COMMUNICATION SKILLS (1 ST YR)

NOTE TAKING; is an individual process that contains series of

complex activities. Why we say its an individual process it means that
every person has their own way of expressing their own materials or
notes we call it individualism,
-it is a passive activity of simply writing down words,
-it is a way to record and range thoughts and materials to make you
remember some information.

WHERE NOTES ARE TAKEN:

We take notes in a classroom situation or lecture rooms, but also in
meetings, in work shops and other related locations such as
churches.

WHY DO WE TAKE NOTES?

Make you concentrate on what you are learning, or what is
presented by the presenter.
To put ideas into your own words, meaning what you hear should be
interpreted into your own words.
Help you remember things better, meaning what you write with your
hand in your own words you will surely remember easily.
Help us to record perfectly or properly.
Help us to write information which may not be available in other
sources. Example lecturers give information which is not written any
where.
Help us to identify important points, important points are identified
by not writing everything meaning you only take few key points
It helps you to organize your mind, meaning it organizes your
writings and ideas.
to become actual part of listening, meaning that we have to be good
listeners so as to take good notes.
 WHAT DO WE WRITE

Definition of new terms, meaning once there is a new term what

your supposed to do is to make sure you write down the definition
because a definition is a fact.
The formula or guideline, something that will lead you to something.
Write down specific facts,
Materials written on the board or presented.
Repeated words, words that are mentioned more then two times.
Reviews given at the beginning of the class, or in other words the
layout meaning even in a meeting there is supposed to be a layout of
what will be discussed.
The summaries that are given at the end of the presentation.
We write down references and other sources, doing an academic
work there has to be references.
Emphasized points. How we know emphasized points,
-through the tone of the voice and gesture of the speaker, meaning
the rising up and down of the tone. Gestures are whatever what the
speaker does.
-the amount of time spent on one point. If that person spends a lot
of time on one point it shows emphasis.
-the number of examples given, if a person gives many examples on
a certain point then he is making emphasis.

WHY DO WE WRITE OR TAKE NOTES ON OUR OWN WORDS?

To match with the speed of the speaker or presenter.
To have time to notice facial expressions and gestures.
interpreting concept easily.

NOTE TAKING TECHNIQUE

CONVECTIONAL SYMBOLS AND SIGNS: some common symbols

which many writers use are example the word equal use (=), less (<)
or greater then (>), positive sign (+), negative (-) or and (&), times(x)
OMMISSION OF VOWEL: instead of writing between you write (btn)
OMMISSION OF CONSONANTS:
USE OF NUMBERS: to (2) or for (4) and (9)
USE OF ABBREVIATION & SHORTCUTS: United Nation (UN) automatic
teller machine (ATM).
USE OF COLORS TO REPRESENT WORDS: red means danger, or stop
and green may mean go.
OMMIT WORDS THAT DO NOT CARRY MEANING:

THE CONTEXT OR ENVIRONMENT OF THE NOTE TAKER

PHYSICAL CONTEXT: a note taker has no control of a social or
geographical situations in which he or she takes the note example
bad smell. Physical environment has great influence in note taking
meaning the note taker may get problems to listen to the presenter
or speaker, by social we mean problems that everyone has.

THE SPEAKER: meaning that a note taker has no control on the

speaker, sometimes note taker face difficulties on speaker’s
personalities, example you see a bartender in a bar then the next day
you see that person as your teacher you will have a hard time to
understand that person, but sometimes the speaker may speak at a
low voice or too loud, or sometimes the speed, or he may be abusive

HOW CAN WE OVERCOME BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE NOTE TAKING?

LISTENING SKILLS

LISTENING; Is an active decision to be fully attentive and to

understand the intent of the speaker. It is a conscious activity of
making a follow up to the presenter, it is a grand process which
consumes time and requires both physical and mental energy to
concentrate. It should not be confused with hearing, hearing is a non
planned process and there is no concentration to it, meaning it
happens automatically, it is a subconscious activity, it is an
involuntary process.
Or is an active decision made by a person to be attentive so as to
understand the actual intentions of the speaker, therefore it is a
process and should not be confused as hearing because hearing is
done unconsciously meaning that it happens without you wanting it
to happen.

REASONS TO IMPROVE LISTENING

Encourage others to listen, if one person says to pay attention then
the other people will also pay attention to listen.
So as to posses all information that is spoken.
To solve problems, incase of conflicts we need attentive listening.
Improves understanding, in most cases people don’t understand
because they do not pay attention

TYPE OF LISTENING

APPRECIATIVE LISTENING: it does not focus on the message but

focuses on the attitude of the speaker or mood. Such listeners want
to enjoy the speaker. It just makes the speaker think that the
audience is supporting me.

DISCRIMINATIVE LISTENING: it is listening that is interested in the

conclusion given by the speaker, meaning from the beginning they
don not pay attention. They do this because they want to judge the
speaker’s position.

THERAPEUTIC LISTENING: this s the type of listening which needs

emotional support and psychological satisfaction. Such listeners
wont write anything because they need to understand your
emotions. This kind of listening is good when someone needs advice,
do not give an advice if your are not 100% sure of what you are
saying.
LISTENING FOR COMPREHESION: it involves getting the main points
asking for clarification, asking questions and identifying key issues.

CRITICAL LISTENING; it allows debate, it asks questions like why,

how, when, who and where. It deepens the understanding of the
listeners and it id used in academic context.

