winding, since its axis is in line with
In a control synchro system, the synchro provides an output the rotor axis.
voltage signal which is converted to torque through an amplifier
and a servomotor, which does usable work. The control type If the rotor of the Tx synchro stays in the position as shown in
synchros are used in applications that require large torques or figure 4.3.2 the voltage E2 across stator S2 follows precisely the
high accuracy such as follow-up links and error detectors in supply voltage. When the two rotors are not aligned, the three
servo automatic control systems (such as an autopilot system). voltages induced in each of the two sets of stator windings are
different. Currents therefore flow between the two stators and a
Quite often, one system will perform both torque and control torque is produced in each synchro which is directed in such a
functions. Individual units are designed for use in either torque way that the two rotors must align themselves
or control
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CONTROL SYNCHRO SYSTEMS - CX

A control synchro system consisting of a control transmitter
(CX) and a control transformer (CT) as illustrated in Fig. 4.3.9.

Fig 4.3.3

The CX synchro is similar to that used in the torque synchro

system, the stator windings of the CX are connected to the
stator windings of the CT. Note that at 00 the CT rotor is
perpendicular to its S1 winding therefore the induced voltage in
the CT rotor is zero.
Fig. 4.3.2 BASIC TORQUE SYNCHRO SCHEMATIC
When the rotor of CX is on 00 the rotor’s magnetic field points
straight up as shown in the figure. The voltages induced in the
CX stator windings, as a result of this field are impressed on the
Normally, the Tx rotor position is controlled by the input shaft
CT stator windings through the three S leads. When the rotor
and the Rx rotor is free to turn so it is the one which aligns itself
coil axis is physically in the 900 position with the stator coil axis,
with the Tx rotor. Therefore, any movement of the Tx rotor due
then electrically it is in 00position and no emf is induced into the
to movement of input shaft is repeated synchronously by the
stator, it means like transformer the voltages induced into each
movement of the receiver rotor.
coil follows cosine function:

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The CT rotor is not energized from any source and rotor coils
are wound in a way that no torque is produced between the
rotor and the stator magnetic fields. Thus the rotor is not made
to rotate by the RMF of the input device, however a small
provision of its movement is allowed only for nullifying the error
signal mechanically by the position feedback signal geared
from the load.

The 00 position for the rotor occurs when the rotor coil axis is at
900angle with the resultant stator field. Fig 4.3.4
Signal voltages are applied to the CX stator resulting in the The voltage output from the CT is termed as Error Voltage
forming of magnetic field corresponding to the shaft position of because it exists only when the position of the load differs from
the input device. If the resultant magnetic field forms an angle that of the shaft of the input device.
other than 900 degrees with the position of the rotor, a voltage
would be induce into the rotor coil which amplitude and phase SYNCHRO SYMBOLS
depends on the angular difference between the resultant
magnetic field and position of the rotor.

The output of the CT drives a phase sensitive amplifier which

in turn drives a servo motor. The CT rotor is mechanically
geared to the load that is driven by the servo motor. As the
load turns, it turns the rotor of the CT as a position feed back
until the rotor is perpendicular to the resultant field and the FIG 4.3.5
output is zero.

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BASIC DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHRO - DX The primary use of a differential synchro is, when it is inserted
between the Tx and Rx or CX and CT of either basic torque or
A differential synchro compares two inputs or shaft positions
control synchro system. This inclusion permits an additional
and produces an electrical signal output equal to their sum or
input to be added algebraically to the overall system thus
difference.
produced
In construction the rotor of a differential synchro is different than
There are two such types of differential synchro system:-
ordinary synchros in a sense that it consists of three coils 1200
physically displaced from each other and connected together in
 Torque differential Synchro TDX
a Y configuration.
 Control differential Synchro CDX

RESOLVER SYNCHRO – RS

ANGLE SENSING TRANSDUCER - INTRODUCTION

A resolver is a type of rotary electrical transformer or transducer
used for measuring degrees of rotation or angle of a rotating
machine. A resolver is similar to a synchro in operation but is
much more sensitive and robust being brushless and in
construction has a stator with four leads, the windings being 90
Fig 4.3.6 Differential Synchro DX degrees apart physically instead of 120 degrees. Its rotor might
The stator oils act as the primary windings and the rotor coils be synchro-like, or have two sets of windings 90 degrees apart.
act as the secondary windings of a transformer. The voltages
induced in the rotor coils are equal to the max possible induced The output signal amplitudes vary with the sine and cosine of
voltage times cosine of the angle between the rotor coil and the the rotation angle, as the inductive coupling between rotor and
resultant magnetic field. stator coils varies with the angular position of the rotor.

