Engineering Encyclopedia: Generator Fundamentals

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Generator Fundamentals
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Engineering Encyclopedia Electrical
Content Page
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 1
ELEMENTS OF A POWER GENERATOR......................................................................... 2

Basic Generator Principles......................................................................................... 2
Mechanical to Electrical Conversion .............................................................. 2
Sinusoidal Voltage Output ............................................................................. 2
Motor Versus Generator Comparison ............................................................ 7
Single-Phase Generators...........................................................................................10
Components..................................................................................................10
Operation......................................................................................................11
Three-Phase Generators ...........................................................................................12
Components..................................................................................................12
Operation......................................................................................................13
ELEMENTS OF A POWER GENERATION SYSTEM......................................................14
Purpose and Types of Prime Movers ........................................................................14
Purpose ........................................................................................................14
Types of Prime Movers.................................................................................14
Prime Mover Governors/Speed Control....................................................................21
Purpose of Governors/Speed Control............................................................21
Methods of Speed Control ............................................................................23
Purpose and Types of Generators/Alternators...........................................................26
Purpose ........................................................................................................26
Types of Generators/Alternators ...................................................................27
Purpose and Types of Voltage Regulators ................................................................30
Purpose ........................................................................................................30
Types of Voltage Regulators.........................................................................30
MAJOR AC GENERATOR COMPONENTS......................................................................33
Stator .......................................................................................................................33
Mechanical Components ...............................................................................33

Wye Configuration........................................................................................39
Delta Configuration ......................................................................................39
Types of Rotors........................................................................................................40
Salient Pole...................................................................................................41
Cylindrical Pole.............................................................................................42
Types of Cooling Systems ........................................................................................44
Air-Cooled....................................................................................................44
Air-To-Water Heat Exchanger ......................................................................45
Gas-To-Water Heat Exchanger .....................................................................45
Types of Bearings and Lubrication Systems ..............................................................45
Types of Bearings .........................................................................................45
Types of Lubrication Systems .......................................................................48
GENERATOR EXCITATION ............................................................................................49
Purposes of Generator Excitation .............................................................................49
Power to the Rotating Electromagnetic Field ................................................49
Locking Rotor To Stator ..............................................................................49
Means of Regulating Voltage........................................................................49
Types of Generator Excitation..................................................................................49
DC Exciters ..................................................................................................50
Static Excitation ...........................................................................................53
Brushless Excitation......................................................................................55
Concept of Response Time Versus Voltage Levels ...................................................56
GENERATOR GROUNDING ............................................................................................58
Purposes of Generator Grounding ............................................................................58
Personnel Safety ...........................................................................................58
Equipment Protection ...................................................................................59
Methods of Generator Grounding.............................................................................59
Solidly-Grounded..........................................................................................61
Resistance Grounded ....................................................................................63
Reactance-Grounded ....................................................................................67

Source System Ground Versus Plant Generator Ground................................68

SAES-P-114 Grounding Requirements .........................................................69
ELEMENTS OF GENERATOR PROTECTION.................................................................75
Temperature Protection............................................................................................75
Rotor............................................................................................................75
Stator ...........................................................................................................76
Bearing.........................................................................................................77
Lubrication ...................................................................................................77
Electrical Protection .................................................................................................78
Overcurrent ..................................................................................................81
Differential Current (Fault) ...........................................................................81
Ground Fault ................................................................................................82
Loss of Field.................................................................................................83
Phase Unbalance ...........................................................................................84
Frequency/Overspeed....................................................................................85
Voltage.........................................................................................................85
Sync Verification ..........................................................................................86
Reverse Power (Motoring)............................................................................86
Zone Protection Concepts ........................................................................................87
Overlap.........................................................................................................87
Backup .........................................................................................................87
AC GENERATOR PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS .............................................89
Nameplate Ratings ...................................................................................................89
kVA .............................................................................................................89
kW ...............................................................................................................90
Power Factor ................................................................................................90
Terminal Voltage ..........................................................................................92
Field Current.................................................................................................92
Speed ...........................................................................................................92
Temperature Rise..........................................................................................92

Insulation Class.............................................................................................93
Ratings Interrelationships .........................................................................................93
kVA, kW, Power Factor ...............................................................................93
kVA, kW, Voltage........................................................................................94
Saturation Curve Parameters ....................................................................................95
Excitation Current (IE) .................................................................................98
Terminal Voltage (Vt)...................................................................................99
Load ...........................................................................................................100
Power Factor ..............................................................................................100
Generator Performance vs. Saturation ....................................................................100
Load vs. Voltage Relationship.....................................................................100
Effects of Load and Excitation Current Changes .........................................101
Reactance Values ...................................................................................................108
Synchronous Reactance (Xd) ......................................................................110
Transient Reactance (X’d) ..........................................................................111
Subtransient Reactance (X’’d) ....................................................................114
Decrement Curve Model ........................................................................................114
Synchronous Reactance (Xd) ......................................................................116
Transient Reactance (X’d) ..........................................................................117
Subtransient Reactance (X”d) .....................................................................118
Capability Curve Parameters...................................................................................119
Prime Mover...............................................................................................120
Load kW ....................................................................................................121
Load kVAR ................................................................................................121
Load kVA...................................................................................................121
Underexcitation-Leading Power Factor.......................................................121
Overexcitation-Lagging Power Factor.........................................................122
Generator Performance vs. Capability.....................................................................122
Power Factor Versus VAR Capability .........................................................123
Synchronous Reactance X(d) ......................................................................124
Generator Components ...............................................................................125

VAR Flow / Unbalanced Voltages ..............................................................126

VAR Compensation....................................................................................126
GLOSSARY......................................................................................................................127

Table of Figures Page
Figure 1. Sinusoidal Voltage Output......................................................................... 3

Figure 2. Rotating Flux Fields................................................................................... 4
Figure 3. Single-Phase Generator.............................................................................. 5
Figure 4. Elementary Three-Phase Generator............................................................ 6
Figure 5. One Cycle of Three-Phase Sinusoidal Waveshape ...................................... 7
Figure 6. Torque Angle at No-Load ......................................................................... 9
Figure 7. Torque Angle at Rated Load.....................................................................10
Figure 8. Equivalent Circuit.....................................................................................11
Figure 9. Vector Diagram........................................................................................11
Figure 10. Cross-Section View of Stator Windings for Two-Pole and Four-
Pole Generators ......................................................................................12
Figure 11. Three-Phase Generator and Sine Wave Relationship ...............................13
Figure 12. Generation and Delivery of Mechanical Energy vs. Generation and
Delivery of Kinetic Energy ......................................................................16
Figure 13. Generation and Delivery of Mechanical Energy.......................................17
Figure 14. Simple (Open) Cycle Gas Turbine Engine ...............................................19
Figure 15. Energy Flow Simple (Open) Cycle ..........................................................20
Figure 16. Electric Controls for Single Unit Generators ...........................................24
Figure 17. Basic Electric Paralleling System.............................................................24
Figure 18. Electric Load Sharing System .................................................................25
Figure 19. Fully Automated Electric Load Sharing System.......................................26
Figure 20. Generator Winding .................................................................................27
Figure 21. Torque - Slip Curves of Squirrel Cage Induction Motor..........................28
Figure 22. Rotating Armature..................................................................................29
Figure 23. Stationary Armature ...............................................................................30
Figure 24. Electro-Mechanical Voltage Regulator....................................................31
Figure 25. Electronic Regulator...............................................................................32
Figure 26. Generator Mechanical Components.........................................................34
Figure 27. Stator Core Laminations - Large Generator ............................................35
Figure 28. Typical Generator Stator Coil .................................................................36

Figure 29. Stator Winding End-Turn Support ..........................................................37

Figure 30. Temperature Detector Locations.............................................................38
Figure 31. Wye Configuration .................................................................................39
Figure 32. Salient Pole Rotor...................................................................................40
Figure 33. Cylindrical Pole Rotor ............................................................................41
Figure 34. Cylindrical Pole Rotor ............................................................................42
Figure 35. Rotor End-Turn Conductors ...................................................................43
Figure 36. Cross-Section Views of a Typical Sleeve Bearing Assembly....................47
Figure 37. Induced EMF In A Rotating Coil ............................................................50
Figure 38. Rectification By Two Segment Commutator ...........................................51
Figure 39. Current Flow Through Commutator .......................................................52
Figure 40. Current Flow Through Commutator (Cont’d) .........................................52
Figure 41. Static Excitation .....................................................................................54
Figure 42. Brushless Excitation System ...................................................................55
Figure 43. Brushless Exciter With Permanent Magnet Pilot Exciter..........................56
Figure 44. Typical Response Time Versus Voltage for Sudden Application of
Load .......................................................................................................57
Figure 45. Characteristics of Different Methods of Grounding .................................60
Figure 46. Recommendations for Applying Different Methods of Grounding ...........61
Figure 47. Solidly-Grounded Generator...................................................................62
Figure 48. Low Resistance Grounded Generator......................................................64
Figure 49. High Resistance Grounded Generator .....................................................66
Figure 50. Reactance-Grounded Generator..............................................................68
Figure 51. System Ground Versus Generator Ground ..............................................69
Figure 52. Grounding of Large Direct-Connected Synchronous Generators .............70
Figure 53. Grounding of Large Unit-Transformer Connected Generators.................71
Figure 54. Grounding of Medium Direct-Connected Generators ..............................72
Figure 55. Grounding of Low Voltage Generators- Separately Derived System .......73
Figure 56. Grounding of Low Voltage Generators-Not Separately Derived
System ....................................................................................................74
Figure 57. Field Ground Detection Relay.................................................................76

