Language Minority Students in The Mainstream Class...

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CHAPTER 1

Limited English Proficient


Students in the Mainstream
Classroom

Introduction
Mainstreaming LEP Students: A Definition
Guiding Principles for Mainstream Classrooms
A Word of Caution
Issues in Mainstreaming Limited English Proficient Students
Copyright © 2002. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved.

Conclusion

Carrasquillo, D. A. L., & Rodriguez, D. V. (2002). Language minority students in the mainstream classroom : Language minority student in
the mainstream classroom. Channel View Publications.
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CHAPTER 1

Limited English Proficient


Students in the Mainstream
Classroom
INTRODUCTION
The large wave of immigration and the high fertility rates among linguistically and
culturally diverse groups in the United States continue to increase the number of
limited English proficient (LEP) English language learners (ELL) in schools
throughout the country (Macias, 1998; Waggoner, 1998). Thousands of people from
Latin America, Southeast Asia, Eastern Europe, and other non-English speaking
countries have been entering the United States. These new immigrants, refugees, in-
ternational students, along with native born non-English speaking Americans, all
have a need to learn English and be successful members of the ‘mainstream’ Ameri-
Copyright © 2002. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved.

can society. The challenges to the schools presented by the influx of these students
concern language specialists as well as regular classroom educators.
The types of instructional services provided by school districts to LEP students
vary greatly and are dependent on several factors. These factors may be related to the
size of the linguistically diverse population in the particular school or district, what
resources are available locally, and whether or not community/school district
decides to provide native language content support to these students (Carrasquillo,
1994; DeGeorge, 1988; Hamayan, 1990). In United States with the acceptance of
learning and academic standards, an emphasis of English language standards similar
to all school students, there is an emphasis in teaching English and through English
to LEP students as fast as possible. The most satisfactory instructional approach to
meet the immediate needs of LEP students would be to place them in special lan-
guage programs. But the reality is that only a small group of LEP students receive
instructional and language support through special language programs such as bilin-
gual education, English as a second language, or compensatory education for basic

Carrasquillo, D. A. L., & Rodriguez, D. V. (2002). Language minority students in the mainstream classroom : Language minority student in
the mainstream classroom. Channel View Publications.
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LEP STUDENTS IN THE MAINSTREAM CLASSROOM 3

instruction in reading and mathematics for poor and low income elementary school
children and preschool education. The needs of many other LEP students remain
unmet (Allen, 1989; August & Hakuta, 1997; McLaughlin, 1995). Many LEP stu-
dents do not receive any specialized language services, and are assigned to regular
classrooms where they are mainstreamed with English speaking students, in spite of
their limitations in understanding instruction presented in English. This means that
LEP students may be taught by regular classroom teachers who may or may not have
the support of a language specialist. Consequently, the majority of LEP students
receive most, if not all, of their instruction from classroom teachers, many of whom
have had no specialized training in this area (Clegg, 1996; Fitzgerald, 1995;
Spangenberg-Urbschat & Pritchard, 1994).
Mainstreaming LEP students needs careful planning and the provision of orga-
nized instructional and programmatic steps. Most authorities who have written on
mainstreaming students have cautioned that the choice of instructional programs for
LEP students must be considered carefully or these students will not succeed in the
mainstream classroom. Since mainstreaming LEP students requires profound plan-
ning and development of appropriate procedures, programs, and instruction, this
chapter presents a general overview of pedagogical issues to consider in
mainstreaming limited or non-English speakers. It offers information which will
help regular classroom educators to be more effective participants in the education
of linguistically and culturally diverse students.

MAINSTREAMING LEP STUDENTS: A DEFINITION


The national educational initiative, Goals 2000, envisions a restructured educational
system in the United States that holds all students to high common standards of
world-class achievement. The idea behind the implementation of new academic stan-
dards is that the result will bring better teaching, more learning, and greater success for
all students. Included in ‘all students’ are those classified as limited English profi-
Copyright © 2002. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved.

cient/English language learners, who in 1996 were estimated to number 3.45 million
students (Macias, 2000, 1998). Educators need to find ways of meeting the needs of
this significant group of students in accomplishing the content standards of subject
matter areas such as mathematics, science social studies, and the English language
arts. Although it is true that some LEP students’ academic and linguistic needs are met
through specialized programs such as ESL and bilingual education, the majority do
not receive this type of instruction (Krashen, 1998). Rather, these students are inte-
grated with English proficient students in the mainstream classroom. In many cases,
teachers are not aware of LEP students’ linguistic levels, cultural diversity, and learn-
ing styles. Consequently, these teachers plan and deliver instruction as if everyone in
the classroom has reached the level of English language proficiency that is needed to
master the instructional content. Unfortunately, this instructional approach does not
take into consideration that LEP students are cognitively taxed on two levels. On one
level, they have the cognitive demands of the subject content. On the other level, they
have the linguistic demands of processing in a language, English, in which they are not

