Development of Permeable Block Pave-

ments based on Polyurethane

Lukas Renken*— Michel Simon**— Markus Oeser***

* Dipl.-Ing., Research Engineer,

** Student (RWTH),
*** Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil., Head of Institute

RWTH Aachen University, Institute of Highway Engineering, Mies-van-der-Rohe-

Straße 1, 52074 Aachen, Germany
renken@isac.rwth-aachen.de; info@isac.rwth-aachen.de

ABSTRACT.

Since the mid-nineties economic expansion and the entailed spatial expansion of human
settlement and transportation infrastructure have significantly affected the environment and
lead to an increased flood risk, changes in climatic conditions and a considerable distortion
of the natural water cycle. The main objective of modern wastewater management systems is
to facilitate the reintroduction of rainwater from sealed areas back into the natural water
cycle. One possible approach for a solution is the implementation of permeable pavements
instead of impervious surfaces. Block pavements are commonly used in urban areas to allow
accumulated rainwater to seep through the pavement surface whilst accommodating for
highly versatile architectural design. In most cases the hydraulic performance can be as-
cribed to the use of permeable materials in the joints; however this is often restricted since
most block segments themselves are impervious. Over the lifetime of such a surface the per-
meability cannot be fully maintained as a result of gradual clogging of the joints due to fine
particles and impurities.
This research project aims at developing a permeable, innovative block paving concept based
on polyurethane. The presentation of the approach and the material will be followed by the
assessment of the compound’s characteristics with regard to material strength, permeability
and surface properties.

KEYWORDS: Permeable Pavements, Innovative Block Pavements, Sustainable Infrastructure,

Climate Change, Rainwater Management, Groundwater Recharge, Unsealing, Material
Testing, Strength, Permeability, Abrasion, Skid Resistance

ICCBP 2015, pages 1 to 16

2 ICCBP 2015

1. Introduction

The progressing development of urban areas and strong industrial activities lead
to significant growth in sealed areas in human settlements and the transport infra-
structure in Europe and other developed parts of the world. Since 1950 the areas
used for settlement and transportation in Germany has increased more than twofold.
The current amount of sealed surfaces is approx. 13% of the total area in Germany
(DESTATIS 2014). In 2013 alone, approx. 71 hectares of natural surfaces were
allocated for new land-uses per day. The proportion of sealed areas can reach 50%
and in some cases even 70% in urban agglomerations (UBA 2011). Sealed surfaces
substantially reduce the natural retention capacity of an area. Impacts can be ob-
served in a change of the natural water runoff and consequentially an interference
with the natural hydrological cycle (Balades et al. 1995). This means that particular-
ly in urban or industrial areas an average rainfall event can caused high stress on the
drainage and retention systems. As a consequence the rainwater exceeding the reten-
tion capacity of the system must be fed into the outlet channel. Urban flash floods
can already be triggered by small-scale, yet extreme rain events; these can be of a
magnitude comparable to the flooding of major watercourses (UBA 2011). Most of
the existing drainage systems are unable to cope with such events induced by cli-
mate change (Kirkpatrick et al. 2009).
For decades, the Germen Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conser-
vation, Building and Nuclear Safety (BMUB) has been requesting the so called “30-
hectare-goal” in context with the sustainable development strategy. The objective is
to achieve a reduction in the use of new land from 74ha/day (2012) to 30ha/day by
the year 2020 in order to detach the increase of human settlement areas and transport
infrastructure from economic growth and prosperity (BMUB 2013; Löhr 2006).