Figure 58. Stator RTD Protection............................................................................77

Figure 59. Large Direct-Connected Generator Protection Scheme ...........................79
Figure 60. Protection Device Legend.......................................................................80
Figure 61. Voltage Restraint Relay ..........................................................................81
Figure 62. CA Generator Differential Relay .............................................................82
Figure 63. CWC Ground Fault Relay.......................................................................83
Figure 64. Generator Current Locus ........................................................................84
Figure 65. Generator k-Values.................................................................................85
Figure 66. Zones of Protection ................................................................................88
Figure 67. Typical Generator Nameplate Data .........................................................89
Figure 68. Generator kVA Formulas........................................................................90
Figure 69. Examples of Generator Power Factor .....................................................91
Figure 70. Generator Speed and Frequency Relationship..........................................92
Figure 71. Typical Generator Saturation Curve........................................................96
Figure 72. Example of Manufacturer Saturation Curves for a Specific
Generator................................................................................................98
Figure 73. Generator Field Circuit ...........................................................................99
Figure 74. Formulas Showing Relationship between Generator Voltage and
Load .....................................................................................................101
Figure 75. Equivalent Circuit for 60 kVA, 480 V Generator ..................................102
Figure 76. Saturation Curve for 60 kVA, 480 V Generator....................................103
Figure 77. Vector Diagram of Generator Voltage with 0.8 Lagging Power
Factor ...................................................................................................104
Figure 78. Vector Diagram of Generator Voltage with 0.8 Leading Power
Factor ...................................................................................................106
Figure 79. Vector Diagram of Generator Voltage with 1.0 Power Factor...............107
Figure 80. Magnetic Axis’ in a Single Phase Generator ..........................................109
Figure 81. Vector Diagram Illustrating Affect of Synchronous Reactance on
Generator Voltage ................................................................................110
Figure 82. Fault Current Waveform .......................................................................111
Figure 83. Transient Time-Current Relationship.....................................................113
Figure 85. Decrement Curve...................................................................................115

Figure 86. Typical Oscillogram of a Sudden Three-Phase Short Circuit..................116

Figure 87. Envelope of a Synchronous Generator’s Short-Circuit Current..............117
Figure 88. Subtransient and Transient Currents Plotted to Semi-logarithmic
Coordinates...........................................................................................118
Figure 89. Generator Capability Curve...................................................................120
Figure 90. Generator Capability Curves with Identified Cooling Limit Sources ......123

INTRODUCTION
The generation of electric power requires several transformations of energy that involves many
components and procedures. The process of generating electric power begins with the conversion
of fuel energy into a form of heat or combustion energy. The heat energy is then converted into
mechanical energy with the use of a prime mover. The mechanical energy is used to turn the shaft
of a generator, which, in turn, converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy.
This Module describes the fundamental components and procedures that are used for the
generation of electric power. Included in this Module are descriptions of: the elements of a power
generator, the elements of a power generation system, the major components of an AC generator,
generator excitation, generator grounding methods, generator protection methods, and
performance characteristics of an AC generator.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

ELEMENTS OF A POWER GENERATOR
Basic Generator Principles
Mechanical to Electrical Conversion
The conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy occurs in the generator via the rotation
of a magnetic field that intersects windings, inducing a voltage. The transformation is similar to
the transformation that occurs in a transformer, except that the growth and collapse of the
magnetic field in a transformer is accomplished through the application of an alternating current to
the primary winding, which induces a voltage in the secondary winding. In a generator, the
growth and collapse of the magnetic field is accomplished by the physical movement (revolution)
of the fixed field (the primary) past the conductors (secondary winding). A stronger field results in
a higher voltage; however, the energy transformed is limited to the input mechanical energy minus
the losses that occur in the transformation process.
Sinusoidal Voltage Output
The sinusoidal field voltage shown in Figure 1 is induced in the conductors of a stationary
armature by the flux of the two poles of the rotating field structure. The voltage induced in the
coil loop will have a sine-wave pattern if the field poles move (turn) at a constant speed. The
reason that the voltage is sinusoid is illustrated in Figure 2 by the vectors that represent the field
flux that intersects the windings and that grows and collapses with rotation. The frequency of the
generated power is directly related to the speed of the generator, which, in turn, is directly related
to the prime mover. The formula to calculate frequency is:
f = (n x p)/120
where:
f = frequency in cycles-per-second (expressed in hertz)
n = the speed of the generator in revolutions-per-minute
p = number of poles in the generator
120 = a constant
For example, in order to obtain a sinusoidal voltage output with a frequency of 60 hertz from a
two pole machine, the machine must run at 3600 rpm, and, in order to obtain a frequency of 50
hertz, the machine must run at 3000 rpm.

Figure 1. Sinusoidal Voltage Output

Figure 2. Rotating Flux Fields

Single-Phase Output is obtained by having one set of armature windings in the stator as illustrated in
Figure 3. This figure shows a two pole, single-phase generator. Note that the two poles consist
of one North pole and one South pole. Also, note that the (a) and (-a) conductors are part of a
continuous armature winding conductor that fills the slots in the stator. The stator slots for this
example are separated both mechanically and electrically by 180°. When the flux from the North
pole intersects the (a) side of the conductor, the flux returning to the South pole intersects the (-a)
side of the conductor, resulting, then, in the generation of a peak voltage between (a) and (-a).
When the North and South poles are perpendicular to the plane of the (a) and (-a) conductors, no
lines of force are intersecting the conductors, and the voltage difference between (a) and (-a) is
zero. One complete cycle is one complete revolution (360o) of the rotor.
Figure 3. Single-Phase Generator

Three-Phase Output - Although the single-phase machine shown in Figure 3 will work quite well,
the efficiency of the mechanical to electrical energy transformation is improved by use of
polyphases and, most commonly, by three phases, shown in Figure 4 as a, b, and c. Figure 4-A
shows a two-pole, three-phase generator. The rotating field in this figure has only one North and
one South pole; however, there are three sets of conductors, a and -a, b and -b, and c and -c.
Each set of conductors is located 120 mechanical degrees apart. Arranged in this order, each
group of conductors generates a single-phase voltage. Because the groups are spaced 120° apart,
the single-phase voltage of each group is electrically spaced 120° from the other two. The
combined output of the three single-phase voltages results in a three-phase output. Figure 4-B
illustrates the conductor arrangement for a four-pole, three-phase generator. The construction of
this generator requires two North poles and two South poles on the rotor and another complete
three-group set of conductors added to the stator. Figure 4-C shows the electrical connection for
the three-phase, four-pole generator shown in Figure 4-B.
Figure 4. Elementary Three-Phase Generator

Figure 5 shows the voltage output waveshapes for the three-phase generator shown in Figure 4.
Figure 5. One Cycle of Three-Phase Sinusoidal Waveshape
Motor Versus Generator Comparison
In comparing a generator to a motor, several differences and similarities can be identified. To

begin with, a generator is a machine that converts the mechanical power of a prime mover, in the
form of horsepower, into electrical energy, in the form of kilowatts (kW). In comparison, a
motor is a machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy and that delivers this
energy in the form of horsepower to the shaft of a mechanical load.
A typical synchronous generator consists of a rotating magnet, called the field, that is mounted
and turns inside of a stationary winding, called the armature. The generator shaft is turned by a
mechanical prime mover. As the generator shaft turns, the magnetic field is rotated, causing its
flux to intersect the armature winding thereby inducing an electromotive force (emf). The
rotation of the field causes the induced emf to increase and decrease at a sinusoidal rate that
produces a sine wave voltage at the terminals of the armature winding. Connecting the terminals
of the armature winding to an electrical load causes an alternating current to flow.

In comparison, a typical synchronous motor consists of the same components as the generator;
that is a rotating magnetic field mounted inside of a stationary armature winding. However, the
motor additionally has an induction winding mounted on the surface of the rotor that is used for
starting. During motor start-up, no current is applied to the field winding, instead, an alternating
current is supplied to the terminals of the armature winding, which, in turn, causes a magnetic
field to be established in the winding. Because this field is supplied by an alternating current, it
travels around the armature winding at the same frequency as the supply current. The rotating
armature field induces a current in the winding on the surface of the rotor developing a torque
that causes the rotor to turn and the motor to start as an induction motor. When the speed of the
motor is close to synchronous speed, current is applied to the rotating field and the motor is
brought up to synchronous speed.
The rotating field windings used for the generator and motor are similar in that both are low
voltage windings; however, a major difference between the two types is the size of conductors
required for their windings. The level of current used in the generator field is relatively high
compared to the level of current used in the motor field. For this reason, the conductors in the
field winding of the generator are much larger than those conductors that are used for the motor
field winding.
Another difference between a generator and a motor is the voltage rating of the armature winding.
Typically, generators are rated at higher voltages than are motors. For this reason, the armature
winding of a generator, in accordance with its voltage rating, uses insulation with a higher
dielectric strength than the insulation used for the typically lower rated voltage motor armature
winding.
For many applications, synchronous machines are preferred in place of induction machines. When
generator applicationsare considered, the reason why synchronous generators are normally
applied in preference to induction generators is because induction generators operate only at a
fixed power factor value. As a result of this characteristic, the induction generator must always
be operated in parallel with either synchronous machines or capacitors so that together they act as
power factor correction devices. A synchronous generator, on the other hand, is able to correct
the power factor and, with an adjustment of the field current, to deliver a constant frequency
power.