Carrasquillo, D. A. L., & Rodriguez, D. V. (2002). Language minority students in the mainstream classroom : Language minority student in
the mainstream classroom. Channel View Publications.
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4 CHAPTER 1

yet fully proficient. Also, LEP students come from many different countries of origin,
where curricular sequences, content objectives, and instructional methodologies may
differ dramatically from American practices. This curricular contradiction may create
some level of confusion to LEP students especially if students enter the United States
school system at an upper grade level.
Although mainstreaming LEP students into the regular classroom has been a
common educational programmatic practice in the United States (Christina, 1992;
Clegg, 1996; DeGeorge, 1988; Hamayan & Perlman, 1990; Riddlemoser, 1987), the
term is not well defined in the current educational literature. A review of this litera-
ture reveals that, in spite of the frequent use of the term in the jargon of education and
the frequency of its mention by educators and educational writers, mainstreaming
means different things for different individuals. In the United States the term may
refer to three different concepts:
• The inclusion of special education students in grade-level (regular) classrooms.
• The exit of students participating in language assistance programs such as ESL
or bilingual education, transferring the students into grade-level classrooms
where the instruction is totally in English.
• Classrooms in which the school curriculum is delivered through the medium of
English and it has not been modified for non-native English speakers.
Most of the literature on mainstreaming describes (rather than defines) the steps
to be followed in making decisions about mainstreaming students to the grade-level
classroom. In this respect, the term is commonly used to list the types of students in
mainstream classrooms rather than identifying measures to follow in determining
the characteristics and organization of the instructional program. More specifically,
the term ‘mainstreaming’ is used in the context of LEP learners to identify three
broad groups of students. These are: (a) students who are removed or exited from bi-
lingual or ESL programs, (b) students who are placed in grade-level classrooms for
most of the day but receive specialized language development (usually English as a
Copyright © 2002. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved.

second language or basic skills development) during the school day, and (c) students
who are placed in an all English classroom for the entire school day. An explanation
of these three groups of mainstreamed LEP students is presented in the next three ex-
planations (see Figures 1.1, 1.2, 1.3).
There is no agreement in terms of the numbers of years LEP students need to
become sufficiently English proficient in order to be exited from the language assis-
tance programs. The United States Federal Government guidelines suggest that,
after three years in the program, LEP students may be ready to be mainstreamed to a
grade-level classroom. However, authorities such as Collier 1992, 1995; Thomas &
Collier, 1996 and Cummins 1994 indicate that English proficiency for academic
purposes may take between five to seven years.
Although one hour or less of specialized language instruction is not the best rec-
ommended instructional model, it helps students by meeting their immediate com-
munication skills, especially at the listening and speaking level.

Carrasquillo, D. A. L., & Rodriguez, D. V. (2002). Language minority students in the mainstream classroom : Language minority student in
the mainstream classroom. Channel View Publications.
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LEP STUDENTS IN THE MAINSTREAM CLASSROOM 5

Figure 1.1 Mainstreaming LEP students from the bilingual and ESL programs
Mainstreaming is one of the important goals of all specialized instruction. The
placement of LEP students (who are or were participating in bilingual or ESL
programs) in an all-English mainstream program for all or part of the school
day comes as the result of a complex process that assesses and determines if
students have acquired the skills and knowledge necessary to function well in
an all-English classroom.
In the United States, procedures to assess students’ readiness for all English in-
struction vary from state to state. Some states recommend procedures and in-
struments, other states leave the identification of procedures and instruments
to the school district. New York State, for example, requires that students score
above the 40th percentile in the Language Assessment Battery Exam (a profi-
ciency exam) before they are mainstreamed into an all-English classroom.
In some school districts appropriate instructional programs are developed for
these students including: (a) identification of the language demands of the sub-
ject areas to be taught in English; (b) analysis of each subject area by content
and skill area to determine that these skills match with students’ prior experi-
ence with these content areas; (c) identification of prerequisite cognitive areas
to allow students to benefit from instruction in each subject area; (d) analysis of
each subject area for linguistic components: vocabulary, technical terms, lan-
guage structure, language functions, and discourse features to determine aca-
demic language proficiency demands.

Figure 1.2 Mainstreaming LEP students with the provision for special English
language development
This group includes those students who are already receiving mainstream in-
Copyright © 2002. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved.

struction in all subject areas and receive additional English language develop-
ment by a language specialist, usually an ESL or reading teacher. There are
several reasons why these students are assigned to mainstream classrooms: (a)
when there are not enough LEP students from a particular language back-
ground or grade to organize a bilingual class; (b) when parents want their chil-
dren in an all-English classroom with the idea that this immersion will
facilitate their acquisition of English; (c) the school district’s policy is to main-
stream all students. In most situations the school district may be required to
provide some type of specialized language assistance to these students.
Most of this group of LEP students participate in specialized language pro-
grams such as pull-out ESL, or compensatory instruction in English reading
and mathematics for one hour or less a day. The rest of the instructional day in
the school life of these students is spent in regular classrooms with peers who
are proficient in English. All instruction is in English with no linguistic assis-
tance. LEP students are at a disadvantage because they do not have the neces-
sary communication and academic English language skills.

Carrasquillo, D. A. L., & Rodriguez, D. V. (2002). Language minority students in the mainstream classroom : Language minority student in
the mainstream classroom. Channel View Publications.
Created from uta-ebooks on 2021-11-17 17:43:30.
6 CHAPTER 1

Figure 1.3 Mainstreaming LEP students with all instruction in English


A large group of LEP students, upon their arrival at American schools, are ini-
tially assigned to mainstream classrooms. The reasons why these students are
enrolled in an all-English classroom are the same as those listed for Group 2.
Most of the time, this group of students is ignored by the school organization
and the classroom teacher. However, they are required to meet the same lin-
guistic and cognitive demands required for English proficient students. But the
reality is that these students are not ready to tackle the rather difficult task of
functioning in an academic setting where English is the medium of instruction.
There is no special curriculum for teachers to follow and, in many instances,
the teachers of these students do not know what to do with them and opt to
follow the ‘sink or swim’ approach.

