CE PC 211

Fundamentals of Surveying
Chapter 3
Leveling Methods
Lawrence Tan Orjalesa, CE, GE, LPT, MEng CE, Ph.D.
Associate Professor
Structural Engineer
Course Professor
Chapter 3
Leveling Methods
 Leveling
- The process of directly or indirectly measuring
vertical distances to determine the elevation of
points or their differences in elevation.
 Leveling
Level surface
- It is a curved surface which is at any point
perpendicular to the direction of gravity or the
plumb line.
Level line
- Is a curved line in a level surface all points of
which are normal to the direction of gravity and
equidistant from the center of the earth.
 Leveling
Horizontal surface
- It is a plane that is tangent to a level surface at a
particular point.
- The horizontal surface is also perpendicular to
the plumb at the same point.
 Leveling
Horizontal line
- A straight line in a horizontal plane which is
tangent to a level line at one point.
- This line is perpendicular to the direction of
gravity at the point of tangency.
 Leveling
Vertical line
- A vertical line at any point is a line parallel to
the direction of gravity.
Mean sea level
- Is an imaginary surface of the sea which is
midway between high and low tides.
- It is taken as the reference surface to which
most ground elevations are referred.
 Leveling
Datum
- Any convenient level surface coincident or
parallel with mean sea level to which elevations
of a particular area are referred.
Elevation
- For a particular point, its elevation is the
vertical distance above or below mean sea level
or any other selected datum.
 Leveling
Difference in elevation
- The difference in elevation between two points
is the vertical distance between the two level
surfaces in which the point lie.
 Importance of Leveling
- It is a vital and important aspect of surveying
since leveling operations are undertaken to
provide necessary data for engineering design
and construction, and the production of
topographic map.
 Importance of Leveling
- The suitability of a site for development can be
better determined by using the results obtained
from leveling operations.
- Through the processes of leveling, buildings,
roads, canals, and other vertical and horizontal
structures can be designed and laid out to best
conform to the configuration of the ground.
 Types of Levels
Dumpy Level
- The dumpy level (Fig. 12-2) is the most widely
used direct leveling instrument.
 Types of Levels
Dumpy Level
- It has long telescope which is rigidly attached to
the level bar.
- The telescope, which can be rotated through
360 degrees, fixes the direction of the line of
sight.
 Types of Levels
Wye Level
- The wye level (Fig. 12-3) is very identical to the
dumpy level.
 Types of Levels
Wye Level
- The only distinct difference between these two
instruments is in the manner by which their
telescopes are attached to the supporting level
bar.
- The wye level has a detachable telescope which
rests in supports called wyes.
 Types of Levels
Builder’s Level
- This instrument is used primarily in the different
phases of building construction where a high
degree of precision is not a primary requisite.
 Types of Levels
Builder’s Level
- Engineers, architects, and builders use it in the
setting of concrete forms, batter boards, and in
establishing grades for earthwork.
 Types of Levels
Automatic Level
- Self-leveling features are incorporated in
automatic levels.
 Types of Levels
Automatic Level
- This type of level has become popular for
conventional leveling work because of the ease
and speed of their operation.
- It does not use a level vial and its ability to level
itself depends upon the action of a complex
pendulum-and-prism device.
 Types of Levels
Tilting Level
- This type of leveling instrument (Fig. 12-6) can
be tilted or rotated about its horizontal axis.
 Types of Levels
Tilting Level
- A bull’s-eye level is employed for its quick and
approximate leveling.
- The tilting knob is used to rotate the telescope
into a correct horizontal position.
 Types of Levels
Geodetic Level
- The geodetic level is basically another type of
tilting level
- Most of its metal parts are made of invar to
reduce the effects of temperature.
- Geodetic levels (Fig. 12-7) are employed in first-
order leveling work where extreme precision is
an important requirement.
 Types of Levels
Geodetic Level
 Types of Levels
Transit as a Level
- The engineer’s transit has always been referred
to as the universal surveying instrument
because of its variety of uses.
 Types of Levels
Laser Level
- A new innovation introduced to surveying
operations is the use of laser.
 Types of Levels
Laser Level
- A laser system is a separate unit equipped with
a portable power supply and may be a helium-
neon laser or gas laser.
- Mounted or attached to conventional surveying
instruments such as levels, transits, and
theodolites.