For the case of motors, the synchronous motor is preferred over the induction motor for
applications where constant speed is important. The reason for this preference is because an
induction motor will decrease in speed as mechanical load is applied. The decrease of speed
results in a decrease of counter electromotive force, which, in turn, causes more current to be
supplied by the source. However, a synchronous motor always runs at synchronous speed, even
when the load is increased. The reason the synchronous motor is able to operate at a constant
synchronous speed is because it operates differently from other types of motors. Figures 6 and 7
illustrates how a synchronous motor responds to a change in load with a change in the position of
the stator poles in relation to the position of the rotor poles. Figure 6 shows a synchronous motor
operating at no-load. For this case, there is little torque on the motor, and the torque angle
between the stator and rotor poles is almost zero. As the load is increased to full-rated load (refer
to Figure 7), the torque angle increases, and the phase angle between the impressed voltage and
the counter emf also increases. This action causes more current to flow into the stator winding to
meet the demands of the load.
Figure 6. Torque Angle at No-Load

Figure 7. Torque Angle at Rated Load
Single-Phase Generators
Components
A single-phase generator consists of a rotating magnet, called the field, inside a stationary
winding, called an armature, that is wound in a laminated iron core. The laminated iron core has a
number of functions. It firmly supports the armature winding to prevent it from shifting or
vibrating in the magnetic field. It directs the lines of flux from the field, so that they will cross the
armature at a perpendicular angle for maximum efficiency, and it serves to dissipate the heat
generated as a byproduct of the alternating current flow. The armature winding and the iron core
are called the stator. The rotating magnet is generally an electro-magnet that is wound on a
cylindrically shaped shaft, called the rotor. The rotor rests in the bearings and is elongated on one
end, to which a coupling is attached to connect the generator to a prime mover. The stator core
is contained in a steel enclosure called the generator frame, and the bearings are mounted on
heavy steel end plates, called bearing brackets. The armature winding exits the generator frame
through insulated terminals, called bushings. These terminals are located in a compartment
attached to the generator frame, called the lead box.

Operation
As the magnetic field rotates across the armature winding, an electromotive force (emf) is induced
in the armature winding. The rotation of the field causes this induced emf to increase and
decrease at a sinusoidal rate, thereby, producing a waveform, called a sine wave, at the terminals
of the armature winding. If the terminals of the armature winding are connected to form a
complete circuit through a load, like a light bulb or the primary winding of a transformer,
alternating current will flow between these terminals. Figure 8 is an equivalent circuit of a single-
phase generator. The combination of the inductive reactance (XL) and resistance (R) is called the
synchronous impedance.
Figure 8. Equivalent Circuit
Figure 9 is a vector diagram showing the relationship between voltage and current for a single-
phase generator that is delivering current to a load with a unity power factor. With reference to
this figure, it is seen that a generator can operate at a different power factor from its load.
Figure 9. Vector Diagram

Three-Phase Generators
Components
The components of a three-phase generator are basically the same as the components of a single-
phase generator; however, a three-phase generator has three sets of armature windings in its
stator winding. Figure 10, by showing a cross-sectional view of two three-phase stators with
windings, one for a two-pole generator and the other for a four-pole generator, illustrate how the
three sets of windings are arranged in generator stators. Each set of armature windings, referred
to as a phase, is located 120 electrical degrees from each of the other two sets. Each phase has its
own set of leads connected to terminals in the lead box. The windings of all commercial
generators are connected in a "wye" configuration, meaning that one end of each phase is
connected directly to the other two. This type of connection is called the neutral connection (T4,
T5 and T6 as shown in Figure 11). The other three ends of each phase are called the line leads
(T1, T2 and T3 as shown if Figure 11). In an actual stator core, the windings of each phase are
distributed evenly around the core. In a two-pole machine, each phase winding is separated into
two parallel groups, and, in a four-pole machine, each phase is separated into four parallel phase
groups. These phase groups are connected to the main and neutral leads by parallel rings, located
around the circumference of the stator winding, at the collector end of the generator.
Figure 10. Cross-Section View of Stator Windings for

Two-Pole and Four-Pole Generators

Operation
Three-phase generators, such as the one illustrated in Figure 11, are much more efficient than
comparably sized single-phase generators. As the magnetic field rotates across the armature
winding, an electromotive force (emf) is induced in the armature winding. The rotation of the
field causes this induced emf to increase and to decrease at a sinusoidal rate and thereby produce
a waveform, called a sine wave, at the terminals of the armature windings. As the rotor spins in a
three-phase generator, three sets of AC voltages are generated in the stator windings as illustrated
by the sine waves shown in Figure 11. These voltages are equal in amplitude, but they are shifted
in phase from each other by 120 electrical degrees. When the terminals of the armature winding
are connected to form a complete circuit through a load, such as the primary winding of a three-
phase transformer, an alternating current will flow.
Figure 11. Three-Phase Generator and Sine Wave Relationship

ELEMENTS OF A POWER GENERATION SYSTEM
This section will describe the following four elements of a power generation system:
_ Prime Mover
_ Prime Mover Governors (Speed Control)
_ Generator/Alternator
_ Voltage Regulator
Purpose and Types of Prime Movers
Purpose
As mentioned above, conversion of fuels to usable work via electrical power requires multiple
transformations. Power generation requires a prime mover that converts fuel energy into heat or
combustion, which, in turn, is transformed into mechanical energy (torque). The prime mover is
coupled to a generator, and the generator converts the mechanical energy into magnetic energy,
and then, the magnetic energy into electrical power. The prime mover is the energy source for
power generation.
Speed/torque curves are used to communicate information when an engine or prime mover is
operated over a broad speed range. Prime movers for power generation operate within a narrow
speed range. If the generator is not to be paralleled, the speed is regulated to a single speed and is
called isochronous operation. The operating speed of a prime mover is selected for optimization
in the application. Steam turbines can be operated between 1800 to over 10,000 rpm, and diesels
and spark-fired gas engines are usually operated below 4000 rpm. Most diesel engines are
directly coupled to their generators, and these diesel engines operate at 1800 rpm. Because the
maximum speed for a generator that will produce 60 hertz (a two-pole machine) is 3600 rpm, a
prime mover that is operated above 3600 rpm must have reduction gearing between it and the
power generator.
Types of Prime Movers
The following three types of prime movers and their advantages are described below:
_ Steam Turbines
_ Gas Turbines
_ Diesel Engines

Steam Turbines - A steam turbine is essentially a series of calibrated nozzles in which the stored
thermal energy (or heat energy) of steam is converted into mechanical energy (or work). Because
steam is the energy source used to produce mechanical energy, a steam turbine is flexible with
regard to the types of fuels used. Steam turbines also offer the advantages of low initial cost per
kilowatt capacity, low maintenance cost, economy of foundation and building cubical content,
high efficiency when operated far into the low-pressure range, and uniform angular velocity with
freedom from vibration. In addition, steam turbine units can be built in sizes from fractional
horsepower to over 1000 MW and for speeds to over 20,000 rpm. Designs can be tailored to fit
the cycle and economics of each installation.
The conversion of the stored thermal (or heat) energy of steam into mechanical energy (or work)
of a rotating shaft is accomplished by expansion of the steam through alternating rows of both
stationary nozzle vanes and rotating blades. The geometry of the nozzle vanes and of the blades
determines the pressure distribution throughout the turbine, and it also directs and turns the steam
jets so that the forces on the blades develop a torque on the shaft. The principle parts of a steam
turbine are:
_ Stationary nozzle vanes to change the thermal energy to kinetic energy and direct
the course of steam onto rotating blades.
_ Rotating blades, which change the kinetic energy of the steam into shaft
horsepower.
_ Rotating shaft, to which the blades are affixed.
_ A casing, which encloses the steam path and supports the fixed parts.
_ Governor, bearings, lubrication, and other auxiliary devices and systems.
To better understand how nozzle vanes change thermal energy into kinetic energy, first consider
the operation of the simple reciprocating engine shown in Figure 12a, wherein the incoming steam
applies pressure equally on stationary cylinder walls as well as on the movable piston. As the
piston moves due to the pressure of the steam on its surface, the steam does work, and it uses
some of its internal energy in the process. However, note that in the case of the nozzle chambers,
shown in Figures 12b and 12c, although the steam enters the nozzle chamber, applying pressure
equally on all walls, it escapes through the nozzle opening to form a high-speed jet that has
considerable kinetic energy.

Figure 12. Generation and Delivery of Mechanical Energy vs. Generation and Delivery
of Kinetic Energy
Also, note that, in Figures 12b and 12c, the reaction pressure, Pr , on the wall area opposite the
nozzle is not balanced by the escaping steam. If the nozzle chamber is fixed in place (Figure 12b),
steam exits through the nozzle at its highest possible absolute velocity and exerts pressure P1 on
anything in its path. However, if the chamber is free to move (Figure 12c), Pr does work on it by
speeding it in a direction opposite to the jet's motion. In this case, P2 is lower than P1.
Turbine nozzles direct the steam so that it flows in uniform high-speed jets that impinge upon the
surfaces of the moving blades (see Figure 13). The moving blades absorb the kinetic energy of
the jet, converting it to mechanical energy in a rotating shaft. If the blade is fixed in place (Figure
13a), the steam jet enters and leaves the boundaries of the blade surface with equal speed and
develops maximum force F, but no mechanical work is done. As the blade is allowed to speed up
(Figure 13b) and move with 1/4 the speed of the steam jet, the force on the blade diminishes, but
work is being done. When the blade speed equals 1/2 that of the steam jet (Figure 13c), the force
drops to half that of the locked condition. Steam now leaves the blade with zero speed and does
maximum work. Figure 13d shows how both force and work vary with blade speed.