Because of the growing numbers of LEP students presently enrolled in mainstream


classrooms, preparing educators to work with them is a serious educational concern
(Clegg, 1996; Center for Equity and Excellence in Education, 1996; Hamayan, 1990;
Rigg & Allen, 1989). Mainstream educators who have LEP students in their schools
and classrooms are often at a loss as to how to reach these students. These educators do
not have the training they need in order to properly address the instructional needs of
these students. Mainstream classes are usually taught by teachers who have not been
trained to work with limited English language learners.
The literature on mainstreaming has identified elements in which mainstreaming, if
well implemented, may contribute to students’ social, linguistic, and academic devel-
opment (Hamayan, 1990; New Levine, 1993; Rigg & Allen, 1989, Trueba, 1987).

GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR MAINSTREAM CLASSROOMS


We have identified four important principles that are relevant and should be consid-
Copyright © 2002. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved.

ered in well-planned and developed mainstream programs for LEP students.

Principle 1:
Mainstreaming should provide a full range of educational
opportunities to all students, eliminating social and racial barriers

American society stresses the concept of equality, and knowing English has been
linked as an important component in being considered an ‘equal student’ and an ‘equal
citizen’ in the United States. Under the mandate of the Constitution of the United
States, which requires the provision of an equal education for all students attending
public schools, many educators and policy makers have recommended the practice of
providing LEP students with opportunities to interact with English proficient students
on a daily basis. Educators assume that teaching students English will provide them
with equal educational opportunity. This interaction not only provides an environment
of ‘equality’ among the diverse student population but it becomes the context for

Carrasquillo, D. A. L., & Rodriguez, D. V. (2002). Language minority students in the mainstream classroom : Language minority student in
the mainstream classroom. Channel View Publications.
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LEP STUDENTS IN THE MAINSTREAM CLASSROOM 7

English language development. Since all students will learn together, racial and social
tensions may be resolved or reduced in the classroom by effective classroom teachers
and other supportive personnel. Conflict resolution techniques are recommended
strategies to use throughout the school day to reduce social and racial barriers.
Research on effective schools (August & Hakuta, 1997; Faltis, 1993; Krashen, 1999;
Sikula, Bullery, Guyton, 1996) indicates that one of the characteristics of successful
schools is the autonomy which the school leadership and staff possess to determine the
exact means by which they address the challenge of eliminating social and racial barriers
as well as increasing students’ academic performance. One important variable to con-
sider is the recommendation of maintaining high expectations for all students in the
school including high expectations for the LEP student population (Collier, 1992;
Lucas, Henze & Donato, 1990; TESOL, 1997; Thomas & Collier, 1996). Mainstream
educators should be prepared to challenge LEP students in the same way that other stu-
dents in the school are challenged. Educators need to see LEP students as equal to their
other English proficient students in terms of cognitive and social strengths. At the same
time, these educators should be sensitive to students’ linguistic needs as well as cultural
and ethnic differences. These differences should be seen as assets, which enrich the
classroom, rather than as deficiencies to be eradicated from students.

Principle 2:
Mainstreaming should provide opportunities for English language
learners to interact socially with English proficient peers

The mainstream classroom provides an excellent informal context for English


language development to take place. Language learners remember and use language
that is meaningful. They learn through a creative construction process of putting to-
gether the bits of the language they know, and using it in purposeful interactive situa-
tions. Since the purpose of language is communication of meaning, LEP students
may want to communicate with peers in the classroom, by using whatever means are
Copyright © 2002. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved.

available to them both to understand and communicate the meaning of the message.
LEP students are surrounded by English proficient peers. This interaction forces the
communication to be meaningful to both groups, the limited and the proficient
English speakers. Opportunities are provided for real communication with Eng-
lish-speaking peers and adults. This process is helped by what LEP students already
know about language through their first language so that they can make successful
transfers to and correct generalizations in the second language.
There is the need to maximize the students’ exposure to authentic language (con-
versational and academic) during the school day. Second language learners need a
great deal of language input. Meaning is not conveyed through language alone, but
with the help of concrete referents that the students can touch, hear, and see.
Meaning is also conveyed through gestures and body language, making it easier for
the students to comprehend the concepts being presented (Krashen, 1996, 1999;
Terrell, 1981). When speakers have something to say of real importance or interest
to the listener, the listener will make every effort to understand and this very effort

Carrasquillo, D. A. L., & Rodriguez, D. V. (2002). Language minority students in the mainstream classroom : Language minority student in
the mainstream classroom. Channel View Publications.
Created from uta-ebooks on 2021-11-17 17:43:30.
8 CHAPTER 1

will advance the second language acquisition process. English speakers will natu-
rally adjust their language to the needs of limited English proficient students by para-
phrasing, explaining, or demonstrating, if necessary, in order to get their meaning
across. Teachers will do the same. LEP students will recognize the interest of every-
one in the classroom to communicate with them, and they will make every possible
effort to understand the message received. At the same time, LEP students will
develop the mental freedom to communicate with their English-speaking peers and
with their teachers. It is important to point out that this interaction, necessary for lan-
guage acquisition, cannot happen unless the school and the classroom provide the
appropriate atmosphere for its development. Administrators and teachers have a
very important role to play by planning and carrying out interactive and, experiential
activities involving both LEP and English proficient students.