BARRIERS OF LISTENING
n
PASSIVE LISTEING: this is when a listener is not interested to listen.
Many students do not do good in school because they are not ready
to listen. This is when a listener is not ready to listen or not
interested to listen and that is the reason why many students in
school fail because they are not ready to listen to their teachers

DRIFTING THOUGHTS: this means that someone’s mind is

somewhere else, listeners are always controlled by emotions and
they move away mentally from what is being presented.

PASSED EXPIRIENCE ABOUT THE SPEAKER: this means that the

speaker might be a Bar maid and you see that person in a lecture
room giving a lecture it will be hard for a person to listen to him
carefully.

PROBLEMS CAUSED BY THE SPEAKER, one of the problem may be

speed of speaking, volume , accent and choice of words, meaning
some people may speak very fast which will make other people not
understand, some people may talk in a low voice which will make the
listeners not to listen, and some spears do not have the good choice
of words.
 NOTE MAKING : this is the second activity after
taking notes it involves the planned process where by a listener take
time to search and compile the materials those obtained from the
class room and from other sources such as the internet.

IMPORTANCE OF MAKING NOTES

to get more information from the texts books or other sources.
Help to train a critical mind. Critical means reading books and get a
lot of knowledge from different sources.
Helps in providing records of essential points, records mean
documents that are found in books that you have read.
Helps to develop your memory meaning that once a person makes
notes he will be having a lot of materials in his mind or brain.
Helps to organize your ideas and highlight areas that you need to
develop further. People organize their ideas and incase you’re in the
library your reading you will be highlighting some important points.

SUMMARY WRITING: A summary is a shortened

version of the original text. A summary should reflect the entire
text/work. A summary should include the thesis and major
supporting points. the summary should reveal the main ideas and
other ideas , and the …………. It is a significant reduction of the
original text.

SUMMARY WRITING TECHNIQUES

PARAPHRASING: it means expressing other people’s ideas by using
your own words. In such a summary we will not see direct words
from the passage.
IMPORTANT OF PARAPHRASING

Helps you to understand the original text better.

Helps you to get the main ideas and the main points.
Helps to write a brief summary and concrete with your own words.
GRASPING THE CENTRAL IDEA
We summarize to get the main idea and the general subject matter
of the material.
IDENTIFYING THE TOPIC SENTENCE: where by the topic sentence
always appear on the first paragraph usually the first sentence.
SUMMARIZE BY SUPPORTING THE IDEAS

ESSAY WRITING, REPORT WRITINGAND CITATION

ESSAYS

There are 2 types of essays

Short essays
Long essays
The short esays have only 3 parts while the long essays have 7 parts.

SHORT ESSAY: this is an essay which is usually written in classes and

used in exams and assignments. In any assignment you have to know
what type of essay is needed.

-we start writing the essay by analyzing keywords, which are the
words in the assignment that tell you the approach you should take
in answering the question, these words can be task words, content
words or limiting words.

TAKS WORDS: are verbs in the question that direct and tell you how
to go about answering the question. Understanding the meaning of
the verbs they will help you to know exactly what you are supposed
to do.
CONTENT WORDS: are words that tell us about the topic and direct
to the area of an assignment, half of the assignment are taken by
content, the content is narrowed down so as to. They help us to
focus the exact area where answers are obtained.

LIMITING WORDS: these words bound you when answering the

question, meaning there shouldn’t be any exaggeration, they focus
on the topic area and they direct you to the specific aspect you
should concentrate example

Computers have had a significance impact on education in the 20

century discuss changes that they have made?

In this question

-task word is discuss

-content words are education and computer,

-Limitation word is changes in 20th century and significance impact.

Compare your own education to date with that of your own parent
one of your children (if you have any) or a friend from a different
generation. Which point of comparison seems important to you and
why?

-Task word is Compare

-Content Words Education of your parents, one of your children and

friend from a different generation.

-Limitation: your parents, children and friend, different generation,

importance.
COMMON KEY WORDS AND DEFINITION THAT HELP YOU TO THINK
ABOUT YOUR ASSIGNMENT

INFORMATION WORDS: these are words which ask you to

demonstrate what you know about the subject such as who, what,
when, where, how and why. Under information word you may get a
words such define.

to define: give the subject meaning according to someone.

Sometimes you have to give more than one view on the subject
meaning.

Explain: means o give reasons on why and examples on how

something happened.

Illustrate: this means to give descriptive examples on how the

subject and show how it is connected with the subject. This is not an
easy question.

Summarize is to briefly list the important areas that you learned

about the subject.

Tress: this means to outline how something has changed or

developed from an earlier time to the current time.

Research: is to gather materials from outside sources about the

subject often with the implication or requirement that you will arise
what you have found. Such questions are in assignments.

RELATION WORDS: are words in the question or assignment that

demand you to demonstrate how things are connected to each
other.
Compare: means showing how 2 or more things are similar or
connected
Contrast: it demands to show how two or more things are different.
Apply: means to use details or knowledge that you have been given
to demonstrate how an idea, theory or concept words in a particular
situation.
Cause: shows an event or series of event made something else
happen.
Relate: means to show or describe the connection between two
things.

INTERPRETATION WORDS: these are words that demand you to

defend the idea on your own about the subject. These words do not
request an opinion alone but require opinion that is supported with
concrete evidence.