Figure 13. Generation and Delivery of Mechanical Energy

Gas Turbines - The gas turbine engine, like the steam turbine engine, is a rotating engine that
produces mechanical work from heat energy and uses gas as the working medium. However, the
gas turbine engine is distinguished from the steam turbine by three major differences:
_ The gas turbine is an internal combustion engine, unlike the steam turbine in which
fuel is burned in an external boiler. The gas turbine engine manufactures its own
working medium (a supply of pressured, high temperature gas) by compressing air
and by burning fuel in it.
_ The gas turbine uses a different working fluid. Like the steam turbine, the gas
turbine title refers to its working fluid, which is some type of gaseous substance,
usually atmospheric air and products of combustion. (A common misconception
with gas turbines is that its name refers to the fuel that the engine uses, [for
example, natural gas]. Because of this misconception, the name "combustion
turbine" is sometimes preferred.)
_ The gas turbine operates at high temperatures and low pressures, while the steam
turbine generally operates at high pressures and moderate temperatures.
The gas turbine engine consists of an air compressor, a combustion chamber, and a gas turbine
(generally referred to simply as the turbine). The air compressor is driven by the turbine, and its
high pressure discharge flows into the combustion chamber. Fuel is injected into the combustion
chamber and is burned at a pressure equivalent to that of the compressor discharge. The resulting
products of combustion (high temperature gases) form the working medium of the turbine. The
expansion of these gases through the turbine enable it to produce more work than the total of
both what is required to drive the compressor, and what is spent as a result of the overall
inefficiencies of the engine. This surplus work then becomes available as a net plant output.
Although there exists a number of gas turbine cycle variations, the most common of these is the
"simple" (or "open") cycle. Figure 14 is a general schematic drawing of the simple (open) cycle
gas turbine engine, and it shows the relative positions of the major components, along with
direction of flow for (1) atmospheric air into and through the compressor, (2) high pressure air
and fuel into the combustion chamber , (3) high pressure-high temperature gas from the
combustion chamber into and through the turbine, and (4) turbine exhaust gas returning to the
atmosphere.

Figure 14. Simple (Open) Cycle Gas Turbine Engine
The energy flow in a simple cycle gas turbine engine is shown in Figure 15. It starts at the
compressor inlet, where incoming air is arbitrarily assigned an internal energy level of zero.
During compression, the work expended in turning the compressor is transferred to the air, raising
its energy level. In the combustor, the thermal energy of the burning fuel is released, increasing
the internal energy of the air to the maximum of the cycle. This highly energized air is introduced
to the turbine, where a portion of its energy is converted into mechanical work for turning the
compressor and the output shaft. The rest of the energy, approximately half, is dissipated to the
atmosphere through the exhaust. Of the useful work done by the expanding air, about two-thirds
is recirculated to drive the compressor to sustain the cycle, with the remainder available to do
external work.

Figure 15. Energy Flow Simple (Open) Cycle
The advantages of gas turbine engines lie in their versatility of application, a variety of fuel
sources (including natural gas and distillate oils), and the wide range of power outputs from under
50 horsepower, in smaller industrial applications, to over 150 MW, in larger industrial
applications.
Diesel Engines have been the work horse of portable and emergency power supplies for years, and
in the past decade, the generating power of the diesel generator set has been extended to 7.5 MW.
Because the diesel is a reciprocating engine, it is standard practice for diesel power generator sets
to have a heavy flywheel attached to the shaft to dampen pulsation.
Like its reciprocating counterpart, the spark ignition gas engine, the diesel engine, in its larger
power generating applications, is a four-cycle, internal combustion engine with a downward
intake stroke, an upward compression stroke, a downward power stroke and an upward exhaust
stroke. However, the diesel engine differs from its gasoline counterpart in several areas, one of
which is the type of fuel used. The diesel fuel ordinarily employed is a low cost product from a
good-grade crude petroleum. The fuel oil is the residue that is left when distillation has removed
the more expensive and highly refined gasoline, kerosene, and other light distillates from the
crude.

The principal and important difference between the diesel and the spark ignition gas engine is in
the method of ignition. Compression of the air trapped in the cylinder of a diesel engine is
employed as its means of ignition. (There are no spark plugs in a diesel.) The compression is
carried to much higher pressures in the diesel engine than in the spark ignition gas engine; diesel's
have compression ratios of more than 20:1, while a typical gasoline engine has a compression
ration of 9:1. As a result of this difference, the temperature at the end of compression is higher in
the diesel cycle. In fact, compression is high enough so that the temperature of the compressed
gas exceeds the ignition temperature of the fuel. This is compression ignition.
The advantages of the diesel engine are:
_ Low fuel cost.
_ No long warming up period.
_ No standby losses.
_ Reliability and durability.
_ Uniformly high efficiency of all sizes.
_ Simple plant layout.
_ No large water supply needed.
Because of its operating advantage of not requiring a long warming up period, the diesel engine is
an excellent prime mover choice for emergency, or back-up power generation. The need for
emergency power is very important for generating stations that are a sole source of power with no
available incoming power. In the event that a complete plant shutdown occurs for this type of
station, the diesel type standby generation unit can provide the subsequent required "black start".
Prime Mover Governors/Speed Control
Purpose of Governors/Speed Control
The purpose of a power generating system is to provide, as a product, usable quality power. The
quality of power is measured by its consistency in voltage, in electrical frequency, and in wave
form. The purpose of governors and speed control equipment is to maintain consistent voltage,
frequency, and waveform of generated electric power.

The voltage of an electric power generator is basically determined by the field strength of its
rotating magnetic field, whereas the electrical frequency (hereafter referred to, simply, as
frequency) of the generated power is determined by the rotational speed (hereafter referred to,
simply, as speed) of the generator rotor, which in turn is determined by the speed of the prime
mover. The speed at which a prime mover is designed to operate is based on the type of prime
mover selected and the frequency of the electrical power to be generated. Because power is
usually generated at a specified frequency (e.g., 50Hz or 60 Hz), the speed of the prime mover is
regulated to the speed required for the specified frequency, this speed is called synchronous
speed. Turbine type prime movers can be operated above 10,000 rpm, while diesel or gas engines
usually operate below 4000 rpm. The speed of a prime mover is therefore determined by the
optimum fuel-to-torque characteristic of the selected prime mover. A reduction gear is required
for speeds above 3000 rpm for 50 Hz electrical power generation and for speeds above 3600 rpm
for 60 Hz electrical power generation.
The relationship between speed and frequency is expressed by:
f = (n x p) / 120 or n = (f x 120) / p
where: f = frequency (Hz) n = speed (rpm)
120 = constant p = number of generator poles
For example, to obtain 60 cycles from a two-pole generator, the generator rotor must operate at
3600 rpm (i.e., n = 3600 = (60 x 120) / 2).
The means by which regulation of a prime mover's speed is achieved is a governor. Basically, the
governor functions by sensing a change in the prime mover's speed from some equilibrium speed,
and causing, in turn, a change in the quantity of fuel being delivered to the prime mover. Thus,
the resulting differential in fuel supply restores the prime mover speed to its equilibrium point. In
effect, the governor is a feedback control system in which the difference between a reference
input (e.g., the equilibrium speed) and some function of the controlled variable (e.g., the prime
mover's speed) is used to supply an actuating signal to the control elements (e.g., a command to
a fuel valve to alter the fuel flow to the prime mover). The actuating signal endeavors to reduce
to zero the difference between the reference input and the controlled variable.
A key aspect to the feedback phase of a governor's performance is an accurate measurement of

the prime mover's speed. On prime movers with mechanical type or mechanical-hydraulic type
governors, the governor system senses speed changes by sensing changes in the position of a
spring-loaded centrifugal device within the governor assembly. In electric governing systems, a
common speed measuring device is a magnetic speed pickup whose tip is placed in close
proximity to that section of the prime mover's rotor surface on which evenly spaced gear-type
teeth have been machined around the periphery of the surface. As the teeth rotate past the
pickup, a periodic disturbance is imposed on the magnetic field that surrounds the tip of the
pickup. The pickup is wired to a measuring circuit, which counts the number of perturbations to
the magnetic field in a given unit of time.

Methods of Speed Control
The method (and the degree of sophistication) of speed control used on a power generation unit is
determined by the application of the power produced. The method of speed regulation used on a
unit that is paralleled with other power generation units is different from the method of speed
regulation used on a unit that acts as a single power source and that is not to be paralleled with
other units. Listed below are four applications of produced power, each requiring speed control.
While all four applications involve control of the amount of fuel that is delivered to the prime
mover, the first three are semiautomatic in that some operator actions are required in establishing
the unit's reference, while the fourth is fully automatic control.
• The power generating unit is a sole load source.
• The power generating unit is to be paralleled with another source.
• The power generating unit is to be paralleled with another source, and load sharing
is to be regulated.
• The power generating unit is to be paralleled with another source with fully
automated regulation of load sharing .
On power generating units operating as a sole load source, speed controllers referred to as
“isochronous governors” are used. While, on generating units that are paralleled with other units,
speed controllers referred to as “droop governors” are used. An isochronous governor is one that
keeps the speed of the prime mover constant at all loads. A droop governor is one whose
equilibrium speed decreases as the load on the prime mover controlled by the governor increases.
Conversely, with the droop governor, the equilibrium speed increases as the load on the prime
mover controlled by the governor decreases.
As mentioned, when the power generating unit is the sole source for a load, an isochronous
governor is used to obtain speed regulation. Figure 16 shows the control components of a
Woodward Electric Speed Control System as applied to a diesel driven power generating unit.
This arrangement of components provides for control of a single unit generator. Note that in this
case a simple speed feedback system is used that employs the type of magnetic speed pickup that
was described earlier.