Principle 3:
Mainstreaming should provide opportunities for groups to function
effectively once successful instructional strategies are employed

Active involvement of students is one way of ensuring learning and social devel-
opment. It has been mentioned in the literature that initially mainstreamed students
lack social skills and have low self-esteem of themselves (Carrasquillo & London,
1993; Clegg, 1996; Hamayan, 1990; TESOL, 1997). A series of instructional strate-
gies have been recommended to improve students’ social skills, self-esteem, and ac-
ademic development. These strategies include: (a) highly interactive learning
activities, (b) heterogeneous groups, (c) cognitively demanding tasks, and (d) coop-
erative learning procedures. These strategies involve mental processes individuals,
especially learners use to obtain, make sense of, and retain information, as well as
processing information as a basis for solving problems. Authorities (e. g. Bos &
Vaughn, 1998; Johnson, Johnson & Holubec, 1988) have indicated that cooperative
learning strategies promote higher achievement, develop social skills, and put re-
Copyright © 2002. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved.

sponsibility for learning on the learner.


Cooperative grouping has been shown to be an effective classroom management
technique that promotes learning among heterogeneous groups of students (Bossert,
1993; Slavin, 1981; Slavin & Karweit, 1985). In cooperative learning groups students
are guided to work together to accomplish a specific task or set of learning activities.
The task may be as simple as suggesting that students study together or as complex as
arranging differentiated rules for individuals within study groups. Because coopera-
tive groups are heterogeneous, LEP students are mixed with English proficient stu-
dents encouraging them to work in different tasks agreed upon by all members. Each
student has a vital role to play in completing the task that the group is given (Cochran,
1989; Hamayan & Perlman, 1990). These strategies help all students to talk via discus-
sion, interact with other English speakers, use effective social skills, and, to some
extent, care about each other’s learning. When mainstreamed LEP students are placed
in heterogeneous, cooperative groups and assigned to specific roles, their achievement
generally increases and their self-esteem improves.

Carrasquillo, D. A. L., & Rodriguez, D. V. (2002). Language minority students in the mainstream classroom : Language minority student in
the mainstream classroom. Channel View Publications.
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LEP STUDENTS IN THE MAINSTREAM CLASSROOM 9

Principle 4:
Mainstreaming should provide opportunities for all teachers to
consider the language demands of all the students in the classroom

Mainstream classrooms reflect a variety of linguistic backgrounds as well as a


variety of language development among students. Not all students, even those who
are labeled as ‘English proficient’ demonstrate the same level of English profi-
ciency. Classrooms that have LEP students reflect a broader variety of linguistic and
cultural diversity. Teachers in mainstream classrooms need to be aware of these lin-
guistic and cultural differences and plan accordingly to provide instructional experi-
ences for this multi-level population (Faltis, 1993; TESOL, 1997; Genesee, 1994).
By making teachers aware of all the linguistic levels in a given classroom, they will
be more careful in planning instruction to meet the cognitive and linguistic demands
of all the students in the classroom.
A Word of Caution
Extreme caution needs to be taken to identify steps for mainstreaming LEP students.
If these steps are not carefully followed, it may result in LEP students being inadver-
tently placed in instructional situations where the linguistic demands require an
English proficiency level these students have not yet achieved (DeGeorge, 1988;
Peitzman & Gadda, 1994; Tikunoff, 1985). This puts the LEP students at an unfair
disadvantage in classrooms with students who are already proficient in English.
Being aware of learning and linguistic levels allows schools to develop appropriate
instructional sequences which provide students with the necessary opportunities for
developing academic language proficiency in English without sacrificing the acqui-
sition of subject matter. Sound instructional decisions require reliable and relevant
information about students’ capabilities and achievement patterns. Decisions as to
whether or not language minority students are ready to be mainstreamed have often
been made solely on the basis of students’ oral ability. It may be beneficial to deter-
Copyright © 2002. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved.

mine the status of students with respect to the demands that will be made upon them
in mainstream subject area classes (Chamot & O’Malley, 1986, 1994; Clegg, 1996;
Cummins, 1984; DeGeorge, 1988; Early & Tang, 1991;Hamayan, 1990). It is neces-
sary to assess the cognitive and linguistic demands that will be made of LEP/ELL
students in the mainstream and the language demands of the mainstream classroom.
These two factors provide the basic information and criteria for determining whether
or not LEP/ELL students are ready to be mainstreamed. If they already are partici-
pating in grade-level instruction, what instructional modifications are necessary to
meet their linguistic and cognitive demands?

ISSUES IN MAINSTREAMING LIMITED ENGLISH


PROFICIENT STUDENTS
Schools and community school districts should only consider mainstreaming LEP
students once they have explored other recommended instructional approaches
(such as ESL and bilingual education) and have found that these approaches are

Carrasquillo, D. A. L., & Rodriguez, D. V. (2002). Language minority students in the mainstream classroom : Language minority student in
the mainstream classroom. Channel View Publications.
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10 CHAPTER 1

impossible to implement in their school setting. The following questions represent


issues that have been raised by educators and policy makers involved in the educa-
tion of LEP students.

Issue Number 1:
Do LEP students belong in the mainstream classroom?

Perhaps no issue is more widely discussed in education circles than


mainstreaming students to the regular classroom (Clegg, 1996; Christina, 1992;
Enright & McCloskey, 1988; Hamayan, 1990; New Levine, 1993; Peitzman &
Gadda, 1994). It is assumed that every student should have the opportunity to an
equal education in which the curriculum standards and the expected learning out-
comes are the same for all students. In dealing with limited English proficient stu-
dents, the assumption is that these students will eventually become familiar with the
English language and will learn through this language. LEP/ELL students are fre-
quently mainstreamed to overcrowded classrooms without serious consideration
given to their unique learning and linguistic needs. Some assume that the more expo-
sure to English the students have, more quickly they will reach the desired English
language proficiency level. The reality is that this assumption is not true. Most LEP
learners need a specialized instructional mode to enable them to learn English while
at the same time advancing in the other curriculum areas. In this way, LEP/ELL stu-
dents will not fall behind in their academic development.
The answer to the question of whether LEP students belong in the mainstream
classroom is no. LEP students do not belong in the mainstream English classroom
because they lack the communicative and academic English language skills to be
successful learners of English. However, the reality is that there are thousands of
LEP learners who are enrolled in mainstream all-English classrooms with teachers
and administrators who have no background or experience with these types of learn-
ers. In many instances, LEP students have been registered in regular classrooms
Copyright © 2002. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved.