Asses: to summarize your opinion of the subject and measure it

against something.
Prove and justify: it means give reasons or example to demonstrate
how and why something is the truth.
Evaluate and respond; is to state your opinion of the subject as good
, bad or combination of the two.
Support: this means to give reasons or evidence for something you
believe, be sure that or state clearly what you believe.
Synthesize: to put 2 or more things together that have not been put
together in a class or in your reading. We do not summarize but you
should deal with the similarity and differences of 2 different
concepts.
Analyze: to determine how individual part create or relate to the
whole. Figure out how something went, what it might mean or why it
is important.
Argue: means to take a side and defend it with evidence against
another side.

TRICKS THAT DO NOT WORK WHEN WRITING THE ESSAY

Spending more time on the cover page then the essay.
Using huge font, wider margins or extra spacing.
Use of a paper from another class or group.

OUTLINING THE ESSAY: INFORMAL OUTLINE

This is a planning of writing an essay which will help you organize

and structure your ideas. From the essay outline you can know if you
are in the right track or not. It can be informal meaning not well
structured, an informal outline simply writes down the thesis
statement. Write down what will be introduced and what will be
discussed and what will include the conclusion .N.B All writing you
do in essay writing needs and introduction. In the introduction we
speak about the background or history of your topic. In the body
paragraph we explain what is currently happening or what needs to
happen in the future, sometimes we discuss or sometimes we give
solutions and many other things. In the conclusion we look to the
future by focusing on what is going to happen.

FORMAL OUTLINE: this is an outline that has a lot of details that are
included, it has got title and numbered sub headings. They are given
in numbers so as to to how relationship between one part and the
other part. It will contain more detail information and if there are
certain areas that your assignment requires you to cover or make
modification. You can expand it until your information is done. An
outline allows the writer to categorize the points to organize the
paragraph into an order that makes sense. An outline helps to
prevent a writer from getting stuck. It also gives you a mark of where
to go with your essay. A well developed outline will show what the
thesis, main ideas are and the evidence which support you in your
essay.
CITATION / REFERENCING AND ACKNOWLEDGING SOURCES:

How to write reference

How to cite
How to acknowledge pieces of work?

REFERNCING: is a way of making citation of sources or materials from

different authors and acknowledging them.
We normally cite down important information that we need for our
assignment.

BASIC TYPE OF SOURCES THAT ARE MOST CITE:

BOOKS: these are the first sources of students we need them
because they are published materials, you should make sure u cite a
book at the same level with your knowledge.
PERIODICALS: these are publications that are printed out and used as
sources.
REFERENCE MATERIALS; this includes online materials that are
connected to your area sometimes even the email you can cite your
work or even the television or news papers. You should not cite
online materials because not all of them are from good authors.

WHY DO WE MAKE REFERENCE OR CITE?

To acknowledge other people’s work or appreciate his work meaning

for appreciation.
Enable your readers to explore more or make further investigation.
To show how intensive your work is meaning deep it influences
people to read.
Used for future references meaning writing your work involving a
certain book after 10 years you can use it for citing again.
To trace the origin of ideas meaning where they came from.
To build our own web of ideas
Helps you to find out your own argument or thinking.
It validates the arguments
To avoid plagiarism meaning using other people’s work without
acknowledging them.
To meet criteria for marking

TYPES OF REFERNCE WRITING OR BIBLIOGRAPHY OR STYLES:

There are a lot of styles of writing reference but the most famous are
(1) APA studies which is American Psychological Abstract, it
originated in America.

(2) MLA SYSTEM: this is Modern language association;

) HAVARD STYLE:

CHICAGO STYLE:

HOW DO WE WRITE BOOK BY USING APA SYSTEM:?

Lawyers only use 2 names

SIR NAME: followed by a comma

THE INITIL OF FIRST NAME: in capital letter but followed by full stop.
YEAR OF PUBLICATION (should be in brackets) a full stop
TITLE OF THE BOOK: this is written once you meet an open word
class. Example Modification of the Legal system. When there is 2 title
you separate using a colon. Full stop And after that there should be a
capital letter.
PLACE OF PUBLICATION: can be a city, after that there is colon
NAME OF THE PUBLISHERS: then full stop

EDITED BOOKS: these are books that have been edited by someone
else, the six criteria are there

- name of the authors

- year of publication
- title of the book
- put the name of the editor if its one editor (Ed) if there more then 2
in brackets we put (Eds).
- place of publication.
- Name of publisher.
To get good materials use google but write pdf so as to get articles.

HOW TO WRITE ARTICLES OR JOURNALS:

Sir name:
Year of publication in brackets () :
Title of the article:
Issue number:
Volume number if available:

GOVERNEMENT PUBLICATIONS:

We do not have names but only the publisher

Year of pub in brackets
Title
Place of pub
And publisher again

Example: United R of Tz, (2010), Data on Land availabilities in Rural

Areas, Dsm, Ministry of Land in Human Settlement.

HOW DO WE CITE NEWS PAPER AND MAGAZINES:?

Author’s names followed by initials

Title of the article if it’s a news paper it should be in quotation
marks.
Full date.
Page
Ex. Langtei G, “Tudarco launches 5 new courses”. The guardian 10th ,
dec 2012, P4 .

ELECTRONIC SOURCES OR ONLINE MATERIALS:

Authors name of the information cited.

Title of the article in quotation marks
Web source in brackets
Date and year

James S, Kairuki Hospital Gets new CD4 machine ,

www,http/ippmediat@ac.tz, 2nd October 2003.

LETTER WRITING AND MEMOS

INFORMAL LETTERS/ FRIENDLY LETTER: this is a letter which is

written to a friend it is called informal letter because it uses informal
language, meaning that the language is not so serious meaning we
can use jokes or condense form, therefore it depends to who you
write meaning any language can be used.