2. Response strategies

In order to reduce the far reaching consequences of surface sealing, the use of
permeable pavements is increasingly gaining importance especially with regard to
sparing the natural resources, groundwater, soil and the climate.
The use of permeable pavements for infrastructures, particularly the utilization of
porous asphalt or concrete, concrete segments or block pavements constitutes a
constructive approach to solving the aforementioned problems. To drain accruing
surface water quickly the infiltration of the precipitation through the layers is neces-
sary. Consequently sewage peak flows can be reduced and a reduction of capacity
utilization of drainage systems can be realized (Borgwardt 2006; Legret et al. 1996
and Pratt et al. 1989). The improved drainage performance of the pavement brings
about significantly increased groundwater replenishment and can lead to an im-
proved hydraulic supply of the surrounding flora.
First research projects on permeable pavements began with experimental studies
of both water infiltration (Shackel et al. 1996 and Shackel 1997) and the structural
capacity of such pavements to carry traffic loads (Shackel et al. 2000) as early as the
Development of Permeable Block Pavements based on Polyurethane 3

early 1990s. This basic research was followed by the development and the publish-
ing of software for the design of permeable pavements (Shackel et al. 2008;
Shackel/Pezzaniti 2009) and field studies of the long term performance of permeable
pavements, conducted in Australia (Beecham et al. 2009).

Block pavements are the most commonly applied construction method for per-
meable pavements, especially in urban areas. Most of the block pavements are con-
sidered as water permeable; also, they allow architecturally versatile applications.
According to (Ulonska 2009) the use of permeable block pavements is currently an
integral part of modern and innovative rainwater management. The vast majority of
block segments is not pervious; hence in general the permeability is achieved by
incorporating permeable joints. Still the joints’ infiltration ability is limited. Espe-
cially during events of torrential rainfall, the joints are not able to accommodate for
the percolation of all of the accruing rainwater (Nilesh/Scott 2009). According to
(Breutsel et al. 1996) newly installed block pavements are able to accommodate for
the drainage of the water brought about by a rainfall event of 270 l/s*ha. This corre-
sponds to the required coefficient of permeability of kf≥5,4*10-4 m/s in compliance
with (FGSV 2013). A reduction of the hydraulic performance can be expected as a
result of clogging of the joint material (Shackel 1990; Borgwardt 1997 and Kadu-
rupokune/Jayasuriya 2009). Research results from (Binnewies/Schuetz 1985;
Borgwardt 1995; Hade/Smith 1988; Suda et al. 1988 and Field et al. 1992) show that
during their service life the permeability of pavements is affected by the deposition
of mineral and organic particles into the pores of porous blocks or into the voids of
aggregates used in joints (Borgwardt 2006). Research published by (BWW 1984)
indicates, that only a drainage capacity of about 80 l/s*ha can be achieved when
relying solely on joint infiltration and surface evaporation processes using conven-
tional block segments.
Facilitating the infiltration of the accumulated precipitation water through the
paving material is an innovative research approach. At present there are few material
concepts designed for this type of infiltration.
The objective of the present study is the development of a permeable, innovative
block pavement concept based on polyurethane (PU-bound blocks). The block per-
meability can be achieved by creating a porous structure with a high void content
(Figure 1 and Figure 2). Therefore the permeability can be sustained effectively in
the long term.

3. Material design and Scope of Investigations

In the following section the operating principle of PU-bound blocks will be de-
scribed followed by the presentation of the material concept. Furthermore the scope
of the investigations for laboratory experiments will also be discussed.
4 ICCBP 2015

3.1. Material concept

Research by (Renken/Oeser 2014; Renken 2014; Schacht et al. 2011 and Schacht
et al. 2014) carried out in the research project (FE 07.0264/2012/ARB) has shown,
that the synthetic binder polyurethane is suitable for a full substitution of other bind-
ers.
In open-porous PU-bound materials the specific surface area of the aggregates is
completely coated with the PU binder. The aggregates are permanently bonded at
the contact points to form a monolithic, three-dimensional and stable structure (Fig-
ure 1). One can work with relatively low binder contents as a thin coating of the
mineral surface is sufficient to attain adequate material strength. Consequently the
binder content is determined by the selected grading curve and the surface area of
the aggregates. The exact binder content can be calculated iteratively or analytically
according to (Oeser 2010 or Arand 1978) and depends on the specific surface area.

Figure 1. Operating principle of PU-bound material systems

(source left: (BASF 2008))

Research by (Renken/Oeser 2014) showed that a porous structure (high permea-

bility) in combination with a high material strength can be achieved throughout the
complete service temperature range. Moreover, a high resistance to permanent de-
formation and to crack formation as well as sufficient fatigue resistance was ob-
tained.