Figure 16. Electric Controls for Single Unit Generators
When the power generating unit being controlled is to be paralleled with other generators, the
electrical frequency and voltage of the unit's generator and that of the source to be paralleled must
be reasonably matched. In this case, feedbacks consist of the rotational speed of the prime mover
and the voltage of the generator. As stated previously, the control term used to describe the
action required (i.e., variation in speed and voltage) on the unit to be paralleled to effect the
required match is "droop." As mentioned, this parallel application requires a semiautomatic form
of droop governor. Figure 17 illustrates the control components required for a Woodward
Control System to perform a simple paralleling operation.
Figure 17. Basic Electric Paralleling System

When the generator being controlled is to be paralleled and the portion of the load it supplies is to
be regulated (load sharing), current feedback must be applied in addition to the rotational speed
feedback from the prime mover and the generator voltage feedback. Figure 18 illustrates the
control components of a Woodward Control System for this load sharing application. As in the
previous application (refer to Figure 17), the application illustrated by Figure 18 employs a
semiautomatic form of droop governor.
Figure 18. Electric Load Sharing System
As mentioned, the two parallel application systems previously described (Figures 17 and 18)
employ droop-type governors, and they are semiautomatic in that some operator actions are
required in establishing the unit's reference. The Woodward control system illustrated in Figure
19 is like the two previous units described in that it employs a droop-type governor. However,
this system differs from the previous two examples in that it provides the power generating unit
with the capability for fully automatic paralleling and load sharing operation.

Figure 19. Fully Automated Electric Load Sharing System
Purpose and Types of Generators/Alternators
Purpose
The general purpose of a generator is to transform mechanical energy into electrical energy by
rotating a magnetic field inside of the generator armature winding. As shown in Figure 20, the
magnetic flux of the rotating field passes from the North pole of the rotor, through the air gap and
laminated steel shell of the stator, and back into the rotor’s South pole. As this flux intersects the
armature conductors (a and -a), voltage is generated in the armature winding, thus completing the
transformation of mechanical energy to electrical energy. For the two-pole generator shown in
Figure 20, one cycle of voltage is generated for each 360° mechanical revolution of the rotor.

Figure 20. Generator Winding
The amount of energy that is transformed is determined by the load requirement up to the point of
the limitations of the generating system. The voltage is determined by the strength of the magnetic
field, and the frequency is determined by the number of times that the armature windings are
intersected during rotation by the magnetic field from the rotor in any one second of time.
Types of Generators/Alternators
Induction Generators are induction motors that are operated (run) by means of mechanical power
being applied to the shaft. An induction motor works by applying a rotating magnetic field to a
stator winding that is magnetically coupled via an air gap to windings on the rotor. The windings
on the rotor are closed (short circuited), and current flows in the rotor windings, creating a
magnetic field in the rotor that tries to align with the stator field. Because the stator field is
revolving, the rotor revolves.
For induction motors to provide torque, the rotor must revolve slower than the synchronous
speed of the machine, which is, by definition, the speed of the revolving field on the stator. The
difference between the synchronous speed and the actual rotor speed is called slip. As Figure 21
illustrates, rotor torque increases with slip.

Figure 21. Torque - Slip Curves of Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
When an induction motor is operated as a motor, it is run at full-load speed (minimum slip);
however, when an induction motor operates as a generator, it runs at synchronous speed (zero
slip). Overspeeding of an induction motor (via mechanical input to the shaft) in which the stator
is excited through application of a fixed frequency rotating field will cause the motor to have zero
slip. Such slip causes the machine to become a generator. However, this type of generation,
because regulation of it is extremely poor, is seldom used except in special applications such as
dynamic braking (for example, elevator systems).
Synchronous Generators are the standard type of generators used to produce electric power. This
type of generator is made to be driven at a definite, constant speed, normally referred to as the
synchronous speed of the generator. The frequency of the generated voltage is determined by this
speed. Varying the excitation voltage of a synchronous generator will raise or lower the system
voltage if the machine is operated as the only voltage source on a power system, or it will vary the
reactive power (VARs), either leading or lagging, on a power system where the generator is
operating in parallel with other synchronous generators.
In a synchronous generator, the generation of alternating current occurs as a result of a magnetic

field intersecting a winding. The winding that produces the alternating current is called the
armature winding. In theory, this winding may be placed on either the rotor or the stator. When
the armature winding is placed on the rotor, as illustrated in the simplified circuit of Figure 22,
collector rings and carbon brushes are required to conduct the generator power to the load. The
need for rings and brushes introduces practical limits to the amount of power that can be
conducted using this method. Because of these limitations, most synchronous generators are built
with stationary armature windings as illustrated in the simplified circuit of Figure 23.

When comparing the differences between a synchronous generator and an induction generator, it
is seen that the major difference between the two types is that the induction generator cannot be
used alone to supply a power system. The induction generator must always be operated in
parallel with synchronous machines or with capacitors to provide a means of correcting power
factor. The output power factor of an induction generator is a fixed value determined by the
generator characteristics, and it is always a leading value that is independent of the external
circuit. The reason for this characteristic is because an induction generator draws all of its
excitation from the power system, and, therefore, it must receive a definite amount of lagging
VARs for a given voltage and a given load current.
With regard to the application of a generator as a standby power system, the inability of an
induction generator to be self-excited, to supply voltage at a constant frequency, or to supply
power at unity power factor makes the synchronous generator the preferred machine.
Figure 22. Rotating Armature

Figure 23. Stationary Armature
Purpose and Types of Voltage Regulators
Purpose
An alternator will experience large changes in its terminal voltage. Also, changes in load current
and in the load power factor will occur because of the combined effects of the armature reactance
and the armature reaction. However, a relatively constant terminal voltage can be maintained
under changing load conditions by the use of an automatic voltage regulator.
Types of Voltage Regulators
The following types of voltage regulators are described below:
• Electro-mechanical regulator
• Electronic regulator
Electro-Mechanical Regulators provide a DC supply for the generator field that comes from outside
of the generator. Figure 24 shows an example of a DC supply provided by a common bus. In this
example, three separate DC exciters supply voltage to the common bus, and four AC generators
use the bus to supply DC voltage to their field windings. The amount of current that flows to
each of the field windings is regulated by individual field rheostats Adjusting the rheostats to
increase current flow will strengthen the individual fields and increase their generator voltages,
but it will not necessarily increase power output from the generators.

Figure 24. Electro-Mechanical Voltage Regulator
Electronic Regulators provide a variable DC supply to the generator field from an AC source. The
AC source is converted to variable DC by use of ignitron tubes in older equipment, and by use of
SCRs in newer versions (Figure 25).

Figure 25. Electronic Regulator

MAJOR AC GENERATOR COMPONENTS
An AC generator has the following major components:

• Stator
• Rotor
• Cooling System
• Bearings and Lubrication System
Stator
This section will discuss the following pertinent to the stator component of an AC generator:
• Mechanical components
• Wye configuration
• Delta configuration
Mechanical Components
An AC generator has the following major mechanical components:
• The frame
• The core
• The winding (coils)
• The lead box (terminal box)
Figure 26 shows a cross-sectional view of a typical generator that illustrates the location of these
components. The sections that follow discuss each of the components.

Figure 26. Generator Mechanical Components
Frame (Housing) - The stator frame for a generator of medium size is typically fabricated from steel
plates and bars electrically welded into a rigid box section. A short length of duct work is
normally provided on the bottom of the frame through which ventilating air is discharged. Holes
drilled and tapped around the edges of the duct provide means for attaching customer’s duct
work. Port holes with removable glass serve both as lifting holes for handling during erection and
windows for the inspection of the end windings during operation. The generator feet rest directly
on the sole plate.
Larger size generators are fabricated with a rolled steel shell supported by frame feet and
reinforcing webs along its length. The frame is aligned using shims under the feet and then
secured to the foundation with tie-down bolts.

Core - The stator core for a generator is built with low-loss segmental silicon steel laminations that
are assembled on bars (or building bolts) that span the length of the core. Figure 27 illustrates the
assembly of the laminated segments on their building bolts and insulated “through” bolts for a
large generator. Both sides of the laminations are treated with an insulating material to prevent
short-circuiting the laminations. Vent spacers are built in with the laminations at intervals of
approximately two inches to provide radial passages through the core for the ventilating air.
Adequate pressure is applied at intervals during the stacking operation to produce a tight core.
Heavy end plates and non-magnetic finger plates are used at the ends of the core to maintain
adequate pressure at all times. The larger generators (4000 kW and above) have insulated
through-bolts, which extend axially through the punchings in back of the slots. These provide
additional clamping force on the end plates. On small generators, after being assembled, the
entire core is coated with varnish and baked to protect it from rust and to further insulate between
punchings.
Figure 27. Stator Core Laminations - Large Generator

Winding (Coils) - Interchangeable closed-type coils are used on AC generators. When electrical
conditions require it, groups of strands of the coils are transposed at the ends to equalize the
induced voltage and heating. Figure 28 shows a typical “form wound” coil, which is the type
most often used for stator windings. This type of coil is insulated and oven cured prior to its
placement in the stator core. The stator windings of generators that have ratings of 5000 kVA or
less and 6900 volts or less are typically provided with Class B insulation. Generators with ratings
over 5000 kVA or voltages above 6900 volts normally have Class F insulation on their stator
windings. When the generator voltage is 6600 volts or more, the slot sections of the coil are
treated with semi-conducting compounds to eliminate corona and its harmful affects in that
portion of the coil. Note: Saudi Aramco 17-SAMSS-510 requires all generators rated 125 kVA
through 1250 kVA to be provided with Class F insulation.
Figure 28. Typical Generator Stator Coil
The end turns of stator windings are normally braced against movement by placing spacer-strain
blocks between the coil ends and fastened the coil-block assembly to an insulated frame brace
with glass cord. For generators with higher ratings, the coil ends are further supported by
insulated steel support rings fixed on steel frame brackets. Figure 29 shows a side-elevation view
of a typical stator winding end-turn support assembly.