 Types of Levels
Hand Level
- The hand level (Fig. 12-11) is a hand-held
instrument used on surveys involving short
sights and where a low order of accuracy is
sufficient.
 Types of Levels
Hand Level
 Types of Levels
Hand Level
- Useful in reconnaissance survey, in cross
-sectioning to obtain additional rod readings on
sloping ground, and in taping to determine if
the tape is held horizontally during
measurement.
 Leveling Rods
- A leveling rod is a graduated rod which is used for
measuring the vertical distance between the line
of sight through a leveling instrument and the
point whose elevation is either required or
known.
Leveling Rods
 Tripods
- Tripods serves as a base to prevent movement of
the instrument after it is set up.
- It consists of three wooden or aluminum legs
which are securely fastened to the tripod head by
means of a hinged joint.
Tripods
 Methods of Eliminating Errors in
Leveling
1. Imperfect adjustment of instrument: This could
be eliminated by adjusting the instrument or by
balancing the sum of foresight and backsight
distances.
2. Rod not of standard length: This could be
eliminated by standardizing the rod and apply
corrections same as for tape.
 Methods of Eliminating Errors in
Leveling
3. Parallax: This could be eliminated by focusing
carefully.
4. Bubble not centered at instant of sighting: This
could be eliminated by checking the bubble
before making each sight.
5. Rod not held plumb: This could be eliminated by
waving the rod or using rod level.
 Methods of Eliminating Errors in
Leveling
6. Faulty of reading the rod: This could be
eliminated by checking each rod reading before
recording.
7. Faulty turning point: This could be eliminated by
choosing definite and stable points.
8. Variation of temperature: This could be
eliminated by protecting the level from the sun
while making observations.
 Methods of Eliminating Errors in
Leveling
9. Earth's curvature: This could be eliminated by
balancing each backsight and foresight
distance, or apply the computed correction.
10. Atmospheric refraction: This could be
eliminated by balancing each backsight and
foresight distance, also take short sights well
above ground and take backsight and foresight
readings quick succession.
 Methods of Eliminating Errors in
Leveling
11. Settlement of tripod or turning points: This
could be eliminated by choosing stable
locations, and taking backsight and foresight
readings in quick succession.
 Common Errors in Leveling
1. Imperfect adjustment of instrument
2. Parallax
3. Earth's curvature
4. Atmospheric refraction
5. Variation in temperature
6. Rod not standard length
7. Expansion or contraction of rod
8. Rod not held plumb
 Common Errors in Leveling
9. Faulty turning points
10. Settlement of tripod or turning points
11. Bubble not exactly centered at the instant of
sighting
12. Inability of observer to read the rod exactly
 Common Mistakes in Leveling
1. Confusion of numbers in reading and recording.
2. Recording B.S. on the F.S. column and vice-versa.
3. Faulty additions and subtractions.
4. Rod not held on the same point for both B.S.
and F.S.
 Common Mistakes in Leveling
5. Wrong reading of the vernier when the target
rod is used.
6. Not having target set properly when the long
rod is used.
Two-Peg Test
 Two-Peg Test
The computed difference in elevation for the two
set ups are:
and
Considering the rod readings taken with the
instrument set up near A and also near B, the true
difference in elevation between A and B for each
set up:
and
 Two-Peg Test

If is not equal to , the correct rod reading

at A with the instrument still set up near B is

2
 Two-Peg Test
- If is greater than , the line of sight is inclined
upward.
- If is less than , it is inclined downward.
- Values of and must always be solved with
due regard to signs.
- Draw a sketch of the set up and the observations
made in the field to avoid confusion.
Two-Peg Test
Two-Peg Test
Two-Peg Test (Alternate)
 Two-Peg Test (Alternate)
The true difference in elevation between the two
pegs:

Rod readings c and d are taken on A and B and the

difference in elevation calculated as follows:
 Two-Peg Test (Alternate)
If is equal to , the line of sight is parallel
to the axis of the level tube, and it can be
concluded that the line of sight is horizontal.
If not, is called the erroneous or false
difference in elevation, and the inclination of the
line of sight from the horizontal is
 Two-Peg Test (Alternate)
From Figure 16-1, the error in the reading on the
far rod at B can be determined by proportion as
follows
or "
!
 Two-Peg Test (Alternate)
The correct rod reading at the far rod (held at B)
for a horizontal line of sight is determined by
subtracting algebraically from the rod reading
the amount of "
"
 Two-Peg Test (Alternate)
If is greater than , the line of sight is inclined
upward; if is less than , it is inclined
downward.