Polyurthane:
Polyurethane is a multifunctional material and consists primarily of two compo-
nents polyol and isocyanate (Kaiser 2007). Polyurethane may be produced in an
oleochemical process using oils from plants. The main focus in the development of
oleochemical polyurethanes is put on the production of the polyol component. Poly-
Development of Permeable Block Pavements based on Polyurethane 5

ols are organic compounds with polyvalent alcohols, the hydroxyl groups. The pro-
duction is based on natural oils and fats which mainly consists of triglycerides and
glycerol esters from saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. This means that such
polyurethanes consist of up to 50% renewable raw materials and the final product
can be classified as environmentally sustainable (Evertz/Petersen 2007)

3.2. Choice of samples

In the scope of the experimental investigations, three different porous block

pavement concepts were prepared (Figure 2). The main differences between the
concepts are the grading curves i.e. the maximum and minimum grain sizes (Ta-
ble 1).
For the production of block pavements different geometries and dimensions can
be selected. For this study block pavements without interlocking properties with
dimensions (w x h x l = 100mm x 60mm x 200mm) in accordance to (FGSV 2006;
DIN EN 1338) were selected.

Figure 2. Geometry of permeable PU-bound block pavements

Sample preparation:
The sample manufacturing took place in the laboratory of the Institute of High-
way Engineering at the RWTH Aachen University. The material components are
mixed together in a manner that the polyurethane binder completely coats the specif-
ic surface area of the aggregates. The binder content is defined as B=6wt% (weight
percent) based on experience. Hereby a strong, three-dimensional structure with a
high strength was created. The processing time (pot life) at room temperature (20°C)
of the mixture is around 35 minutes. Subsequently the manufactured mixtures were
placed in the molds and compacted by means of a hand roller (Figure 3). Despite the
6 ICCBP 2015

exothermic chemical reaction of the polyurethane there is no significant increase in

temperature of the mixture. This is due to the high heat capacity of the grains. In
order to guarantee a high sample quality the sample weight has to be controlled
throughout the entire production process.
After a hardening time of 24 hours the samples can be removed from the molds.
Hereinafter the size of the completed samples were measured and the density and
the void content were calculated according to (FGSV 2007). The samples were
stored at (20°C).

Figure 3. Choice of permeable PU-bound block pavements

Specific material characteristics of the samples can be found in Table 1.

Table 1. Material parameters

Block ID
parameter unit
spec1 spec2 spec3
min. grain diam dmin mm 0.25 1 1
max. grain diam dmax mm 2 2 4
binder content B wt% 6.0 6.0 6.0
spec. density ρb g/cm3 1.715 1.683 1.707
void content v vol% 34.0 35.2 34.3
height h mm 60 60 60
length l mm 200 200 200
width w mm 100 100 100

3.3 Scope of investigations

At present there are no scientific results giving insight on the long term perfor-
mance of PU-bound block pavements. The results presented in this paper provide an
overview of the material characteristics with regard to the material strength, the
permeability as well as several surface properties. The in-situ durability of PU-
bound block segments cannot be directly derived from the results of laboratory tests.
Full scale tests are necessary before PU-bound block pavements may be used in
practice.
Development of Permeable Block Pavements based on Polyurethane 7