When a synchro differential DX is connected to a synchro Tx, BASIC RESOLVER:

the field developed by the stator coils corresponds to the
position of the rotor of the synchro-Tx. The magnetic field Resolvers are used to perform trigonometric functions (resolving
generated in the DX rotor is always in opposite in direction to for the angle Ө, hypotenuse, or sides of a right triangle), to
that of the stator, regardless of the position of the rotor. convert voltages which represent the plane CARTESIAN co-

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ordinates of a point into the polar co-ordinates of that point, and

vice versa.

The most important fact about all synchros and resolver signals
is that they present information about the angular position of a
shaft in the form of relative amplitudes of a carrier wave. All
signals, rotor & stator, input & output are at the same frequency
and in perfect time-phase synchronization. For any static spatial
angle Ө, the outputs of a synchro or a resolver are constant
Fig. 4.3.7 VOLTAGE VECTOR REPRESENTATION
amplitude sine waves at the carrier frequency. In resolver
format, ignoring imperfection the ratio of amplitudes would be:
Similarly from the diagram the vector r can also be defined in
= = TanӨ terms of x and y where:-

X = r cos θ and Y = r sin θ, where X and Y are called the

similarly, the value of Ө is given by
Cartesian co-ordinates- of the vector.
Ө = tan
The resolver synchro consists of a stator and rotor each having
two windings arranged in phase quadrature as shown in Fig
4.3.8. It should be noted that the resolver has two coils, R3R1
CARTESIAN & POLAR COORDINATES: and R4 R2 at right angles to each other and attached to an input
A vector representing an alternating voltage can be defined in shaft. Similarly, the stator consists of two coils S3S1 and S4S2
terms of the vector length (r) and the angle it makes with the X also placed at right angles to each other.
axis (θ), as shown in Fig. 4.3.7 These are the polar co-ordinates
of the vector, written as
v= r θ………………….and by Pythagoras theorem
2 2
r= +

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4.3.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF SERVOMECHANISM

Introduction

One of the most potent features of civilization is the ability of

man to harness the forces of nature for performing physical
tasks far beyond the capabilities of his own strength. Control is
the name given to the process of applying, releasing and
stopping these forces and governing their action.

As more complex machines were developed to carry out more

complex tasks it became apparent, that man was an imperfect
controller of the machines he had created. Thus, it was a
natural step to replace the human controller by some form of
Fig. 4.3.8 RESOLVER SYNCHRO automatic controller wherever possible, to increase the
efficiency and accuracy of the process.
In order to simplify circuit diagrams, the resolver is not usually
shown as an arrangement of coils but, like other synchros, it is Servomechanism
drawn symbolically as shown in Fig. 4.3.9 below. Servomechanism is a powered mechanism producing motion or
forces at a higher level of energy than the input level, e.g. in the
brakes and steering of large motor vehicles, especially where
feedback is employed to make the control automatic.

In aviation, it is a particular type of automatic control system

causing the output to follow an input demand. Servomechanism
can be used for automatic piloting or stabilizing of an aircraft,
the precise positioning of a radar aerial, or maintaining the
position of an inertial platform, regardless of any maneuvers the
FIG 4.3.9 vehicle to which it is mounted performs.

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TYPES OF SERVOMECHANISM considerable deviations in their response.

Servomechanism may be classified on two basis, one is on the
loop structure and the other is on the Control nature.

1- Loop structure
a- Open Loop Servomechanism Systems
b- Closed Loop Servomechanism Systems
I- Closed Loop Servo Manual
II- Closed Loop Servo Automatic

2- Control Nature

a- Positional Control
b- Speed Control

OPEN LOOP SERVOMECHANISM

This is a system in which an input signal is applied and an

output is obtained, however when the output changes for any Fig 4.3.10
reason the input remains the same. This means that the
operator is unaware of the response to his demand signal. For
this type of system operation the system should always be in a CLOSED LOOP SERVOMECHANISM
perfect serviceable condition. For example in small aircrafts
when the control surfaces are moved manually by a pilot then Unlike open loop the operator in the closed loop system has
the visual movement conformance is not possible for him, direct means for checking and adjusting the response to his
thereby, it is assumed that the system is responding correctly to demand. Such systems are further classified into:
his demand by indirect assessing the response. Hence in such
systems there is no direct visual or other verification provision
for an operator for checking the conformance by the operator. i- Closed Loop Servo Manual
ii- Closed Loop Servo Automatic.
Therefore, such systems are prone to deviation and their
performance is merely on approximations, there is always some
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In the Closed loop Manual system the operator is integral part of

the servo loop mechanism and he can monitor and also adjusts
the response as per his demand. The main disadvantage of this
system is human error, as long time operations through human
operator is susceptible to errors.