PARTS OF INFORMAL LETTER

Sender’s address: located on the right part of the piece of paper

For your own property: you start direct with the po box
If you don’t have box address you use your friends or institutions.
Under care log: if it passes through someone and the name should
appear.

If you are using the institutions address; the name should start there.
We use the vertical way to write the address

Date: the date should start like this 5th January, 2017

Salutation: dear John, dear Sarah, Dear mom or dear Dad. It should
end up with a coma.

Introductory paragraph: in here we speak your physical and mental

part and also to know the physical and mental part too. Example I
hope you are fine I am okay am almost done with my studies.

Main body: if it’s a friendly letter you write your aims if you have 1
aim then write 1 paragraph if 2 aims you supposed to have 2
paragraphs.

Concluding paragraph: you conclude by using.i hope you will be

Last part: Yours friend write your name then signature.

OFFICIAL LETTER/ FORMAL LETTER:

Sender’s address: right hand side if we use American then its on the
left.

Receiver’s address: left hand side down near by the margin. You
should always mention the title of the receiver it should be 1st and
commas after every part at the last part you put full stop.

Salutation: leave a space of one line and should be near by the

margin. Dear madam/Sir,
Tittle of the letter. Start after the letter (r) Should be squeezed in a
paragraph form. Using RE: ………..the title should cover what you
want in caps and then underline. Application for a job as French
teacher.

Introductory paragraph: you should avoid informal language. You

speak about yourself meaning your particular. I’ve been interested
with your advertisement. I decided to apply for it, I am a young man
aged 21 from Tumaini University taking Bachelor of Law. In general,
its as if you are talking about ur CV.

Main Body: paragraph which wants you to say what are you applying
for and why.

Closing part/conclusion: it includes you can say that you are ready
for interview and I wish to have a call from you any time I hereby
attach my CV. Close by Yours faithfully or Yours Sincerely, sign then
names.

How we write a CV: it involves personal particulars

Tittle: CV in caps

LUM VITAE
PARTS:
PERSONAL PARTICULAR OR DETAILS:
- Sir name: LUPATU
- Middle name: ISSA
- First name: JUMA
- Date of Birth: 17th Dec, 1995
-Marital status: single
-sex: male
- Citizen: Tanzanian
-religion: Muslim
- Home address: ….
- Present address: Tumaini University
-telephone number: 0719124322
-email: jumalupatu@gmail.com

EDUCATION QUALIFICATION:
You can start with most recent
Or earliest.

YEAR INSTITUTION AWARD

2003-2009 college du leman primary
certificate
2010-2013 jitegemee high school
secondarcertificate
2014-2016 makongo high school high school
certifite
PROFESSIONAL BACKGROUND:

YEAR INSTITUTION

REFEREES
MOSES MBUJI FRENCH TEACHER (email, and phone number)
a person who knows your work(co-worker): (name address, and
phone number)
Relative(name, email and phone number)
U.S.F you put this in a letter that has to pass through at least 3
people
Business letters:
News paper letters:
Appreciation letters:
Warning letter:
Letter of opinion:
Letter for problem solving:
Letters for good will:
2nd SEMESTER
1ST MODE COMMUNICATION: THE CONCEPT AND PROCESS

COMMUNICATION: is the termed which is more familiar to us, it is an

activity that we perform everyday and every time. Human beings
started communication once they were born.
Communication is the act of conveying information for the purpose
of creating a shared understanding. Communication is something
that human beings do every time and everyday whether speaking or
silent. The word communication comes from a Latin word with the
Latin word “communis” which means to share verbal(sound), non
verbal and electronic means of human interaction. Human beings
convey information or communicate through a variety of methods.

METHODS OF COMMUNICATION

SPEAKING: this is a common way of communicating used by human

beings. Such as telling stories.

TELEPHONE: may be used for far communication. Although we ca not

understand the behavior of the person.

BLOGS:
TELEVISIONS: where by people watch the news and know what is
going on

RADIOS:

ART: by drawings or statues they convey a special message or

communicate with the people.

HAND GESTURES: communicating using hands

FACIAL EXPRESSION: face language (life is perceived when your eyes

are closed.

BODY LANGUAGE:

Communication can occur instantaneously (within a short time) in a

closed, intimate settings or great period of time in large public
forums like internet. Although only the people with the access of the
internet can see that particular information. All forms of
communication require the same basic elements of communication.
The act of communicating draws or demands several interpersonal
and intrapersonal skills like listening, observing, questioning,
processing, analyzing and evaluating. Communication is the act of
using words, sounds (such as drums and whistles), signs or behaviors
to express or exchange information or express your ideas thoughts,
feelings etc. to someone else.
Communication is the process of transferring information from one
person to another and it can occur across vast distances in time and
space.
Communication refers to the activity that serves to connect people
through space and time.
The communication process is complete once the receiver had
understood the message sent by the sender and given back an
appropriate feedback.
Communication is a two way traffic meaning there is sending and
receiving.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION / COMPONENTS

These are the main components of communication

SENDER: the sender is the person who intends to convey the

information. Or a person who starts or initiate the conversation. A
sender can be an individual speaking, writing, signaling or gesturing.
MESSAGE: is a piece of information that is transferred from the
sender to the receiver, it I what the sender wants to convey. The
message could be positive, negative or neutral.
CHANNEL: this is the root or way through which the message is
transmitted from the source to the receiver and vice versa. This is
the form in which an idea or feeling is delivered through. In spoken
communication channel includes the following.
Face to face
Telephone
Video conferencing or audio conferencing

In written communication channel it includes

- letters
- emails
- memos
- reports

RECEIVER: This is a person who receives the message he may be one

person or a big number of people, this is what we call the audience, a
receiver may be close or at a distance where by there is a difference
when you speak to a receiver who is near by and far away.
Communication is complete once the receiver gives back the
feedback. The receiver may give the feedback by speaking, giving
sign or by writing
FEEDBACK: this is a verbal or non verbal reaction from the audience
who receive the message. This is the effect action or comment that
comes after the message.

