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 Nanik Mariani
Fatchul Mu’in & Yusuf Al Arief

AN INTRODUCTION TO

LINGUISTICS

Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni

Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan
Universitas Lambung Mangkurat

i
 National Library : Catalog in print

An Introduction to Linguistics

Nanik Mariani, Fatchul Mu’in & Yusuf Al Arief

viii + 148 pages, 21 x 29,7 cm

ISBN : 978-602-53643-6-5

Editor :
Fahmi Hidayat
Bayu

Cover desainer:
Galih Rizki Khairul Ulum

Second Printing : November 2019 (Revison)

Published by
Jurusan PBS FKIP Universitas Lambung Mangkurat Banjarmasin, Kalimantan
Selatan, Indonesia

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Alhamdulillah, we have accomplished this learning and teaching material for the subject of
Introduction to Linguistics. First, we are indebted to the Rector of and Dean of Faculty of Teacher
Training and Education, Lambung Mangkurat University, for providing necessary facilities in
accomplishing it.
We are indebted to the Head of UPT Bahasa, Lambung Mangkurat University, Prof. Dr.
Fatchul Mu’in, M.Hum., for giving us the opportunity of revising our Teaching Material of
Introduction to Linguistics to be adopted and adapted in the form of monograph. Also, to Dean of
Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Lambung Mangkurat University, for providing necessary
facilities in accomplishing it. We want to express our sincere gratitude to Dr. Jumariati, M.Pd, and Dr.
Sainul Hermawan, M.Hum. as the chairperson and the secretary of the Department of Language and
Arts, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Lambung Mangkurat University for motivating and
providing us the chance to use the office facilities. We want to express our sincere gratitude to Dr.
Noor Eka Chandra, M.Pd., the Head of English Language Education Program, Faculty of Teacher
Training and Education, Lambung Mangkurat University, motivating and providing us to provide the
references for the students of the English Language Education Program.
We would also like to express our appreciation to Prof. Emer. M.P. Lambut, Dra.Nirmala Sari,
M.A Drs. Aris Djinal, Dr. H. Ahmad Sofyan, M.A, Prof. Dr. Abdul Muth’im, M.Pd, and Dr. Cayandrawati
Sutionom M.A, as well as Dr. Rina Listia, M.Pd, the senior lecturers of English Education Study
Program for sharing their ideas and academic experiences with us.
Banjarmasin, November 2019

Nanik Mariani, Fatchul Mu’in & Yusuf Al Arief

iii
iv
Acknowledgments

Contents

Preface

Chapter I What is Language? / 1- 8

Chapter II Language in Social Context / 9 - 12

Chapter III Linguistics & Language Teaching/ 13 - 18

Chapter IV Phonetics /19 - 30

Chapter v Phonology / 31 - 34

Chapter VI Morphology / 35 - 46

Chapter VII Syntax / 47 - 54

Chapter VIII Transformational Generative Grammar/55 - 62

Chapter IX Semantics/63 - 78

Chapter X Pragmatics / 79 - 94

Chapter XI Discourse Analysis / 95 - 114

Chapter XII Sociolinguistics / 115 - 138

Chapter XIII Psycholinguistics / 139 - 148

REFERENCES

v
vi
 PREFACE

The book entitled An Introduction to Linguistics is intended for providing materials