The Closed Loop Servo Mechanism Automatic is mainly the

system which is often referred as the Servo Mechanism. When
this system is doing its job it is much more efficient than the
combined effort of a control system and an operator together
and it will go on operating as long as it is supplied with power.

Fig 4.3.12: CLOSED LOOP SERVOMECHANISM AUTOMATIC

ANALOG TRANSDUCERS

In a servomechanism, a transducer plays a major role in the feedback

circuit. The transducer is responsible for the detection of the position
of the output. It would give either a specific voltage or a specific
resistance value for every position of the output as the feedback,
depending on the type of transducer used

A Transducer may either be a Mechanical or an electrical device, and

as per British Standard 1523, a Transducer is a device for converting a
Fig 4.3.11: CLOSED LOOP SERVOMECHANISM MANUAL
signal or physical quantity of one kind into a corresponding physical
quantity of another kind’.
Furthermore, in order to produce large torques for moving A Transducer is composed of two parts, one is a sensing or detecting
heavy loads using only a small input torque, automatic control element while the other is a Transduction element. The sensor
systems are used. A servomechanism is a particular type of produces a measurable response to a change in the physical
Automatic control system whose output is the position of a condition, whereas the transductor element transforms the output of
shaft. Remote operation is not essentially a part but it can be the sensor to an electrical output.
obtained if servo devices are made a part of the system.

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Transducers are also classified as Active or Passive. Active INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS

transducers do not require any external power source like photo-
voltaic, thermoelectric, piezoelectric, electromagnetic etc. whereas, Operating Principles
Passive transducers depend upon the change in their properties like
R, L, C or X and or optoelectronic for their function.
Synchros and other types of differential transformer are used to
transmit linear and angular data for the remote control of
RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS servomechanisms. Their fundamental operating principle is based on
that of the conventional transformer, in which a common magnetic
The input transducer translates the input demand i which is circuit links both the primary and secondary windings. For example, if
commonly in the form of a shaft angle or linear movement, into the a fixed voltage (V1) is applied to the transformer primary, the
demand voltage. This voltage must provide an indication of both the secondary voltage (V2) will vary in sympathy with the angular
direction and magnitude of an input demand. An input transducer may displacement () of the primary with respect to the secondary,
be a potentiometer connected to the input shaft that converts angular (Fig4.3.14 refers). This is because when the coils lie parallel,
displacement (shaft position) into a corresponding electrical signal.
maximum magnetic coupling is produced and hence, the maximum
They are reliable enough for most applications and are easy to adjust
as well as being relatively inexpensive. R-pot and Helical are High voltage is induced into the secondary. At any angle  from 0
grade potentiometer in which helical gives a full 360 coverage the output is proportional to V1 Cos ; hence, V2 is zero when  =
90.

FIG 4.3.14 - RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT AND COUPLING

FIG 4.3.13 POTENTIOMETERS AS INPUT TRANSDUCERS

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CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS: that has teeth cut axially and the matching shaft that has similar
The capacitive transducers are basically capacitors with teeth at its periphery.
variable capacitance and work on the equation of a parallel
Changing distance between the plates type
plate capacitor i.e. C = Eo Er A/d, where ‘ C’ is the capacitance
of the variable capacitance transducer ‘Eo’ is the absolute This is the most commonly used type of variable capacitance
permittivity and ‘Er’ is relative permittivity of the dielectric type transducer. For the measurement of the displacement of
material., ‘A’ is the area of plates and ‘d’ is the distance an object, one plate of the transducer is kept fixed, while the
between the plates. other is connected to the moving object. When the object moves
the distance changes hence the capacitance of the transducer.
Depending on the parameter that may change for a capacitive
This principle can also be used to measure pressure, velocity,
transducer, they are of three types, as mentioned below:
acceleration etc.
1- Changing dielectric constant type.
2- Changing area of the plates type.
NOTES
3- Changing distance between the plates type

Changing dielectric constant type:

In this type the dielectric material between the two plates

changes due to which capacitance of the transducer changes.
When there is a change in the input quantity to be measured,
the value of dielectric constant also changes, providing a
change in the capacitance value of the capacitive transducer.
This capacitance calibrated against the input quantity, directly
gives the value of the quantity to be measured.

Changing area of the plates type:

This principle is used in the torque meter used for

measurement of torque on the shaft. This comprises of a sleeve

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