without informing the classroom teacher of their limited English proficiency. The
teacher assumes that all students are English speakers until he/she discovers that
there are students who are limited in English, or worse, that they are
non-English-speakers. Many teachers’ reactions have been that the problem is in the
student and not in the educational system, the teacher or the school, because ‘all stu-
dents are supposed to know English on entrance to school’. A system, which
assumes that the cause of learning, behavior and language problems must be found
in the student, can represent a gross oversimplification of complex learning systems
(McKay & Wong, 1988; Trueba, 1987).
Another factor that appears to be affected when LEP students are mainstreamed is
their self-esteem (Hamayan, 1990, Urzua, 1980; Wong-Fillmore, 1991b). This is
true, especially when they are in an educational environment where English is the
only medium of instruction. For some of these cases, teachers may ignore the stu-
dents due to lack of ability on the part of the teacher to communicate with them. Stu-
dents feel they are not part of that instructional setting, and their self-image may be

Carrasquillo, D. A. L., & Rodriguez, D. V. (2002). Language minority students in the mainstream classroom : Language minority student in
the mainstream classroom. Channel View Publications.
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LEP STUDENTS IN THE MAINSTREAM CLASSROOM 11

negatively affected. Since a person’s self-esteem is constantly re-evaluated on the


basis of new encounters or experiences, as LEP students enter school they will
engage in many new social interactions that will enhance or lower their self-esteem.
Since high self-esteem is positively correlated with being successful in meeting the
demands of the academic life, it stands to reason that educational systems should
promote self-esteem in students. Carrasquillo & London (1993) identified teachers’
behaviors that have significant effects on the self-esteem and social development of
language minority students. These are:
• the amount of respectful, accepting, and concerned treatment students received
from teachers,
• the provision for opportunities for the modification of experiences that accord
with values and aspirations,
• the manner in which teachers respond to students’ queries or remarks.
Teachers can become significant ‘others’ in LEP students’ life experiences, in
terms of classroom climate, attitude, instruction, assessment, grades, and awards
(Hoge, Smith & Hanson, 1990). Thus, how students perform at school may, indeed,
become contingent on several factors, not the least of which is the nearest significant
‘other’, the teacher (Carrasquillo & London, 1993).

Issue Number 2:
Is mainstreaming an excuse for the elimination of special language
programs?

Language programs play an important role in the academic and linguistic devel-
opment of culturally diverse populations. Most of these programs are initially
funded by the federal government to support additional educational resources for
those students with special needs: poor students, students with disabilities, and indi-
viduals for whom English is a second language. Compensatory education (espe-
cially the federally funded Title I), bilingual education, special education, and
Copyright © 2002. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved.

migrant education are among the most popular special programs. Title I provides
extra academic help for ‘disadvantaged’ preschool and elementary school students.
Most of its financial resources are used for basic instruction in reading and mathe-
matics for low-income elementary school students, with a smaller allocation for pre-
school education. Migrant education provides funds to states to provide educational
services, including English language development, for students of migrant workers.
The federal government also provides special education funding for children with
disabilities. Disabled children between the ages of three and twenty-one are pro-
vided with a free and appropriate public education in the least restrictive environ-
ment. Language development is one of the key elements of special education
programs. Bilingual education is a popular program, largely funded by the federal
government, that is intended to build a language bridge for students whose first lan-
guage is not English. Second language programs (e.g. ESL) provide initial help for
LEP students to develop proficiency in English (Baca & Cervantes, 1998;
Carrasquillo & Baecher, 1990). Educators, who work with LEP students, believe

Carrasquillo, D. A. L., & Rodriguez, D. V. (2002). Language minority students in the mainstream classroom : Language minority student in
the mainstream classroom. Channel View Publications.
Created from uta-ebooks on 2021-11-17 17:43:30.
12 CHAPTER 1

that all these programs, as well as others, are necessary in that they fulfill a very
important need.
Educators go on to say that because these programs are not serving all the children
who need these services, school districts need to allocate local funds to supplement
those programs funded by the federal government. Also, if the federal funding is out,
the school districts need to continue to offer these programs. Unfortunately, many
schools provide these special language programs only when they are funded by the
federal government. Once federal funding is no longer provided, the programs dis-
appear from the schools and the school districts. Mainstreaming should not be used
as an excuse for cutting budgets and eliminating needed special programs. All these
programs meet a very important need that cannot be met by assigning students to an
all-English classroom.

Issue Number 3:
Does the regular classroom provide an appropriate learning
environment?