NOISE: anything that interferes with communication process at any

stage is referred to as noise. It does not need to be sound it may be
physical or Physiological.

TYPES OF NOISE

PHYSICAL NOISE; this is any internal barrier that infers with

communication to both the speaker and listener. It depends on the
condition meaning weather condition, or sun shine un random
movement. It destructs the physical transmission of signal or
message.

PHYSIOLOGICAL: this is the kind of noise that is created by barriers

within the sender or receiver. This means a speaker may have
physiological noise and receiver.

EXAMPLE OF PROBLEMS OF SPEKEAR SIDE

articulation problem

talking too fast (stammering)

talking too slow (brain problem)

forgetting to pause

forgetting to breath (stress)

EXAMPLE OF PROBLEMS OF THE LISTENER SIDE

Hearing problem
Difficult to hear

PSYCHOLOGICAL NOISE: this is associated with mental interference,

meaning that something interferes into your mind. This I the
destruction caused by physiological process that interferes with
communication process.

EXAMPLE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL

Wondering of thoughts: these are obstacles caused by destruction

and difficulties in listeners’ mind.

Preconceived ideas: meaning having your own ideas meaning having

your own knowledge which in that case it is wrong while you think
that you are correct. this is the kind of noise which occurs when the
audience thing that they already know something about the topic.

SARCASM: this is the noise which occurs when the listener disagrees
with you.

SEMANTIC NOISE: this is the kind of noise associated to meaning

assigned to a certain word, this occurs when the speaker and listener
have different meaning. Sometimes the audience may not
understand you because of your choice of words.
EXAMPLES OF SEMANTIC NOISE:

Jargons and other abusive language.

NB: we should always remember that nay communication is a 2 way
process where by the message in the form of ideas, feelings and
opinions is transmitted between two or more persons with the
intention of creating a shared understanding.

Effective communication is achieved when the message conveyed by

the sender is understood by the receiver in exactly the same way it
was intended.

Communication is a dynamic process that begins with concepts or

ideas by the speaker and transmitted in the form of the message
through the channel to the receiver who in time gives the feedback
in the form of the message or signal with the given time frame.

The transfer of message from the sender to the receiver through

different stages and back again to the sender is what is known as
communication process. It means there are different activities done
for the communication process to be complete which involves the
sender, channel and receiver.

COMMUNICATION MODULE / THEORY

Communication experts and scholars have described different
module of communication.

ARISTOTLE MODULE OF COMMUNICATION: he made a scientific

investigation on language and developed a module of
communication known as lineal module of communication. This was
the first module of communication, and it is the most accepted
module. He mainly focused on the speaker and the speech and he
divided communication process into 5 primary elements.
THE FIVE PRIMARY ELEMENTS

A SPEAKER: according to Aristotle a speaker has a great influence.

SPEECH
OCCASION OR SITUATION
AUDIENCE
EFFECT

This module is speaker centered, any communication is determined

by the speaker. The role of the speaker is to be an active personnel
in the communication. The speaker delivers or conveys a speech to
the audience he or she can determine which median to use. the role
of the audience is passive; the audience is influenced by the speaker.
According to Aristotle communication is a one-way process. The
speaker must organize the speech before hand according to the
targeted item. When we say one way a good example is soldiers,
once a soldier is given orders he can never disagree its always a
“YES”. Aristotle module identifies three elements which are sender,
message and receiver. But it is sunder centered. When the sender
sends a message then communication has started. In this mode the
response of the receiver is not focused

NEW COMB COMMUNICATION MODULE:

This is a triangular communication module where there is the
sender, receiver and the topic. According to him if any third party
exists between the sender and the receiver the third party will affect
communication. The main idea of this module is that the sender and
receiver relies upon the third party to communicate. Communication
will proceed if there is trust upon the third party, if there is no trust
the communication will be destructed. He further emphasizes that
the main purpose of this theory is to introduce the role of
communication in a social relationship. Good relationship maintains
social equilibrium between the society and the communication itself.
The topic is the matter of concerned.
THAYER’S ORGANIZATION/ COMMUNICATION MODULE:

this is the module which clearly stated that an individual can

influence an organization through his organization process. Thayer
mentioned 4 aspects which affect communication process btn the
sender and receiver

ASPECTS THAT AFFECT COMMUNICATION

INDIVIDUAL
INTERPERSONAL (what you communicate within yourself)
ORGANIZATION (how is ur society or organization)
TECHNICAL (related with means in which we
communicate)