The error in the reading on the near rod at A is
#
or $
!
 Two-Peg Test (Alternate)
The correct rod reading at the near rod (held at
A) for a horizontal line of sight is determined by
subtracting algebraically from the rod reading
the amount of $
$
 Two-Peg Test (Alternate)
To check the computations, the difference in
elevation computed from the two corrected rod
readings and ) should be equal to the true
difference in elevation
a b
Two-Peg Test (Alternate)
Two-Peg Test (Alternate)
Two-Peg Test (Alternate)
Two-Peg Test (Alternate)
 Curvature and Refraction
The effects of earth curvature and atmospheric
refraction are taken into account in leveling work
since the measurements are made in vertical
planes and these effects all occur in the same
plane.
The combined effects are represented in Figure 16-
2.
Curvature and Refraction
 Curvature and Refraction
ℎ 0.0675-
ℎ is the departure of a telescope line of sight
from a level line (in meters)
- is the length of the line of sight (in
kilometers)
0.0675 is the coefficient of refraction
Curvature and Refraction
Curvature and Refraction
Curvature and Refraction
Curvature and Refraction
Curvature and Refraction
Curvature and Refraction
Curvature and Refraction
Curvature and Refraction
Curvature and Refraction
 Differential Leveling
The process of determining the difference in
elevation between two or more points some
distance apart.
It requires a series of set ups of the instrument
along a general route and, for each set up, a rod
reading back to the point of known elevation and
forward to a point of unknown elevation are taken.
 Differential Leveling
The basic equipment used in differential leveling
include a graduated leveling rod and a leveling
instrument such as a dumpy level, automatic level,
or an engineer’s transit.
Differential Leveling
 Differential Leveling
Height of instrument above datum
. / 0 23 24
Elevation above datum of the turning point
/ 0 56 . 74
Differential Leveling
Differential Leveling
Differential Leveling
Differential Leveling
Differential Leveling
Differential Leveling
Differential Leveling
Differential Leveling
Differential Leveling
Differential Leveling
Differential Leveling
 Double-Rodded Leveling
A method to determining differences in elevation
between points by employing two level routes
simultaneously.
This method differs from conventional differential
leveling in that two turning points are established
such that at each setup of the leveling instrument,
two sets of independent backsights and foresights
are taken.
Double-Rodded Leveling
Double-Rodded Leveling
Double-Rodded Leveling
Double-Rodded Leveling
Double-Rodded Leveling
Double-Rodded Leveling
Double-Rodded Leveling
 Three-Wire Leveling
A more precise method of differential leveling can
be attained by the three-wire method of leveling.
It is a method of determining differences in
elevation wherein three horizontal (or threads) are
read and recorded rather than from a single
horizontal hair.
 Three-Wire Leveling
The leveling instrument used should be equipped
with stadia hairs in addition to the regular vertical
and horizontal hair.
For each backsight and foresight, all three
horizontal hairs are read to the nearest millimeter
and the average of the three readings in taken as
the correct value.
 Three-Wire Leveling
The leveling instrument used should be equipped
with stadia hairs in addition to the regular vertical
and horizontal hair.
For each backsight and foresight, all three
horizontal hairs are read to the nearest millimeter
and the average of the three readings in taken as
the correct value.
Three-Wire Leveling
 Three-Wire Leveling
8
9
3
. -8 ;
/ 0 <= 5 . 9
Three-Wire Leveling
Three-Wire Leveling
Three-Wire Leveling
Three-Wire Leveling
Three-Wire Leveling
Three-Wire Leveling
Three-Wire Leveling
 Profile Leveling
The process of determining differences in
elevation along a fixed line at designated short
measured intervals .
It is executed to provide data from which a vertical
section of the ground surface can be plotted.
A profile is necessary for the design and
construction of roads, railroads, canals, culverts,
bridges, sewer lines, and etc.
Profile Leveling
Profile Leveling
Profile Leveling
Profile Leveling
Profile Leveling
Profile Leveling
Profile Leveling
Profile Leveling
Profile Leveling
Profile Leveling
 Rise and Fall Method of Leveling
The rise and fall method is based on the principle
that two consecutive readings from the same
instrument position gives the difference in
elevation of the two points sighted.
The actual height of instrument has no real
significance other than being the line to which
vertical distances are conveniently measured from
various points on the ground.