An issue raised in mainstreaming LEP students is the concern of how LEP stu-
dents will feel in a regular classroom and how much acceptance they will receive
from the teacher and the other students (Christina, 1992; Clegg, 1996; Early & Tang,
1991; Enright & McCloskey, 1988; Hamayan 1990). The school is an institution
created by society for the purpose of providing educational opportunities for all stu-
dents. These opportunities include the acquisition of factual information, develop-
ment of thinking and skills. Students attend school to become successful learners,
that is, to increase their knowledge of facts and skills and to develop thinking strate-
gies. The main objective of the school is the full development of each student’s char-
acter and intellect, personal and social relationships, and academic achievement.
Thus, the school is an institution interested in students as persons and their total and
individual development. In the long run, schools perform three functions: (a) impart-
Copyright © 2002. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved.

ing knowledge and skills, (b) preparing students for the academic/working world,
and (c) helping students become participant citizens of the society. In order to meet
these three goals, schools must provide all students with an appropriate educational
environment that is conducive to learning, and one in which every student is chal-
lenged to his/her maximum potential. An important variable in learning is the school
and classroom setting. Learning and successful students are related to successful
schools and successful classrooms. In discussing the prerequisites for effective in-
struction Milk, Mercado & Sapiens (1992) posed two fundamental questions: (a)
What kind of learning environment would most successfully engage students in the
learning process? (b) What kind of learning environment would be most conducive
to language development for learners who possess unique linguistic and cultural
characteristics? They answered these two questions by saying that the key aspect is a
structural organization within the classroom in which there is a functional communi-
cation between teachers and students, and students and students. An appropriate
learning environment is an influential factor in students’ academic performance.

Carrasquillo, D. A. L., & Rodriguez, D. V. (2002). Language minority students in the mainstream classroom : Language minority student in
the mainstream classroom. Channel View Publications.
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LEP STUDENTS IN THE MAINSTREAM CLASSROOM 13

The mainstream classroom must offer the same rich, challenging, interesting cur-
riculum to all students. The classroom should emphasize the development of prob-
lem-solving and thinking skills by engaging all students in interactive and
experiential tasks. Once educators accept that LEP students have the capacity to
learn English, they must involve them in meaningful, interactive language activities.
They must develop a classroom environment that is linguistically rich and success
oriented, where all students are free to express themselves, to experiment, and to
explore. The classroom and the school environments of LEP students need to be one
in which respect for racial, ethnic, cultural, and linguistic diversity is infused
throughout the school by including diversity into instruction and by reflecting it in
all aspects of the classroom climate and environment. An adequate instructional
setting means that the instruction provides experiences in which students’ strengths
are used as a medium of effective academic and social development (Carrasquillo &
London, 1993). The classroom needs to be staffed by teachers who believe that all
children can learn and who have autonomy to respond flexibly and adapt teaching to
the different needs of the children and the families they serve. The other students in
the classroom and the regular classroom teacher cannot see LEP students as ‘differ-
ent’. Too often ‘different’ has been translated into ‘deficient’ or ‘less than’. There is
a risk in sending the message to second language learners that they are not capable of
doing what is expected at that grade level. The sad result is that many non-English
speakers grow to believe this same myth. The environment in which children learn to
use language is not different simply because there is a first or second language
student doing the learning. The environment must be the same: interactive, respon-
sive, and supportive, with encouraging human beings who believe the function or
message is far more important than the form in which it is sent (August & Hakuta,
1997; Chaudron, 1988; Hoge, Smith & Hanson, 1990; McLaughlin, 1995; Urzua,
1980). Well-planned and practiced mainstream classroom interaction can be mean-
ingful to LEP/ELL students; as it provides interaction with native speakers of
English. This increased contact also contributes to the improvement of self-concept
Copyright © 2002. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved.

and academic development for language minority students.

Issue Number 4:
Are mainstream classroom teachers prepared to work with LEP
students?

To date, much of the classroom-based research on teaching has sought to describe


effective teaching behaviors, positive learner outcomes, and teacher–student inter-
actions that are believed to lead to successful second language learning (Chaudron,
1988; Faltis, 1993; Wong-Fillmore, 1991a, TESOL, 1999). In the context of the
classroom, the teacher is the primary source of encouragement and support.
Teachers’ perceptions of minority students affect their academic performance.
Teachers who value students as individuals with unique capabilities, are aware that
language, be it spoken, written, or nonverbal, is a form of transaction that has a tre-
mendous power in the learning–teaching process. Since, in many instances, the only
appropriate modeling of the English language LEP/ELL students meet on a daily

Carrasquillo, D. A. L., & Rodriguez, D. V. (2002). Language minority students in the mainstream classroom : Language minority student in
the mainstream classroom. Channel View Publications.
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14 CHAPTER 1

basis are the teachers, the importance of their presentation of an appropriate linguis-
tic classroom environment is crucial to students’ overall performance. Research has
shown that given the ever-growing number of linguistically and culturally diverse
minority students with varied educational needs, will necessitate changes in instruc-
tional practices, and teacher training, especially mainstream teachers educating lan-
guage minority students (Clegg, 1996; Enright & McCloskey, 1988; Hamayan,
1990; New Levine, 1993; Rigg & Allen, 1989). Researchers of teacher effectiveness
have found that engaged time on task, academic emphasis in teaching, the pacing of
the lesson, the content covered, the instructional activities, and items such as group-
ing, monitoring, and helping during seat work are important aspects of both manage-
ment and effective teaching (August & Hakuta, 1997; Brophy, 1979; Knapp, 1995;
National Research Council, 1998; Squire, 1987).

When educators in mainstream classrooms seriously plan for LEP students’ de-
velopment of English skills and academic subject matter content, they are providing
students with access to appropriate curriculum and instruction. LEP students need to
be instructed to become participatively, interactionally and academically compe-
tent. Tikunoff & Ward (1991) define these three concepts as follows:
Participative Competence: Students respond appropriately to class task de-
mands and to the procedural rules for accomplishing them.
Interactional Competence: Students respond appropriately both to class-
room rules of discourse and social rules of discourse, interacting appropriately
with peers and adults while accomplishing class tasks.
Academic Competence: Students are able to acquire new skills, assimilate
new information and construct new concepts.