SCHRAMM CIRCULAR MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

This mode is in general known as the process and effects of

communication this model present the complete treatment of the
fundamentals of communication. According to him to know how to
communicate or to know how communication works it is necessary
to study the communication process in general. In any
communication two people are involved, these people they share
information, ideas and an attitude meaning mood. In this process of
sharing at least three elements are involved the communicator,
message or content and the destination or receiver. He emphasizes
that communication can happen within a person or ourselves
INTRACOMMUNICATION or between two people which is
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION. Each type of communication
whether intra or inter both a sender and receiver use their
knowledge to interpret the information. In communication encoding
interpretation and decoding take place simultaneously. In this model
communication ends up where it started, in fact as communication
goes on the noise gets less or more powerful. Personality is more
important for effective communication. If we consider that the
source and the encoder are one person, decoder and destination are
another person and the signal is language. In general this model
suggested the importance of encoding and decoding process as well
as the role of field of experience

SHANNO WEAVER: this model shows the transmission of the

message from the source to the destination, the model sets basic
constituents that not only explain how communication happens but
why communication sometimes fails. Good timing plays a great role
in communication, he emphasizes that always the sender initiates
communication basing on his or her thoughts and transmit
information through a selected media to the receiver. On the basis of
received message the receiver transmits his or her emotions and
feelings as feedback. In this communication process there is a noise
which influences and affects the total process of communication.
This model give sthe importance of two way from of communication,
according to him communication is incomplete if you don not
respond. This model breaks the process of communication in to 8
coumponents
Source:
Message:
Transmitter (telephone, tv, face n face )
Signal: is hat flows through the channel (sounds or written word)
Carrier:
Noise (may confuse the carried signal) :
Receiver :
Destination: person who consumes and process the information
BERLO MODEL OF COMMUNICATION: this is among the famous
communication model which stresses on the relationship between
the person selling the message and the receiver. According to this
model for the message to be properly encoded and decoded the
communication skills of both the sender and receiver should be at
best. This model has 4 main components and each component has
some components describing the assisting factors for each
MAIN COMPONENTS
Source
Communication skills:
Attitude: for proper communication the source and receiver should
share the attitude.
Knowledge:
Social system:
Culture: it may lead to communication breakdown
Message:
Content: share the topic of discussion.
Elements: the elements should match with both sides
Treatment: how does the message treat the source and the receiver.
Should be under same treatment.
Code:
Channel:
Hearing: from source and receiver , before communicating you need
to know the status of the audience.
Seeing: the source or receiver must be seeing each other
Touching:
Smelling:
Receiver
Communication skills:
Attitude:
Knowledge:
Social system; share where you belong
Culture: it may lead to the communication breakdown.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
There are 3 basics types of communication which include

VERBAL COMMUNICATION
NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
VERBAL COMMUNICATION: when message or information is
exchanged or communicated through words then we refer to that
process as verbal communication. It may be in written form or in oral
form. It takes place through case to face conversation, group
discussion, counseling, interview, radio and television, phones,
memos, reports and emails.

- This is the expression of information through language which is

composed of words and grammar, this means that it has to be
grammatical. it consists of sharing thoughts and ideas by using
words.

-It is the process of exchanging information between 2 or more

persons through written sounds and spoken words. We use sounds
and language to convey the message. It serves as a vehicle for
expressing desires, ideas and concepts and it is a vital process in
learning and teaching.

-This is not independent it employs other types of communication in

this case it employs non verbal. It may be interpersonal
communication or public speaking. Public speaking involves one or
more people delivering a message to a group of people
- signs and symbols are the major signals that make up verbal
communication. Words act like symbols and signs are secondary
products of the underlined message.

The main function of verbal communication is to convey a message

to one or more recipients or receivers directly. This is accompanied
by non linguistic features like tone or voice, facial expressions and
body language. In verbal communication we inform, we inquire, we
argue and discuss different topics.

CHALLENGES OF VERBAL COMMUNICATION.

in verbal communication the audience normally faces the problem of
misunderstanding. This is cause by
poor word choice by the speaker.

Different perspectives: this means how a person regards a certain

thing.

Techniques used to present your ideas. Do you use direct approach

or indirect or maybe flashback?

Tonation this is related to sound, such as speaking too low or the rise
and fall.

Pronunciation: this is when people do not speak out the word

properly they have pronunciation problems.

Language barrier:

Knowledge you have may affect verbal communication: some people

may have a knowledge and will not be able to use that knowledge.

In order to avoid these challenges when communicating verbally you

need to consider the message you wish to communicate before
speaking or communicating with the respective audience. You have
to know if the message you are going to present suitable for that
audience. Normally speak clearly, pronounce words correctly, be
conscious with other non verbal features like eye contact, gesture
and facial expression.

IMPORTANCE OF VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Verbal communication has the ability to confuse, clarify, encourage,

instruct or teach. We experience verbal communication in our daily
life, when we listen to news, when attending interviews and when
we tell stories to our friends.
Verbal communication is the beginning of communication process,
meaning it is the basic form that we use to communicate daily.
We use it to inform and give knowledge in different settings for
example in the class room we give knowledge by using verbal
communication.
It is also used to clarify issues when there is misunderstanding or
there is not enough information provided.
It is also used if there is something which is done wrongly or
incorrectly.
This is the best type of communication which gives perfect feedback.
The feedback is very essential in communication since it improves
relationship within a family, school or institution.
Verbal communication has great influential powers, when you speak
verbally you use various technique to influence the audience to
understand you as well. Which is basically concerning the sound of
your voice.
A lot of what we communicate is communicated through non verbal
communication but the content of what we communicate most of it
comes through verbal communication.