a) Material strength
For an assessment of the material strength, compressive strength tests as well as
flexural strength tests were performed at different temperatures.
The compressive strength describes the material resistance against cracking or
other types of failure due to compressive forces. The compressive strength of sample
cubes with a length of l=100mm was tested in accordance to (DIN EN 12390-3). In
this context the samples were loaded to failure in a force driven test with a loading
rate of 0,5N/mm²*s.
In order to assess the influence of temperature on the material strength, the com-
pressive strength test were performed at three different temperatures (T1=-10°C;
T2=15°C; T3=50°C).
The flexural tensile strength is defined as the maximum stress a material can bear
under bending loads. By means of the bending test, the fracture strength can be de-
termined. In the scope of this study, the three-point bending test was performed in
accordance to (DIN EN 843-1) on three block samples. The span width of the bend-
ing test was determined to l=160 mm. During the bending test, the specimens were
loaded with a bending force increasing in steps by Δδ=0,05N/mm2 per second until
material failure. The experiments were conducted at a uniform temperature of
T=15°C.
b) Permeability
Permeability is the ability of a material to conduct a flowing medium through the
porous structure. The hydraulic performance is mainly dependent on the void con-
tent and the pore geometry. If the material has a good hydraulic performance, the
surface water can be drained directly into the porous material below the surface. The
drainage performance of permeable materials is generally described as the coeffi-
cient of permeability kf. This coefficient describes the speed at which a quantity of
water flows through a given area of material at a given hydraulic gradient. Accord-
ing to (FGSV 2013) layers with a coefficient of permeability of kf>5,4*10-5m/s can
be classified as permeable. This value is derived from the average intensity of rain-
fall of 270 l/s*ha (Bald et al. 2005) and refers to the vertical flow of water through a
saturated material sample within the linear range according to Darcy.
The hydraulic performance was determined using the permeability test in the
vertical direction according to (FGSV 2009) on a cylindrical test specimen with a
diameter of d=100mm and a height of h=60mm.
c) Surface characteristics
In order to assess of the surface properties, tests on the skid resistance behavior
as well as the abrasive behavior were carried out.
Skid resistance characterizes the friction potential between a vehicle tire and a
pavement in wet conditions. The surface texture significantly affects the skid re-
8 ICCBP 2015

sistance of a material. In general, a distinction must be made between the micro- and
macro-texture.
The skid resistance tester (SRT) according to (FGSV 2004) was used for the as-
sessment of the micro-texture.
In service conditions, various loads act on the surface and cause the surface ma-
terial to be worn away. In this project the abrasion resistance of three samples with
an edge length of l=71mm was determined using the grinding wheel test according
to Böhme (DIN 52108). This test focuses on the material’s behavior as a result of
grinding with an inorganic non-metallic material. The mass loss of the surface
caused by mechanical stress can be considered as a measure for the abrasion re-
sistance.

4. Research results

In this section the findings obtained are presented and evaluated with regard to spe-
cific material requirements. Since a completely new material has been developed
there are no reference values.

4.1. Material strength

Figure 4 shows that specimen no. 1 (spec1) possesses the highest compressive
strength throughout the entire temperature range; specimen no. 2 (spec2) has the
lowest. Specimen no. 3 (spec3) shows similar values as spec1. An influence of the
void content on the compressive strength is noticeable; a deeper interpretation of this
phenomenon cannot be given because the difference in the void contents of the indi-
vidual samples is too low. In this context a systematic interdependence of the grad-
ing curve and the compressive strength cannot be inferred. The variants examined
show an obvious dependence on the temperature; whereby a systematic decrease of
the compressive strength can be identified with increasing temperature (Figure 5).
20,0 20,0
compressive strength [N/mm²]

compressive strength [N/mm²]

18,0 18,0
16,0 16,0 R² = 0,9952
14,0
14,0
12,0 R² = 0,9856
10,0 12,0
8,0 10,0 R² = 0,9859

6,0 8,0
4,0 spec1 - grainsize (0,25/2)
6,0
2,0 spec2 - grainsize (1/2)
4,0
0,0 spec3 - grainsize (1/4)
2,0
temperature T=-10°C temperature T=15°C 0,0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
temperature T=50°C temperature [°C]

Figure 4. Compressive strength Figure 5. Temperature-dependence

When taking into account the temperature difference of ΔT=60K an average de-
crease in strength of ΔσT=25% seems relatively low. Furthermore, the variants ex-
Development of Permeable Block Pavements based on Polyurethane 9

amined show a sufficient degree of deformation stability at a temperature of

T=50°C. In compliance with (DIN EN 1338; FGSV 2006) no requirements with
regard to the mechanical compressive strength are specified. Damaging of the sur-
face is predominantly caused by failure of the underlying material. Failure of the
blocks occurs relatively seldom.
On the basis of the results of the flexural tensile strength (Figure 6) it may be
contented that spec3 shows the highest value. Thus, an influence of the void content
on the flexural tensile strength can be assumed. This may be attributed to the maxi-
mum and minimum grain size (dmax,spec3=4mm) selected for the mix. A closer view
of the fracture faces of the samples after the end of testing indicates a predominant
cohesive failure of the grains (Figure 7). This finding confirms that the strength of
the grains has a substantial influence on the flexural tensile strength of the mix.
9,0
Flexural tensile strength [N/mm²]