Therefore, teachers play an important role in LEP students’ academic, linguistic,


social, and cultural development (Chaudron, 1988; Faltis, 1993; Hamayan, 1990).
The literature on effective teachers has identified six major functions of the main-
Copyright © 2002. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved.

stream teacher in contributing to students’ social, cognitive, and academic develop-


ment. These are:

The teacher is a mediator and facilitator of learning. Teachers are mediators in


the teaching–learning process, especially when students need some type of feedback
to understand the language of instruction and the content of the subject areas. Clark
& Peterson’s (1986) comprehensive review of the research on teachers’ thought pro-
cesses purports that teachers are decision makers who process information and act
upon those decisions within complex environments. They must perceive all learners
as capable of constructing and reconstructing meaning and knowledge over time.
Teachers need to provide opportunities for students to share each other’s knowledge
and questions as successful contributors to their own learning. The teacher functions
as a key individual making instructional decisions for all students including those for
whom English is not their native language. The teacher plans instructional programs
that meet the students’ academic and linguistic demands.

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LEP STUDENTS IN THE MAINSTREAM CLASSROOM 15

The teacher is a facilitator in the acquisition of English. Teachers establish


positive classroom behaviors and, by reducing linguistic anxieties and frustrations
in the classroom, they contribute to students’ ease in their acquisition of English.
When teachers make instructional decisions, they consider the appropriateness of a
particular teaching strategy and the students’ language skills, their academic ability,
and their knowledge of the content areas (Christina, 1992; Faltis, 1993; Mohan,
1986; Short, 1991). Teachers’ instructional activities are directed at ensuring stu-
dents’ understanding, motivation, involvement, and interaction. Effective teachers
continually question the appropriateness of their teaching strategies in promoting
English language development; they judge their own effectiveness in relation to
student responses, and therefore, they seek confirmation, through instructional pro-
cesses, that students are understanding and that they are actively engaged.
Teachers take every opportunity in the classroom, lunchroom, and playground to
foster the development of language. For example, LEP/ELL students’ vocabulary,
syntax, and grammar can be expanded by encouraging effective classroom interac-
tion between the teacher and other students in the classroom. Since listening plays an
important role in acquiring a second language, teachers provide LEP students with
instructional strategies for listening comprehension. Teachers promote interper-
sonal as well as academic language.
The teacher is a model of a proficient English language user. Mainstream
teachers have a difficult task in working with LEP students. Their role includes the
teaching of English and, at the same time, making sure that students learn subject
content through this new language. In accomplishing these tasks, teachers serve as
linguistic models for their students by:
• progressively developing students’ comprehension and ability to interact with
English-speaking students through mastery of communicative competence in
English as it is used by the English-speaking population,
• evaluating students’ progress in English language learning and content and
Copyright © 2002. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved.

identifying their strengths and weaknesses in performance, adjusting instruction


accordingly; and
• selecting appropriate teaching techniques and materials for language and
content teaching.
To achieve optimum learning results, teachers are expected to demonstrate profi-
ciency in spoken and written English at a level commensurate with their role as a lan-
guage model. The command of the language should combine qualities of accuracy
and fluency. Teachers need to understand the nature of language, the nature of lan-
guage variety – social, regional, and functional. Teachers should also have an under-
standing of the factors which contribute to the life styles of various peoples and
which determine both their uniqueness and their interrelationships in a pluralistic
society. Proficient English teachers make an impact on their students by what they,
as teachers, say to their students. The teachers’ impact is seen in the development of
students’ English literacy and academic content.

Carrasquillo, D. A. L., & Rodriguez, D. V. (2002). Language minority students in the mainstream classroom : Language minority student in
the mainstream classroom. Channel View Publications.
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16 CHAPTER 1

Teachers do not correct students’ ‘errors’, but provide immediate correct lan-
guage feedback. Teachers expand what students say through questioning or para-
phrasing. These strategies provide students with the correct linguistic model and
send the message that the students’ attempts at communicating are accepted.
The teacher is a representative of the mainstream culture. LEP students who
enter American public schools for the first time quite often are unfamiliar, not only
with the English language, but also with school traditions, rules, and expectations.
The mission of the school is most simply described as providing students with the
explicitly necessary academic, social, and civic skills for negotiation with life in the
dominant mainstream society. The purposes of the school encompass not only what
is taught and learned, but also the organization, patterns, and process of education in
the social and cultural setting (Altwerger & Ivener, 1994; Sleeter & Grant, 1993).
Teachers contribute in many ways to students’ adaptation to a new culture, or better
said, to students being better participants in a culturally pluralistic society. In a cul-
turally pluralistic society, members of diverse cultural, racial, or religious groups are
free to maintain their own identity and yet simultaneously share a larger common po-
litical organization, economic system, and social structure. It is the role of main-
stream teachers to help students and, to some extent, their parents, to find ways to be
part of this pluralistic society.
Many LEP students and parents do not understand the purposes of the school and,
even less, the social settings of the mainstream society. In a society as complex and
multi-ethnic as the United States, discovering what the mainstream culture is can
prove to be a difficult task for language and cultural minority learners. In many in-
stances teachers are the initial contact with the mainstream society and students’
initial acceptance of differences with the mainstream culture will depend on how
teachers present these differences. In the case of the students who come from a cul-
tural background that is different from the dominant culture, there is a need for de-
veloping and maintaining the social and cultural bridges between the students’ home
Copyright © 2002. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved.