NON VERBAL COMMUNCATION:

What we say is a vital part of any communication but what you do
not say can be more vital. Some researches have shown that 55% of
impersonal (within you) communication comes from non verbal
communication, 7% of the received message is based on the sender’s
actual words, 38% of any speech is based on para language meaning
the tone, pronunciation and the volume of speech. In the interviews
non verbal clues affect the speaker whether to get a job or not. Job
skills are assessed through non verbal clues that are shown by the
candidates. How we appear before the board communicates extra
non verbal meaning.
To be effective communicators we need to align our body language,
appearance and tone of the words we are trying to speak out. In non
verbal communication we listen up and learn more. Tone is another
element of non verbal communication that affects the message, the
change or tone should be don purposely.
-Example I do not tell john you were late. I did not tell john you were
late. I did not tell john you were late. I did not tell john you were
late. I did not tell john you were late. I did not tell john you were late.
I did not tell john you were late. (The underlined part shows
emphasis)

non verbal communication is always supported by the following

ELEMENTS OF NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION

BODY LANGUAGE:
- A firm hand shake. A firm handshake shows that there you are
confident and
- A weak handshake shows uncertainty.
-Folded hands
- standing with one leg folded
(2) EYE CONTACT:
the duration taken during eye contact matters in communication or
even business or any situation. Apart from that we get extra meaning
from eye contact. If someone is settled, then the eyes will be settled.
79

FACIAL EXPRESSION: human face expresses a thousands of different

expressions
It expresses emotions and feelings
It expresses happiness and sadness
It expresses basic information which can not be captured by other
communication channel.

Happiness is always associated with an open mouth and slightly

closed eyes
Fear is also curtained with open mouth while open mouth plus wide
open eyes.
Flitting eyes and puzzled lips; conveys lack of trust.

POSTURE: how a person positions his or her body.

TOUCH: there is gentle touch and strong touch.
SPACE: distance between the speaker and the audience

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION:

This is anything or any message that is printed, or written it belongs

to the group of written communication, this is inevitable meaning we
read it everyday. It involves memos, proposal, email, letters, books,
training manuals and operating policies.

-memo: short information

proposal: this is a long writing where by done when writing a
research
operating policies: are government documents.
These materials may be written on the paper, hand written or
appear on the screen such as projectors.

A written text can be short or long depending on what you want to

express. The sender may be one or a group of people but normally it
is only 1 sender where by the receivers are many people or groups of
people.

This is an official way of communication and it is preferred in most

serious cases example the plaint given in court or also the defense as
well should be written where by it is official. Most of the job
agreements are done in written communication and it is believed
that more then 67 salaries are done by writing.

Written communication has great influence in today’s business

activities and developing sectors emphasizes on written
communication, it has got a great significance. Writing is more
significant than any other means of communication. Therefore, for
running our business we need to deploy effective writing.

Effective writing: is a kind of writing that involves careful selection of

words, sentences, as well as paragraphs. It is comfortable to the
audience.

ADAVANTAGES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Helps in laying down principals, policies as well as rules for any

running organization. Example the constitution.
It is a permanent means of communication therefore used where
records are needed for future use.
Helps in proper delegation of responsibilities in a certain
organization.
It is more precise and clearly understood.
It is used as a defense in court, example used as evidence.
Provides records and references

DIS ADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

It is expensive in terms of time and cost.

Written communication does not receive or accept immediate
changes.
If the readers are at a far distance it is difficult for a writer to clear
out their doubts or questions.
Requires great skills and competence in the language as well as
vocabs used.
There is too much paper work is tiresome and boring

PRINCIPALS OF EFFECTIVE WRITING

When we write to a friend, colleague, client or any business partner
our content must be clear and precise, persuasive and accurate and
confident.

TIPS OF EFFECTIVE WRITING

Avoid being too verbal (many words which are not necessary)
Choose shorter words which are clearly understood.
Use objective subject lines, means the sentences should be objective
and should reflect the content of the message.
Decide your audience, as in being aware of your audience example
1st year law student at Tumaini meaning the writer will use legal
language. Choose correct words which would be understood by your
audience. If your audience is professional use technical words.
Request for action from the audience. When you write never leave
the readers with guess work, or with a question what next, don’t
write a text which will never give you results.
Share your message with strategy, do not over load your audience.
Meaning you need to tune and make your message soft. You can
divide your message according to the level of knowledge of your
audience. Use simple language for people with low knowledge
Logically format your document, make sure that the content is linked
to the subject don’t write just because you are writing. Make sure
whatever you write it is connected to the one above and the one
below.
Be persuasive, address one one thing to one reader then addressing
many to many people.
Engage your audience, meaning talk to your audience. Sometimes
people may write but they don’t speak to their audience, you should
be focused to your audience.
Check your message before you send it, you have to proof read your
writing. Such as taking out all errors, grammatical problems or
spellings. (your brain thinks faster then the way you write)
) COMMUNICATION FLOWS / COMMUNICATION MODULE
there are 4 main communication flows in any organization

downward communication flow:

this is a kind of communication in which information flows from a
higher level to the lower, from the superior to the subordinates, such
as (commands) in a chain of command. This communication is used
by managers to transmit work related information to the employees
at the lower level. It is used by the managers for the following
purposes.

- providing feedback on employees’ performance

- giving job instructions (commanding language)
- providing a complete understanding of the employee’s job as well
as to communicate to them how their job is related to other jobs in
the organization.
- to communicate the organization’s mission and vision to their
employees.
- to highlight areas of attention.

NB: organization publication, circulars, letters to the employees as

well as group meetings are good example of downward
communication and the managers must do them.