8,0 temperature T=15°C

7,0
6,0
5,0
4,0
3,0
2,0
1,0
0,0
spec1 - grainsize (0,25/2) spec2 - grainsize (1/2)

spec3 - grainsize (1/4) requirements according

to FGSV 2006

Figure 6. Flexural tensile strength Figure 7. Fracture face of a specimen

In compliance with (FGSV 2006) a minimum value of fßz>5,0N/mm² is required,

all investigated samples achieved this requirement.

4.2 Hydraulic performance

The hydraulic performance (permeability) is one of the key properties of the PU-
bound block pavements developed in this research. Figure 8 shows that initially all
blocks investigated are permeable. Spec1 exhibits the lowest coefficient of permea-
bility. The coefficient of permeability exhibited by sample spec2 is approximately
twice as high as for spec 1 followed by spec3 with the highest coefficient of perme-
ability.
Due to the large differences in permeability when similar void contents are pre-
sent a direct correlation between the void content and the hydraulic performance
cannot be established. The void structure is the most important parameter influenc-
ing the permeability of porous systems. Particularly the size and the geometry of the
pores as well as the distribution of pores substantially influence the permeability
(Lin 1993). The size and geometry of the pores are mainly dependent on the aggre-
gates size distribution and particularly on the amount fines. As a consequence the
pore size is reduced as well as the permeability while maintaining the same void
content (spec1) (Figure 9).
10 ICCBP 2015

9E-04
coefficient of permeability [m/s]

8E-04
7E-04
6E-04
5E-04
4E-04
3E-04
2E-04
1E-04
0E+00
spec1 - grainsize (0,25/2) spec2 - grainsize (1/2)

spec3 - grainsize (1/4)

Figure 8. Coefficient of permeability Figure 9. Influence on the pore size

According to (LIN 1993) voids can be classified by three different types (Figure
10). For a good hydraulic performance TypeA and TypeB are the most important.
These types were described as “effective voids”, because they can absorb water and
drain into underlying layers. Void TypeC doesn’t influence the permeability signifi-
cantly.

TypeA: Voids are connected and create

a pore system
Type B
TypeB: Accessible from the surface
Type A
Type C
TypeC: Enclosed voids

Figure 10. Schematic view of different pore structures ref. to (Bald et al. 2005)

According to (FGSV 2009) a coefficient of permeability of kf≥5,4*10-5 m/s is re-

quired for permeable pavements. This requirement is reached by all specimen
blocks. A classification of the variants into the permeability ranges according to
(DIN 18130-1) indicates that all block specimens investigated are to be classified as
“highly permeable” (Table 2).
Table 2. Permeability ranges (DIN 18130-1)

kf [m/s] Range

under 10-8 Very slightly permeable

10 to10 -8 -6
Slightly permeable
over 10-6 to 10-4 Permeable
over 10 to 10 -4 -2
Highly permeable
over 10 -2
Very highly permeable
Development of Permeable Block Pavements based on Polyurethane 11