to our students attending the subject of Introduction to Linguistics. Up to the present time,
the subject has been lectured by using the handouts as a result of our compilation of some
references on language and linguistics. This book is written based on the handouts that have
been used since the writers handled the subject.
The materials discussed in this book cover What is a Language, Characteristics of
Language, What is Linguistics, Phonetics, Phonology, Morphology, Syntax,
Transformational Grammar, Semantics, Sociolinguistics, and Psycholinguistics. In What is a
language, the writers elaborate on the definition and concept of Human Language and
Animal Language. In Characteristics of the human language, they explain some concepts on
“A language is systematic, A language is arbitrary, A language is social, A language is
spoken, A language is used for communication, and A language is complete for its
speakers.”
In Linguistics and Language Teaching, they present the definition of linguistics and
its branches of linguistics, and linguistics in language teaching.
In Phonetics, they present the concept of phonetics and organs of speech are used for
producing speech sounds, both vowels, and consonants, and will be explained how to
differentiate voiced from voiceless sounds. While in classification of consonants, the kinds of
consonants based on (a) Manner of Articulation, namely: Plosives/Stops, Fricatives,
Affricates, Nasals, Lateral/Liquids, and Semi-vowels/Glides, and (b) Place of Articulation,
namely: Bilabial, Labiodental, Interdental, Alveolar, Palatal, Velar, dan Glottal sounds will
be explained in detail so that the students understand the mechanism of producing the
consonants. In the classification of vowels, the kinds of vowels: (a) Front, Central, Back
Vowels, (b) Open, Half-open, Close, Half-close vowels, and (c) Rounded and Unrounded
Vowels and (d) Tenses and Lax Vowels will be elaborated.
In Phonology, the definition of phonology and the difference between phonetics and
phonology will be presented. Also, in this chapter, phonemes, phones, and allophones will
be discussed; these sub-topics include the ways to identify phonemes and phones, and also
allophonic variation. The minimal pairs and minimal sets are also presented. The other sub-
topic contains a brief description of Phonological Rules and its types such as Aspiration,
Vowel Lengthening, Vowel Nasalization, Flapping, dan Nasal Deletion. The description is
meant to help students to classify sounds in the processes of aspiration, vowel lengthening,
vowel nasalization, flapping, and nasal deletion.
In Morphology, the definition of morphology, differences between phonemes and
morphemes, differences between morphemes dan allomorph, and types of morphemes: Free
morphemes and Bound morphemes are presented. This chapter also discusses the Word-
formation process to show the students the process of word-formations (inflection and
derivation).
In Syntax, the definition of syntax, content words and functional words, syntactical
construction, and its types and sub-types, syntactic devices, and syntactical analysis are
presented and elaborated. In Transformational-Generative Grammar, the definition of TG
Grammar and its principles, and types of transformation are discussed briefly.

vii
 In Semantics, the definition of semantics and its aspects are discussed. While in
Pragmatics, the definition of pragmatics and the difference between pragmatics and
semantics are elaborated. While in Sociolinguistics, the definition of sociolinguistics,
Language in socio-cultural aspects, Language variation, Language use, etc. are explained.
And, in Psycholinguistics, the definition of psycholinguistics, the relation of linguistics and
psychological aspects, language acquisition and language learning, mastery of two or more
languages are presented.

viii
 Chapter III

LINGUISTICS AND LANGUAGE TEACHING

By: Fatchul Mu’in

Introduction
Each of the people in the world knows at least one language, spoken or written, or
signed. Linguistics is the science of language, studying speech sounds (e.g., the sounds that are
produced by using human speech organs), words (e.g., the smallest elements that can be uttered
in isolation), and grammar rules (e.g., the rules of arranging words into longer and grammatical
utterences). Words in languages are finite, but sentences are not. This is to say that language
speaker enables to produce the unlimited number of sentences using the words he/she has
mastered.
The rules of a language, also called grammar, are learned as one acquires a language.
These rules include phonology, the sound system, morphology, the structure of words, syntax,
the combination of words into sentences, semantics, the ways in which sounds and meanings
are related, and the lexicon, or mental dictionary of words. When you know a language, you
know words in that language, i.e., sound units that are related to specific meanings. However,
the sounds and meanings of words are arbitrary. For the most part, there is no relationship
between the way a word is pronounced (or signed) and its meaning.
Knowing a language encompasses this whole system of the language. This such
knowledge is called competence, meanwhile, the actual use of language is called
performance/behavior. Competence is different from a performance. In this relation, we may
know a language, but we may also choose not to speak it. Although we are not speaking the
language, we still have the knowledge of it. However, if we do not know a language, we cannot
speak it at all.
A grammar of a language can be divided into two types, namely: descriptive and
prescriptive grammars. The former (e.g., descriptive grammar) is a grammar that represents the
unconscious knowledge of a language. Speaker who is speaking English, for example, knows
that "me likes he" is incorrect, and "I like him" is correct, although the speaker may not be able
to explain why. Descriptive grammar does not teach the rules of a language but instead
describes or regulates that are already known. In contrast, prescriptive grammar dictates what a
speaker's grammar should be, and they include teaching grammar, which is written to help
teach a foreign language.