Figure 29. Stator Winding End-Turn Support
Temperature detectors, calibrated for 10 ohms resistance at 25oC, are typically embedded
between coils in various slots in the stator winding of the machine to measure the operating
winding temperature. The temperature detector leads are connected to a terminal board bolted to
the frame of the generator as illustrated in Figure 30. Customer detector leads may then be
connected to the external points on the terminal board. With reference to Figure 30, temperature
detectors are positioned axially in the stator winding at the following locations:
• Coil 1, 4, and 7 at the collector end of the stator core.
• Coil 2, 5, and 8 at the center of the stator core.
• Coil 3, 6, and 9 at the turbine end of the stator core.

Figure 30. Temperature Detector Locations

Lead Box (Terminal Box) - This component of the generator frame is found either on the bottom or
the top of the collector end of the frame. Figure 26 shows a cross-section view of a generator
with the lead box mounted to the bottom of the frame. Contained in the lead box are the six main
lead bushings. The bushings mounted in the lead box serve two purposes. The first purpose that
the bushings serve is to provide a gas tight penetration in the generator frame for the three line
leads and the three neutral leads that make up both ends of the three phases of the stator winding.
The second purpose of the bushings is to insulate the high voltage leads from the generator frame,
which is at ground potential. Most lead boxes contain a manway cover to provide access to the
lead box for purposes of inspection and clean out.
Wye Configuration
Generator stator windings are typically connected in a wye configuration as illustrated in Figure
31. T1, T2 and T3 are the line leads and T4, T5 and T6 are the neutral leads, which are tied
together. This is the only configuration allowed by Saudi Aramco standards.
Figure 31. Wye Configuration
Delta Configuration
Although not allowed by Saudi Aramco, there are some applications where a delta-connected
stator winding is appropriate. With reference to Figure 31, the delta connection is made by
connecting terminals 1 to 6, 2 to 4, and 3 to 5. Line leads are then connected to terminal 1, 2 and
3 accordingly.
Reconnecting the generator windings in a delta connection reduces the line-to-line voltage, but
increases the available line current.

Types of Rotors
To place the magnetic field on the rotor, poles are used that consist of stacked magnetic iron
laminations (to reduce eddy currents) with copper conductors wrapped around the iron and
excited by a DC current. The rotor poles must be arranged in pairs with a minimum arrangement
of one pair of poles. The pairs are located 180 electrical degrees apart. As the North pole of the
magnetic field of the rotor intersects one phase group of the stator winding, the South pole of the
rotor is intersecting the diametrically opposite portion of the same phase winding.
There are two common rotor constructions for generators: salient pole (projecting poles) with
concentrated windings, and cylindrical pole with distributed windings. Figures 32 and 33 show
schematic illustrations of these two types of rotor construction.
The choice of construction of the rotor is primarily determined by the speed of operation. The
two different types of construction have different magnetic coupling characteristics. The salient-
pole rotor is used for very large low-speed machines, and the cylindrical rotor is used for high-
speed machines that operate at 1800 or 3600 RPM.
Figure 32. Salient Pole Rotor

Figure 33. Cylindrical Pole Rotor
Salient Pole
Salient pole rotors can be constructed with either laminated poles or solid poles.
Laminated Pole construction is more efficient since the magnetic lines of flux will travel through the
laminated core in a perpendicular direction to the field winding. Causing the flux to travel in this
manner reduces iron losses and provides more efficient magnetic coupling to the laminated core of
the stator winding.
Solid Pole construction is utilized where the rating of the generator requires less concentrated flux
density.

Cylindrical Pole
Cylindrical pole rotors are utilized in high speed steam turbine generators where frictional losses
from windage make the salient or projecting pole design unfeasible. Figure 34 illustrates a typical
cylindrical pole rotor with end-turn retaining rings and collector rings shown in place. These
rotors generally carry higher field current ratings and are more rigid, allowing for the longer core
lengths common in horizontal turbine-generators. The surface of these rotor bodies is grooved to
reduce surface currents and to increase heat transfer to the cooling medium, air or hydrogen.
Radial slots for the field windings are machined in the rotor body.
Figure 34. Cylindrical Pole Rotor
The field coils of a cylindrical pole rotor are imbedded in the machined slots of the rotor. The DC
supply that feeds the field coils to produce the desired magnetic field strength can be brought into
the rotor through collector rings from an outside supply, or can be supplied by a DC generator
that is attached directly to the field winding leads on the rotor shaft. The latter is more desirable
because it eliminates the collector rings and the carbon brushes required to interface with the slip
rings, thus eliminating a maintenance requirement.
The insulation used in a cylindrical pole rotor is normally Class “B” with molded glass insulation
placed between the winding and ground, and flat mica insulation placed between turns. The top
turns are mica taped for extra insulation. The rotor coils are baked while under high radial
pressure until the winding becomes a solid mass. Finally, the coils are held in their slots by sturdy
non-magnetic wedges.
The rotor end turns are supported radially by forged steel retaining rings that are lined with
Micarta. The retaining rings are shrunk onto the ends of the rotor body as shown in the cut away
view of rotor end turns in Figure 35.
Cooling air, or hydrogen, passes under the ends of the retaining rings, over the rotor winding end
turns, and discharges through the radial holes located in the peripheral surfaces of the retaining
rings. Axial support is provided to the coil end turns by means of fitted Micarta or glass epoxy
blocks that also serve to direct and control the flow of ventilating air over the end turns.

Figure 35. Rotor End-Turn Conductors
When collector rings are included on a cylindrical pole rotor, as shown in Figure 34, the rings are
made of tool steel. These rings are then placed on a steel bushing, insulated with mica, and
mounted outside of the collector-end bearing. By mounting the collector on the outboard side of
the bearing, easy accessibility is maintained to the brush rigging. The leads from the collector
rings to the field winding are made of semi-circular copper bars separated by Micarta plates and
are located in a hole in the center of the shaft. The collector rings are ventilated by a stream of
cool air, which is bled from the exciter air supply. Holes drilled in the collector ring flanges
circulate air and provide additional cooling of the ring surfaces. Spiral grooves on the surface of
the rings prevent hot spots from occurring and thus insure reliable current collection. The
brushholders are fitted with adjustable coil springs to maintain desired brush pressure on the
collector rings. Graduations on the brushholders indicate the force in pounds exerted on the back
of each brush. The brushes are provided with pigtail connections to prevent corrosion of the
holder. Corrosion can occur in the brushholder as a result of arcing between the holder and the
brush. If allowed to occur, this corrosion will impede the motion of the brush in the holder and
thus reduce the pressure of the brush against the ring surface.

Types of Cooling Systems
The following types of cooling systems are used for AC generators:
• Air-cooled
• Air-to-water heat exchanger
• Gas-to-water heat exchanger
Air-Cooled
Air-cooled cooling systems include the following configurations:
• Natural cooling
• Air-to-air heat exchanger
Natural Cooling - A natural cooled generator, commonly referred to as an “open” cooling system,
uses outside air at ambient temperature as a cooling medium. The air is circulated through the
stator and rotor by propeller-type blowers mounted on both ends of the rotor. The cooling air
that is taken into the generator is allowed to make only one pass through the rotor and stator and
is then exhausted from the generator. This system is economical because it requires no other
cooling system components. However, this type of system often requires air filters at the intake
ports to minimize the contaminants passing into the machine. When filters are used, they can
become dirty, and if not changed frequently enough, will restrict air flow, which can lead to
overheating.
Air-To-Air Heat Exchanger - A generator with an air-to-air heat exchanger differs from the natural
cooled configuration in that the machine with the heat exchanger is constantly recirculating the
same air through the stator and rotor. This type of circulation keeps the generator windings
cleaner than a system that does not recirculate the same air. The warm air exiting the stator is
circulated through a plenum type heat exchanger that removes the heat from the generator cooling
air by passing it over fins, or chevron-type baffles, that transfer the heat to outside air. This
circulation eliminates the need for a filter system, but requires the need for added secondary air
cooling equipment.