4.3 Surface properties

Analyses of the skid resistance and abrasion resistance were performed in order
to assess the surface characteristics.
All specimens examined exhibited SRT values in excess of 75 SRT-units (Ta-
ble 3). The highest roughness was achieved by spec3. No systematic relationship
between the skid resistance and the maximum grain size can be identified. However,
when comparing spec1 with spec2 a slight reduction of the skid resistance can be
obtained which may be attributed to the use of finer aggregates. It must be consid-
ered that the test specimens were manufactured on a laboratory scale and an influ-
ence of the manufacturing process on the surface properties cannot be fully avoided.
In compliance with (FGSV 1997) a minimum skid resistance of 55 SRT-units is
required. This value is attained by all variants. It must however, be critically stated
that such high skid values can negatively influence the road safety and the rolling
resistance.
The test results of the wear test according to Böhme (DIN 52108) are summa-
rized in Table 3. It can be seen, that spec1 shows the highest and spec3 the lowest
abrasion. Concerning this a dependence on the grading curve seems apparent. The
surface texture is significantly influenced by the aggregates used. If larger grain
sizes were used, the effective abrasion surface would decrease. As expected, spec1
with the finest macro-texture exhibits the highest abrasion. Also, an insufficient
binder content can increase the abrasion leading to a higher specific surface area of
the aggregates. According to (FGSV 2006) a minimum abrasion resistance of
≤18 cm³/50cm² is required. This requirement is fulfilled by spec2 and spec3. Spec1
is slightly above that level nevertheless still within a tolerable range

Table 3. Surface properties

Block ID
parameter unit
spec1 spec2 spec3
Skid resistance SRT 76 77 78
Abrasion resistance cm³/50cm² 18.22 13.76 11.78

5. Conclusions

The aim of this research project in support of sustainable land use is the devel-
opment of an innovative polyurethane bound block pavement system, which ensures
the infiltration of the accumulated rainfall water through the porous structure.
5.1. Material characteristics

The development was performed under consideration of all necessary material

requirements in compliance with (DIN EN 1338; FGSV 2006 and FGSV 2013).
Herein three different PU block systems were investigated in terms of the compres-
12 ICCBP 2015

sive strength, the flexural strength, the hydraulic performance as well as the surface
properties. The tests performed show that all required material characteristics were
attained (Table 4). In order to ensure an enduring permeability, additional research
concerning clogging-effects is required. Likewise material characteristics taking into
account weathering (freeze-thaw with de-icing salt or chemical weathering) should
be assessed in further studies. The mechanical strength with the indirect tensile
strength test (ITST) of PU-bonded material systems were already performed in
(Renken/Oeser 2014).

Table 4. Summary of testing results

Block ID
parameter unit
spec1 spec2 spec3 requirement
Void content vol% 34 35.2 34.3 (≥15)
Compressive strength N/mm² 15.07 12.38 13.96 none
Flexural tensile strength N/mm² 5.48 5.69 6.26 5.0
Permeability 10 m/s
-5
27.9 55.3 83.8 5.4
Skid resistance SRT 76 77 78 55
Abrasion resistance cm³/50cm² 18.22 13.76 11.78 18

5.2 Complete system design

Because of the enhanced permeability of the block pavement system, the design
of the sub-construction requires specific attention. The infiltration of the rainwater
through the construction leads to an increased water supply in the underlying layers.
However, this is in conflict with construction engineering standards; this means that
the accruing rainwater should be kept away from the construction as far as possible.
Hence, specific demands to safeguard the construction are required. In (Oeser et al.
2011) hydraulic and mechanical properties of materials for base courses were exam-
ined. According to this a sufficient permeability of the sub-ground must be realized
under consideration of the water conditions at hand. Furthermore an emergency
drainage relief shall be provided for the remaining surface run-off. If the difference
of the permeability of the several layers is too high, fine particles could be transport-
ed in the more permeable material, causing hydraulic pressure. This can lead to the
destabilization of the system (FGSV 2013 and Ulonska 2009). Additional construc-
tive measures (e.g. filter fleece) must be implemented if the filter stability does not
suffice.
Development of Permeable Block Pavements based on Polyurethane 13

5.3 Architectural design

The limitations to architectural design in urban areas are eliminated due to the
binder’s lack of color. Herein colorful or lightly colored aggregates can be utilized
to distinguish the surfaces where PU-bound blocks are implemented (Figure 11).
The coloration of the binder itself with pigments or fluorescent additives also re-
mains a possibility.

Figure 11. Architectural design possibilities with colored aggregates

5.4 Outlook

On the whole one can conclude that this research project has succeeded in devel-
oping an innovative permeable block pavement system which complies with the
requirements to permeability of traffic surfaces as well as requirements to block
pavement construction. Strictly speaking the elicited findings only apply to the
products used in this research project. To ensure the general applicability further
research must be conducted.

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