Linguistics
Linguistics is defined as the scientific study of language. From different viewpoints,
as a science, linguistics can be divided into several branches, among others, descriptive
linguistics and historical/comparative linguistics (if it is based on its methodology), synchronic
and diachronic linguistics (it is based on its aspect of time), and phonetics, phonology,
13 An Introduction to Linguistics
morphology, syntax and semantics (if it is based on a language as a system), and
sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics (if it is related to or combined with the disciplines
(sociology and psychology respectively).
As a science, linguistics must fulfill some scientific prerequisites. First, it must have a
subject matter. Language is said to be a subject matter of Linguistics. As a subject matter, a
language must be clearly and explicitly defined. Before analyzing a language, some linguists
define a language in different ways. Take, for example, Finocchioro who defines a language as a
system of arbitrary, vocal symbols that permit all people in a given culture, or other people who
have learned the system of that culture, to communicate or to interact. Thus, the scope of
analysis is based on the clearly and explicitly defined subject matter. This is to say that
everything beyond the scope such as gestures/bodily movement, will be ignored. So
explicitness in determining the subject matter must be conducted so that we know what must
be studied/analyzed and what must be left.
Second, it must be based on objective observation and/or investigation. This to say that
the observation and/or investigation on the subject matter must be conducted objectively.
The result of observation and/or investigation must be described objectively too, and any
competent observer or investigator can verify it. So objectivity in conducting observation
and/or investigation on the subject matter must be fulfilled in any scientific undertaking. Third,
the result of observation and/or research must be systematically arranged. This must be
conducted as an effort to show the relationship within the subject matter. This is also meant to
make the readers easy to read and study. Thus, systematicness is also needed by linguistics.
Language analysis for the sake of developing linguistics is done systematically within
the framework of some general theory of language structure. The linguist tries to verify the
theory by making objective observations of actual language data and modifies the theory in
light of what he perceives to be patterns or regularities underlying the data.
Branches of Linguistics
Some branches of linguistics are as follows:
1. Phonetics
2. Phonology
3. Morphology
4. Syntax
5. Generative Transformational Grammar
6. Semantics
7. Pragmatics
Branches of linguistics in relation to the other fields of study:
8. Sociolinguistics
9. Psycholinguistics
The concepts of the branches of linguistics are presented as follows:
1. Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, which are known more technically as phones.
This study highlights, especially how the speech sounds produced by using speech
organs. It shows mechanisms of how to produce speech sounds.
2. Phonology, on the other hand, is essentially the description of the systems and patterns
of speech sounds in a language. It is, in effect, based on theory of what every speaker of
a language unconsciously knows about the sound patterns of that language. This study
regards the speech sounds as having functions to differentiate meanings.