In order to have an effective downward communication the

managers should do the following

specify communication objective (why you wrote the letter)

ensure that the message is accurate specific and non ambiguous.
Utilize the best communication technique to convey the message to
the receiver in a right form.

OBJECTIVES OF DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION

To give directions to the subordinates where by the language used is
commanding language
To explain policies (regulations or procedures necessary in an
institution).
To distribute work load
To motivate the employees (encouraging the employees in terms of
command)
To upraise performance (the managers usually evaluate the
performance of the employees so they can know their strength and
weaknesses.
To inform the employees about their job rational.

ADAVANTAGES OF DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION FLOW

Organizational discipline (it follows the hierarchy in communication)

It increases efficiency in work (it offers directions and instructions
which must be fulfilled by the subordinate
Downward communication increase effective communication of the
goals or aims of the organization. The upper management
communicate the aims to the subordinate so as to achieve the goals.
It makes the delegation of power easy (chain of command)

DIS ADVANTAGES OF DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION

There is some distortion of the message (the message may change

some how)
There is slow feedback (it takes time for the message to reach to the
lower level and takes time for the feedback to come back)
Interpreting problems (the message may be misunderstood by the
subordinate)
It is not motivating (making the subordinates like machines some
times they get tired)
upward communication flow:
lateral communication flow:
diagonal communication flow:
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION (SEVEN C’s)

When we talk about effective communication one thing comes into

our mind that is basic principals of effective communication. When
you talk about effective communication is that the intentions of the
speaker have reached the receiver. These principals tell us that how
your message can become effective for your can become effective
for your target crew, they also tell us about style and importance of
the message. These principals known as seven C’s of effective
communication include the following

SEVEN C’s
Completeness:
Conciseness:
Consideration:
Concreteness:
Clarity:
Courtesy:
Correctness:

The message from the receiver either listener or reader desires a

complete information. The complete information answers 5 W
questions.

Who
What
When
Why
Where

)COMPLETENESS . The five question methods is normally used when

you write requests, announcements and other informative message.
For instance, if you want to order something from the industry you
should make clear of what you want, when you need it and where is
to to be sent. But you should also provide necessary information
behind your item and other related information so as to get what
you deserve.

CONCISENESS: It means to convey the message by using fewest

words. This is a prior condition to effective business
communication. It saves the time and expenses for both party. To
achieve the conciseness, you have to consider the following.

Avoided wordy expressions

Include only relevant materials
Avoid unnecessary repetitions: example an expression meet me at
this time “at this time” could be meet me now.
Always try to use to the point approach in your communication.
always try to provide relevant information to the receiver of the
message.

OBESERVE THE FOLLOWING KEY ISSUES FOR A MESSAGE TO BE

CONCERENED

stick to the purpose or point of the message.

delete irrelevant words.
Avoid long introduction and unnecessary explanation.
Get to the main point perfectly.

AVOIDING UN NECESSARY REPETION: sometimes repletion is

necessary especially when you focus on a certain point. A lot of
public speakers do that. But when the same thing is said without 2 or
3 reasons the message becomes wordy. Always use shorter names
after you have used the longer one for the first time. Use pronouns
or initials of the longer words example World Trade Organization
(WTO), Information Technology (IT)

CONSIDERATION:
Always consider the receiver’s interests and intentions, it is very
important in effective communication to always keep in mind your
target group while writing. This is a very important principal among
the seven c’s in communication normally focuses on you instead of I
and we, taking yourself out of the scenario example instead of saying
I sentence you, you say you are sentenced. Do not use I and we in
writing. Show the audience benefits or interests of the receiver,
emphasize positive and pleasant facts. Using you helps you but over
use leads to negative reaction. Always write a message in a way that
the audience will benefit from it, always try to address their needs.
The message should be specific instead of general. Misunderstanding
of words creates a problem for both parties. When you talk to your
clients always use facts and figures instead of irrelevant information,

CONCRETENESS: to be concrete always use specific facts and figures

but again use image building words (figures of speech )
He is very intelligent in class and stood first in class. (general)
James’s GPA in LLB evening session was 4.9 out of 5, he stood first in
his class. (concrete).

Always write on a very solid ground meaning with details ad specific

facts. A complete message should definitely create a good image.

CLARITY: accuracy is the purpose of clarity; in effective business

communication the message should be very clear so that the reader
can understand it easily. You should always choose precise words
rather than longer statements. Construct effective sentences and
paragraphs. You should try your level best to use familiar words and
easy words be understood by your audience. Instead of using
“DOMICILE” use “HOME” . instead of using statement for payment
you use invoice. Instead of using subsequent use after.

COURTESY: Knowing your audience allows you to use statement of

courtesy, always be aware of your message receiver. True purpose
involves being aware not only of the perspective of the other but
also their feelings. it relies on the sincere attitude of your audience.
Normally apply socially accepted manners in your message so as to
be courteous, the use of words like God Bless You. This principal
basis on the mood of the audience. Use polite language that has
respect and concerns about the particular matter. Courteous
communication generates a special tone in writing and speaking.

SUGGESTION FOR GENERATING A COURTEOUS TONE

Be sincerely, tactful, thoughtful and expressive. (think beyond what

they think).
Use expressions that show respect for adults.
Choose non discriminatory expressions so as to be courteous.
Example

It is a stupid letter I can’t understand

I should understand as there is no confusing word in this letter, could
you please explain it once again. More courteous because it
considers the audience.
It is your fault you did not read properly my latest fax.
Sometimes my wording is not precise, let me try again. (more
courteous)