 Rise and Fall Method of Leveling
The method relies upon the difference in elevation
between successive points such that each point is
considered in relation to the point such that each
point is considered in relation to the point
immediately preceding it and whose computed
elevation (or reduce level, RL) is either known or
has just been computed.
Rise and Fall Method of Leveling
Rise and Fall Method of Leveling
Rise and Fall Method of Leveling
Rise and Fall Method of Leveling
Rise and Fall Method of Leveling
Rise and Fall Method of Leveling
Rise and Fall Method of Leveling
Rise and Fall Method of Leveling
Rise and Fall Method of Leveling
Rise and Fall Method of Leveling
Rise and Fall Method of Leveling
Rise and Fall Method of Leveling
 Reciprocal Leveling
Reciprocal leveling is employed to determine the
difference in elevation between two points when it
is difficult or impossible to keep backsights and
foresights short and equal.
Such a condition usually exists when running a line
of levels across rivers, lakes, or in rugged terrain
where deep canyons and ravines are encountered.
Reciprocal Leveling
 Reciprocal Leveling
The level is first set up very close to > at ?6 , and a
backsight reading, , is taken on a leveling rod held
at > after which a foresight reading, , is taken on
the rod held at 2.
From these readings the difference in elevation
between the two points is
6
 Reciprocal Leveling
The level is then taken across the body of water
and set up at ? near 2.
From this second position, readings are again
taken on both points and recorded as and .
A second difference in elevation is again obtain as
follows
 Reciprocal Leveling
The two differences in elevation between > and 2,
as determined with the instrument set up at ?6
and ? , normally will not agree because of
instrumental errors and the effects of curvature
and refraction.
 Reciprocal Leveling
It would be sufficiently precise to assume that the
average of the two quantities determined is the
true difference in elevation between the two
points.
6
2 2
 Reciprocal Leveling
It would be sufficiently precise to assume that the
average of the two quantities determined is the
true difference in elevation between the two
points.
6
2 2
Reciprocal Leveling
Reciprocal Leveling
Reciprocal Leveling
Reciprocal Leveling
Reciprocal Leveling
Reciprocal Leveling
Reciprocal Leveling
 Trigonometric Leveling
Trigonometric leveling or indirect leveling is the
determination of differences in elevation from
observed vertical angles and either horizontal or
inclined distances.
Trigonometric Leveling
 Trigonometric Leveling
The vertical distance, @, could be determined in
two ways as follows
@ tan C or
@ 8 sin C
The difference in elevation between > and 2 may
be determined by any of the following equations
tan C ℎ. F. GG or
sin C ℎ. F. GG
 Trigonometric Leveling
If the elevation of > is known, the elevation of 2
can then be determined as follows
Ele0 2 / 0>
 Trigonometric Leveling
The effects of curvature and refraction can be
eliminated if vertical angle observations are made
simultaneously at both ends of the line such as at
points > and 2.
This technique is termed reciprocal vertical-angle
observation.
 Trigonometric Leveling
When applied, it is no longer necessary to take
into account the effects of curvature and
refraction, and the correct difference in elevation
between the two points is taken as
tan C tan K or
8
sin C sin K
2
Trigonometric Leveling
Trigonometric Leveling
Trigonometric Leveling
Trigonometric Leveling
Trigonometric Leveling
Trigonometric Leveling
 Altimeter Surveys
Single-Base Method
In this method, two altimeters and two
thermometers are employed.
One altimeter remains at a reference base whose
elevation is known while the other altimeter,
which is referred to as the roving altimeter, is
taken to other points or field stations whose
elevations are to be determined.
 Altimeter Surveys
Two-Base Method
The two base method was designed to eliminate
the need to apply correctness for the effects of
temperature and relative humidity.
The method also improves the accuracy in
determining differences in elevation between field
stations and reference bases.
Altimeter Surveys
Altimeter Surveys
Altimeter Surveys
Altimeter Surveys
Altimeter Surveys
Altimeter Surveys
Altimeter Surveys
Altimeter Surveys
Altimeter Surveys
 Inverse Leveling
In the conventional method of differential leveling,
the line of sight of the instrument is always higher
than any point on which the leveling rod is held.
It sometimes necessary to determine the elevation
of a point located higher than the telescope of the
instrument.
Inverse Leveling
Inverse Leveling
 End of Presentation
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