culture and that of the school (Altwerger & Ivener, 1994). It is the responsibility of
mainstream educators to provide an environment in which students feel that their
culture is respected, thereby enabling them to be willing to accept traits of the second
culture.
The teacher is a mediating agent in the socialization and acculturation of the
students. Teachers play roles that go beyond just imparting instruction, their role
must take into account social and affective variables in their relationship with LEP
students. Teachers constitute a vital element in humanizing the total educational ex-
perience of LEP students in school. In the process of instruction, teachers must be
aware of the diverse ethnic and linguistic groups, personalities, and characters
present among students. They must be empathic in order to understand and be sensi-
tive to the students’ sociocultural and linguistic make-up and needs (Manning &
Baruth, 2000; Carrasquillo, 1994). Teachers must consider students not only as re-
ceivers of cognitive language skills, but also as whole beings with feelings, person-
ality, prior knowledge, and other human attributes that play important roles in the

Carrasquillo, D. A. L., & Rodriguez, D. V. (2002). Language minority students in the mainstream classroom : Language minority student in
the mainstream classroom. Channel View Publications.
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LEP STUDENTS IN THE MAINSTREAM CLASSROOM 17

acquisition of language. Teachers must go beyond general instruction to view indi-


vidual differences among students as more important to strategic teaching than their
similarities. Such differences provide teachers with the opportunities to differentiate
instruction and to fulfill more of the affective and social needs of individual students.
Through teachers, LEP students discover the school environment. Positive teach-
ers’ classroom social interactions promote the development of students’ cultural
identities by accepting, respecting, and valuing cultural and linguistic differences in
the classroom and by imparting a sense of peaceful co-existence of diverse life
styles, manners, language patterns, and practices (Ruddell, 1995; Sleeter & Grant,
1993). However, it is also imperative for LEP students to learn to function success-
fully in mainstream cultural and linguistic groups. For example, students need to
develop competence in the ability to know which behavioral patterns and cultural
knowledge of other cultural groups are necessary for providing the means for more
equal opportunities in society (Sleeter & Grant, 1993). Mainstream teachers help
LEP students incorporate cultural traits of the American mainstream culture without
losing their own ethnic and cultural identity. For example, LEP children may opt to
adapt English language patterns, kinetics, value systems, and social interaction
styles of the United States, thus enabling them to become bicultural.
Teachers need to build an understanding of the culture of LEP students enrolled in
their classes. Regular classroom teachers, unaccustomed to instructing LEP stu-
dents, may lack the sensitivity to the cultural differences that the students experience
in their new surroundings. Teachers need to bridge the gap between students’ cul-
tural background and the experiences these students confront in school.
The teacher is an advocate of LEP students’ needs and strengths. In working
with children, teachers should always act on a foundation of human values. One of
their roles is to alert all those individuals (principal, social worker, psychologist,
parents) of what is best for LEP students’ education. Teachers play an advocacy role
in recognizing LEP students’ academic needs and in identifying successful instruc-
Copyright © 2002. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved.

tional programs that will consider the students as a whole, including social, linguis-
tic, and cognitive development (Carrasquillo, 1994; Cazden, 1986; Ruddell, 1995).
Sensitive mainstream teachers collaborate and consult with other teachers and ed-
ucators in the school, especially with the school’s administrators, by sharing infor-
mation about the academic, cultural, and linguistic needs of LEP students. They are a
valuable source of information about LEP students’ performance in the mainstream
classroom.
Social and psychological factors are of utmost importance in teaching LEP stu-
dents. It is often frightening for students of any age to be placed in a new classroom.
This is magnified by the new language and cultural differences LEP students con-
front in a new linguistic instructional setting, the classroom. A ‘buddy system’ is an
excellent way to help LEP students to minimize their fear of a new environment and
a new language (Riddlemoser, 1987), especially if the ‘buddy’ is from the same lan-
guage background and is English-proficient.

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the mainstream classroom. Channel View Publications.
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18 CHAPTER 1

In some instances, teachers’ commitment toward LEP students will require them
to go beyond the school boundaries to challenge policy makers and community prac-
tices. The teacher is the best equipped individual to present students’ strengths and to
describe how proposed instructional programs or practices will expand on students’
strengths and will contribute to the eradication of students’ deficiencies.

CONCLUSION
When students enter school, they bring all of their personal and community environ-
mental influences. Both the school and the community must work together and co-
operate to motivate students to learn, to support children in their learning, to instill
work habits, and to reward achievement. Educators are influential in helping LEP
students to establish their individuality by providing appropriate learning contexts
and instruction. Teachers influence, facilitate, and help students’ perceptions, be-
haviors, and academic performance at school and elsewhere. LEP students’ interac-
tion with their parents, teachers, and the school as a whole will form the basis for
self-esteem and social development.
Mainstreaming language minority students from bilingual and ESL programs is
an educational reality. Assigning LEP students to the mainstream classroom on their
arrival in the United States is also a common programmatic reality. However, educa-
tors, especially those in mainstream educational settings, need to understand the lin-
guistic and academic challenges encountered by LEP students. It is then that
educators can provide all students with an appropriate learning environment and
utilize teaching strategies that are instrumental in the development of learners’ lin-
guistic and academic competencies. This awareness will help educators identify
avenues to motivate and challenge these learners to get the most out of the content
areas as well as their English language development. Well-planned mainstreaming
can be the force behind exciting programs in which educational responsibilities for
cultural and linguistically diverse students are shared, and cooperative relationships
Copyright © 2002. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved.

between educators enhanced.

Carrasquillo, D. A. L., & Rodriguez, D. V. (2002). Language minority students in the mainstream classroom : Language minority student in
the mainstream classroom. Channel View Publications.
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