14 An Introduction to Linguistics
3. Morphology is the study of analyzing the expression system of a language that is
concerned with the identification of morphemes and the ways in which they are
distributed or combined into longer utterances or morphological constructions.
4. The syntax is defined as the study of arrangements of words into phrases, clauses, and
sentences or syntactical constructions. The smallest units of syntax are words. When two
or more words are arranged in a certain way, the result refers to syntactical construction.
In other words, it can be said that a syntactical construction is a construction in which its
immediate constituents (IC-a) are words (or free morphemes).
5. TG Grammar. Grammar includes phrase-structure rules, lexical-insertion rules, and
transformational rules. The grammar can be thought of as a machine that generates all
the possible sentences of the language. A grammar contains- ing such rules is called a
generative grammar. When the rules include transformational rules, we have a
transformational-generative grammar
6. Pragmatics. A significant factor in sentence interpretation involves a body of knowledge
that is often called pragmatics. This consists of the speaker’s and addressee’s
background attitudes and beliefs, their understanding of the context in which a sentence
is uttered, and their knowledge of the way in which language is used to communicate
information
7. Sociolinguistics. Term sociolinguistics is a derivational word. Two words that form it are
sociology and linguistics. Sociology refers to a science of society, and linguistics refers to
a science of language. A study of language from the perspective of society may be
thought of as linguistics plus sociology. Some investigators have found it to introduce a
distinction between sociolinguistics and sociology of language.
Some others regard sociolinguistics is often referred to as the sociology of language.
The study is concerned with the relationship between language and the context in which
it is used. In other words, it studies the relationship between language and society. It
explains we people speak differently in different social settings. It discusses the social
functions of language and the ways it is used to convey social meaning. All of the topics
provide a lot of information about the language works, as well as about the social
relationships in a community, and the way people signal aspects of their social identity
through their language (Jenet Holmes, 2001).
Sociolinguistics also refers to the study that is concerned with the interaction of
language and setting (Carol M. Eastman, 1975; 113). The other expert defines it as the
study that is concerned with investigating the relationship between language and
society with the goal of a better understanding of the structure of language and of how
languages function in communication ( Ronald Wardhaugh, 1986: 12).
8. Psycholinguistics. Term ‘psycholinguistics’ is a combination of psychology and
linguistics. Both are the branches of sciences. Psychology is defined as the systematic
study of human experience and behavior or as the science that studies the behavior of
men and other animals Knight and Hilgert in Abu Ahmadi, 1992). There are several
branches of psychology, among others, social psychology, the psychology of
communication, developmental psychology, educational psychology, and psychology of
language.
The last branches of psychology are often called as psycholinguistics. It is defined as a
field of study that combines psychology and linguistics. It covers language

15 An Introduction to Linguistics
 development. (Lim Kiat Boey). The other definition of psycholinguistics is that it is the
study of human language –language comprehension, language production, and
language acquisition (E.M. Hatch)

English Language Teaching

English teaching in Indonesia has gone on in a very long time. English has been taught
in Indonesia since the proclamation of Indonesia as a first foreign language. It has been taught
at the first-year junior high schools up to the third-year senior high schools, and at the
university for several semesters. Even, nowadays, English is taught at elementary schools as the
local content subject.
All of us may have known that the various efforts for improving approaches, methods,
and techniques have been done. The English Teaching Curriculum has been changed or
upgraded from time to time. Many writers have written the various publishers publish the
numerous supporting books and textbooks and those. Now, we can ask ourselves: “How is the
result of English teaching in our schools?”, or “Does it make us our school students have good
competence and performance in using the language?” Our practical experience shows that
many students fail in their English learning and that they regard the language as a difficult
subject to learn.
Starting from the assumption, the students are not motivated in learning- ing English
until they have a good mastery of the language. They tend to be apathetic in attending the
English subject. As a consequence, their learn- ing achievement is not satisfactory.
Who is wrong in our English teaching, our students, our teachers or others?. Of course,
we will not find “who is wrong and what is wrong” in the failure of our English teaching.
Because when we want to evaluate an educational undertaking, many factors or variables have
to be considered. In English teaching, there are teacher, learner, and socio-cultural factors.
Linguistics in Language Teaching
Linguistics is essential for language teaching because linguistics and language teaching
can be likened to the relationship of knowledge about the engine and the skill in driving a car. It
will be better for the driver to supported with some knowledge about the vehicle or the engine
so that he can drive it well and know how to overcome some engine trouble in case he has to
face it. In the same way, it will be better if a language teacher has some knowledge about, for
instance, the characteristics of the language in general and the specific language he is teaching
in particular. In this relation, he should know how language works and express meaning, and
what structures are used in the particular language he is teaching. He should get familiar, for
instance, with the theory about the general mechanism of producing speech sounds, so that he
will be able to tackle any pronunciation problem his students may encounter.
By studying linguistics, he will have more in-depth insights into the nature of language
and act accordingly in teaching the language. For instance, when he agrees that the use of
language is a matter of habits and practice, in explaining it to his students, he must implant the
habit of using it for communication until it becomes deeply established.

Conclusion
Linguistics is the scientific study of language. As a scientific study, linguistics can be
applied in language teaching. Some branches of linguistics discuss some aspects of a language
such as phones, phonemes, morphemes, words, meanings, and language in relation to socio-

16 An Introduction to Linguistics
cultural and psychological perspectives. All of the aspects are of course, useful for language
teaching.

17 An Introduction to Linguistics
18 An Introduction to Linguistics
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