Air-To-Water Heat Exchanger
This type of system uses a contained reservoir of air to cool the generator in the same manner as
described above for the air-to-air heat exchanger. However, the difference with this system is the
method of heat exchange used. With the air-to-water heat exchanger, the warm air coming out of
the stator and rotor is circulated across a cooler that consists of a number of copper tubes with
circular fins soldered around the outside diameter of the tubes. Water is circulated through the
tubes and removes the heat from the air being passed over the outside of the tubes. This type of
system helps to prevent contaminants from getting into the generator by constantly recirculating
the same air through the machine. However, this method of cooling requires that a source of
cooling water to be pumped through the coolers.
Gas-To-Water Heat Exchanger
The gas-to-water type of heat exchanger is utilized in most of the large (>200 MVA) turbine
generators in service today. The type of gas used for the cooling is normally hydrogen.
Hydrogen has the following distinct advantages over air:
• Hydrogen has a lower density than air (14 times lighter) and thus reduces windage
and ventilation losses.
• Hydrogen has a better thermal conductivity than air (seven times greater) and a
better heat transfer coefficient than air (40% higher) and thus increases output per
unit volume.
• Insulation life is increased when hydrogen is used because oxidation ceases to be a

problem.
• The closed gas system used by hydrogen systems reduces dirt and moisture
contamination in the machine and achieves quieter operation.
When hydrogen systems were first used to cool generators, the pressure of the hydrogen inside of
the machine was maintained to a pressure only slightly greater than atmospheric pressure
(approximately 0.5 psig). Using only 0.5 psig of hydrogen pressure, the output of hydrogen
cooled generators were increased by as much as 20% over similar air cooled units. Gradually, the
hydrogen pressure used inside of generators was increased to achieve more effective heat transfer.
By 1948, hydrogen pressure had been increased to as much as 30 psig for conventionally cooled
machines, achieving operating capabilities 25% greater than the earlier 0.5 psig units.
Types of Bearings and Lubrication Systems
Types of Bearings
Two general types of bearings are used for AC generators:

• Anti-friction
• Sleeve
Anti-Friction bearings come in two styles: ball bearing and roller bearing. Anti-friction bearings,
used mainly for small generators, consist of a number of steel balls or roller shaped cylinders
tightly sandwiched between an inner race and an outer race. The race on the inside diameter of
the bearing is pressed onto the rotor shaft, and the race on the outside diameter of the bearing is
pressed into the stator end plate or bearing bracket. This type of bearing, when properly
lubricated with oil for high speed operation, or lubricated with grease for low speed operation,
provides an extremely low resistance to the rotation of the rotor.
A Sleeve bearing consist of a soft porous metal lining, called babbitt, fabricated to the inside
diameter of a steel housing or shell. Figure 36 shows two cross-sectional views of a typical style
of sleeve bearing used on medium and large size generators. The bearing is lubricated by oil rings
that rotate with the shaft. The oil rings dip into a bath of oil in the bottom of the housing as they
rotate, and, thus, carry oil up and over the journal. Seals at both ends of the bearing help to
prevent oil from escaping and keep contaminates from entering. Openings in the top of the
housing provide for inspection of the oil rings. Normally a sight glass is provided on the reservoir
to determine the oil level. For some generators, the oil is circulated into and out of the bearing
pedestal to provide for cooling and filtering of the oil.

Figure 36. Cross-Section Views of a Typical Sleeve Bearing Assembly

Types of Lubrication Systems
Two types of lubrication systems are commonly used for AC generators:
• Natural lubrication (ring or disc oil lubrication)
• Forced lubrication (ring or disc oil lubrication with circulated feed oil)
Natural Lubrication (Ring or Disc Oil Lubrication) are self-lubricated bearings having oil rings that fit
loosely around the shaft journals. The rotation of the shaft causes the oil rings to rotate with the
shaft. In the process they pick up oil from the bearing housing and lubricate the entire journal
portion of the shaft. Each bearing housing has an oil gauge so the oil level can be checked in the
bearing housing. An oil ring inspection hole is used to add oil, check the rotation of the oil rings,
or insert a thermometer to measure bearing temperature.
Lubricant should never be added to a generator while it is operating. In addition, the bearing
must never be under- or over-lubricated. When lubricants are added to self-lubricated bearings,
reference should always be made to the manufacturer’s instruction manual or information to
determine the correct lubricant. Oil should be added until the oil reaches the appropriate
operating level marked on the oil gauge. When necessary or required, oil can be drained from a
naturally lubricated bearing by removing the oil drain plug located at the bottom of the bearing
housing.
Forced Lubrication (Ring or Disc Oil Lubrication with Circulated Feed Oil) - Forced-flood lubrication
systems are those that have their lubricant supplied under pressure to the bearing surfaces. Only
machines equipped with forced-flood lubrication systems have pressurized oil seals.
A self-contained lubrication system (also a type of forced-flood lubrication system) consists of an

oil pump that is driven directly from the motor shaft or from a separate electric motor, along with
an oil tank, oil strainer, and orifice plug for adjusting the rate of oil flow to the bearings. When
necessary, an oil cooler is provided in the system and is connected to a cold-water line and a
drain.

GENERATOR EXCITATION
This section will discuss the purposes and types of generator excitation and response time versus
voltage time.
Purposes of Generator Excitation
Power to the Rotating Electromagnetic Field
The main purpose of a generator excitation system is to provide power to the rotating field
winding. Provision of power causes a rotating electromagnetic field to be developed. As the flux
of the rotating electromagnetic field intersects the stationary armature windings, the main output
voltage for the generator is produced.
Locking Rotor To Stator
Another purpose of generator excitation is to provide the conditions that lock the rotation of the
rotor’s electromagnetic field to the rotation of the stator’s magnetic field. As current flows
through the stator’s armature winding, the armature current creates a component flux wave that
rotates at synchronous speed. This rotating flux reacts with the rotating field flux and an
electromagnetic torque results from the tendency of the two magnetic fields to align, thus locking
the rotor to the stator for synchronous operation. Because this developed torque opposes
rotation, mechanical torque must be supplied from the prime mover in order to sustain rotation.
Means of Regulating Voltage
Because excitation voltage is variable, another purpose that excitation is used for is to regulate
the output voltage of the main generator. The voltage produced at the terminals of the main
generator is directly proportional to the amount of current flowing in the rotating field windings.
Whenever the main generator terminal voltage requires adjustment or change, this voltage can be
regulated up or down by increasing or decreasing the excitation level.
Types of Generator Excitation

There are three basic types of excitation systems:
• DC exciters
• Static excitation
• Brushless excitation

DC Exciters
DC exciters operate on the principle of an AC voltage being induced in a coil rotating in a

magnetic field. Figure 37 shows a simple illustration of an AC voltage being induced in a coil
placed in a DC magnetic field.
Figure 37. Induced EMF In A Rotating Coil
Figure 38 shows the addition of a simple commutator on the output connections to make this
device a DC generator. The process by which AC voltage is induced, and, by which, the AC
voltage is then converted to DC voltage, is called rectification.

Figure 38. Rectification By Two Segment Commutator
A commutator is a mechanical rectifier. It is actually a slip ring split into segments. The ends of
the rotating armature coil are each attached to one segment of the commutator. To understand
how the commutator works, consider the shaded side of the armature in Figure 39. As the
armature coil cuts through the magnetic field, current flows in one direction toward the
commutator. Notice that current is at this time flowing from the unshaded side of the armature to
the shaded side. Also notice that the cross-hatched brush is touching the shaded section of the
commutator while the other brush is touching the unshaded section of the commutator. Current
flows out of the exciter armature through the cross-hatched brush to the main generator field
winding, and returns through the other brush to complete the circuit.
Now, as the armature turns through 180o, current will be induced to flow in the opposite
direction in the armature coil. Figure 40 shows that the current is now flowing from the shaded
section of the armature to the unshaded side. Notice, however, that at this time it is the unshaded
section of the commutator that is touching the cross-hatched brush.
Current is still flowing out of the exciter through the cross-hatched brush and returning through
the other brush. Thus it is direct current (DC): i.e., current that is always flowing in the same
direction.

Figure 39. Current Flow Through Commutator
Figure 40. Current Flow Through Commutator (Cont’d)
The commutator is a high maintenance device that limits the capacity of generators. Two systems
developed to eliminate the commutator and thus provide for larger capacity generators are the
static excitation system and the brushless excitation system. These two systems are discussed in
the following sections.

Static Excitation
Static excitation uses power from the main generator output, supplied to the voltage regulator
through an excitation transformer, to produce the DC field current for the field windings on the
generator rotor. The direct current is then put on the field windings of the generator rotor
through collector rings. A current transformer (CT) and potential transformers (PTs), located on
the main leads of the generator, provide a closed loop feedback circuit, called the intelligence
input, that enables the voltage regulator to monitor and regulate the generator’s output. Figure
41 shows a simplified circuit diagram of a static excitation system.
Because a static excitation system has no source of pilot excitation, like the permanent magnet
generator on a brushless excitation system, a field flashing circuit is required to initiate the DC
voltage build up on the generator rotor every time the generator is started. The field flashing
voltage can be obtained from the station batteries or from a full wave bridge.
Static excitation has the following advantages over a rotating DC excitation system:
• A static excitation system has no commutator. A commutator is a mechanical

rectifier that is a high maintenance component and limits the power capability of
the excitation system.
• Elimination of the commutator reduces the risk of problems related to carbon dust
in the exciter.
• A static excitation system has no rotating exciter, thus eliminating losses due to
windage and bearing friction.
• A field flashing circuit is used on a static excitation system to initiate voltage build
up on the generator stator.

Figure 41. Static Excitation

Brushless Excitation
The brushless excitation system is another method of excitation that avoids the inherent
inefficiencies of slip rings and brushes. Figure 42 shows a simplified circuit for a brushless
excitation system. For this system, the exciter consists of an alternating current generator with a
rotating armature and a stationary magnetic field. The alternating current generated in the
rotating armature is converted to direct current by a rectifier, which is mounted on the same shaft
as the armature. The DC current developed in the rotating rectifier is then conducted directly to
the field winding on the rotor of the main generator.
Figure 42. Brushless Excitation System
A brushless excitation system uses a permanent magnet generator as a pilot exciter to supply
power to the voltage regulator. Figure 43 shows the interconnections between the permanent
magnetic generator, the brushless exciter, the voltage regulator, the generator and the control
room. The pilot exciter has field poles that are constructed from permanent magnets. Using this
source of field excitation, the permanent magnet pilot exciter generates a 120 vac, 420 Hz, three-
phase voltage output from terminals T10, T20 and T30. The pilot generator is referred to as the
voltage regulator power supply. In the regulator, the voltage is rectified to DC and fed back up
to the brushless exciter stationary field pole winding (F1 and F2). The magnitude of the DC
voltage is adjusted to meet the voltage requirements by the control room, and the regulator uses
feedback signals from the voltage (potential) transformers (VT) and current transformers (CT) to
keep the generator voltage at the desired value and to protect it from sudden load swings or
voltage spikes by tripping the generator if necessary.

Figure 43. Brushless Exciter With Permanent Magnet Pilot Exciter
Concept of Response Time Versus Voltage Levels
As described above, an important function of generator excitation is to provide for regulation of

the generator voltage level. Generator voltage level is changed or regulated by changing the level
of field excitation. Automatic feedback control circuits monitor generator voltage levels and,
where required, operate to raise or lower the level of excitation. Although the response time of
the monitoring circuits are typically very fast, the time required for the actual voltage level of the
generator to adjust will depend on several other factors. These factors include the response time
of the excitation system, the reactance of the main generator, the open-circuit time constant of the
main generator and the magnitude of voltage change required.
Figure 44 illustrates typical response time versus voltage level for a sudden application of load.
With reference to this figure, the initial drop of voltage, in most cases, is taken to be the product
of the applied load current and the generator transient reactance. The initial voltage drop is
followed by a further decrease in voltage before the excitation system begins to restore the
voltage to normal. The ultimate time required to restore the generator voltage to the desired level
will of course depend on the quantitative values of the controlling factors described above.
Typically, response times are fractions of a second.

Figure 44. Typical Response Time Versus Voltage for Sudden Application of Load

GENERATOR GROUNDING
Purposes of Generator Grounding
One of the most important, but probably the most misunderstood and controversial element of an
industrial power system design is the subject of grounding. The term “grounding of a power
system” is often used to describe both system and equipment grounding, although each have
somewhat different objectives.
Electrical systems and circuit conductors are grounded to limit voltages due to lightning, line
surges or unintentional contact with other “higher” voltage lines. System grounding ensures
longer insulation life for electrical equipment such as motors, generators and transformers by
suppressing overvoltages associated with different types of faults. System grounding also
stabilizes the voltage-to-ground under normal operation and improves protection of the electrical
system by providing fast and selective operation of protective devices in the event of ground
faults.
Equipment grounding, on the other hand, relates to the grounding of non-electrical conductive
material that encloses or is adjacent to energized conductors. Similar to system grounding,
equipment grounding also limits the voltage-to-ground and provides fast and selective operation
of protective devices in the event of ground faults.
The major objectives of generator grounding are:
• to improve personnel safety.
• to improve equipment protection.
Personnel Safety
An equipment grounding system improves personnel safety by:
• reducing electric shock hazard.
• providing adequate current carrying capability, both in magnitude and duration, to

accept the high ground fault currents permitted by the protection system without
creating a fire or explosive hazard to the building or its contents.
• providing a low impedance return path for ground fault current necessary for the
timely operation of the overcurrent protection system.
• limiting voltage on the system all the time to line-to-ground magnitudes.

Equipment Protection
System grounding improves equipment protection by:
• improving differential relay protection of motors, generators and transformers.
• allowing use of grounded neutral type arrestors.
• minimizing transient overvoltages (within 250% of normal) on the system.
• reducing arc blast or flash hazards.
• limiting voltage on the system at all times to line-to-ground magnitudes.
• providing a low impedance return path for ground fault current necessary for the
timely operation of the overcurrent protection system
Methods of Generator Grounding
Figures 45 and 46 show charts that summarize the different grounding methods and explain when
they are to be used. Figure 45 shows the characteristics for the various grounding methods, and
Figure 46 shows the recommendations for using the various grounding methods. These figures,
together with the sections that follow them explain the following methods for grounding
generators:
• Solidly grounded generators
• Low resistance grounded generators
• Reactance grounded generators
• The relationship between the source system ground versus the plant generator
ground.
• Saudi Aramco grounding requirements as specified in SAES-P-114.

Type of Grounding
Solid Reactance Low Resistance High Resistance
Current for phase- Varies, may be 5 to 25% 5 to 20% Less than 1%.
to-ground fault in 100% or greater.
percent of three-
phase fault current
Transient Not excessive. Very high. Not excessive. Not excessive.

overvoltage
Automatic Yes Yes Yes No

segregation of
faulted zone
Lightning arresters Grounded neutral Ungrounded Ungrounded Ungrounded

type. neutral type. neutral type. neutral type.
Remarks Generally used on Not used due to Generally used Generally used on
systems(1) 600 excessive on industrial systems 5 kV and
volts and below overvoltages. systems of 2.4 to below.
and (2) over 15kV. 15 kV.
Figure 45. Characteristics of Different Methods of Grounding

Type of Grounding
System Voltage Solid Low Resistance High Resistance
1. Use for maximum

Low Voltage Preferred method Not used. service continuity.
(1000 volts and below) required by NEC for
certain cases. 2. Mining system.
Can be applied:
Medium Voltage 1. Not recommended Preferred method.
(1001 - 15,000 volts) for systems with 1. To prevent
rotating machines. unplanned
shutdowns.
2. Can be used for
2. With single rotating
systems having only
machine/captive
overhead
transformer.
distribution.
3. Where previously
ungrounded system
is grounded.
4. Where ground relay

selectivity not
required.
High Voltage Required Not recommended. Not recommended.

(Over 15,000 volts)
Figure 46. Recommendations for Applying Different Methods of Grounding
Solidly-Grounded
A “solidly-grounded system” has an intentional and direct connection to ground usually through
the middle wire or neutral point of a generator’s windings. No intentional impedance is added in
the path from the neutral to ground. An example of a solidly-grounded system is shown in Figure
47. In a solidly-grounded system, line-to-ground fault current magnitudes are very high
(thousands of amperes). They approach and may exceed three-phase fault current magnitudes.
Although solidly grounding generators are sometimes used in industry, it is not the preferred
scheme for grounding generators. For Saudi Aramco applications, SAES-P-114 does not permit
solid grounding of generators except in the cases of very small, low voltage emergency
generators.

Figure 47. Solidly-Grounded Generator
The primary advantages of solid grounding are the following:
• To improve differential relay protection of motors, generators and transformers.
• To reduce electrical shock hazards to personnel caused by stray ground fault

currents in the return path.
• To reduce initial first cost versus resistance-grounded systems.
• To reduce the arc blast or flash hazard to personnel who happen to be in close
proximity to the ground fault.
• To allow use of grounded neutral type arrestors.
• To improve safety (i.e., single line-to-ground faults are immediately cleared).
• To improve reliability (i.e., ground faults are readily located and repaired).

• To limit voltage on the system all the time to line-to-ground magnitudes.
• To minimize transient overvoltages (within 250% of normal) on the system.
The primary disadvantages of solid grounding are:
• Detection of ground faults lead to an immediate trip of the protective device. Note:
This disadvantage of solid grounding is also seen as an advantage as per
previous discussion.
• High ground fault current magnitudes sometimes exceed three-phase fault values.
Resistance Grounded
In resistance grounded systems the neutral is connected to ground through a resistor. There are
two types of resistance grounded systems: low resistance and high resistance.
Low Resistance Grounding is achieved by the intentional insertion of resistance between a generator
neutral and ground. When a line-to-ground fault occurs, the voltage across the resistor equals the
normal line-to-neutral voltage of the system (EL-N), and the ground fault current (IF) equals EL-
N divided by the value of the grounding resistor. Generally, the line-to-ground fault currents are
limited to between 100 and 1200 amperes. Figure 48 is an example of a low resistance grounded
system.

Figure 48. Low Resistance Grounded Generator
The primary advantages of limiting ground fault current by low resistance grounding are the
following:
• To reduce melting and burning (thermal stress) of faulted electrical equipment.
• To limit fault current magnitude to 100 to 1200 amperes.
• To reduce mechanical stresses in circuits and equipment carrying fault currents.

currents in the ground return path.
• To reduce the arc blast or flash hazard to personnel who happen to be in proximity
to the ground fault.
• To reduce momentary line voltage dip caused by the occurrence and clearing of a
ground fault.
• To improve safety (i.e., single line-to-ground faults are immediately cleared).

• To improve reliability (i.e., ground faults are readily located and repaired).
The primary disadvantages of low resistance grounding are:
• Initial first cost of resistor and relays are more expensive than the low cost of a
solidly-grounded system.
• Detection of ground faults lead to an immediate trip of the protective device. Note:
This disadvantage of low resistance grounding is also seen as an advantage as
per previous discussion.
• Cannot be used if the transformer primary protective devices are fuses because the
magnitude of fault current (primary side) is too low to clear the fuse.
High Resistance Grounding is achieved by selecting a resistor to provide a resistive fault current
slightly greater than or equal to three times the normal current flowing in the stray line-to-ground
capacitance per phase. Generally line-to-ground currents are limited to between 1 and 10
amperes. Figure 49 is an example of a high resistance grounded system.

Figure 49. High Resistance Grounded Generator
The primary advantages of limiting ground fault current by high resistance grounding are the
following:
• To reduce melting and burning (thermal stress) of faulted electrical equipment.
• To reduce mechanical stresses in circuits and equipment carrying fault currents.
• To limit fault current magnitudes to 1 to 10 amperes.

currents in the ground return path.
• To reduce the blast or flash hazard to personnel who happen to be in proximity of

the ground fault.

• To reduce momentary line voltage dip caused by the occurrence and clearing of a
ground fault.
• To avoid shutdown of a faulted circuit on the occurrence of the first ground fault
(system continuity).
The primary disadvantages of high resistance grounding are:
• Initial first cost of resistor, relay, and transformers are more expensive than the
low cost of a solidly-grounded system.
• Fault remains on the system until located and removed.
• Requires a dedicated “alarm” system and standard operating procedures (SOPs) to

locate and clear faults.
Reactance-Grounded
A reactance-grounded system is one in which a reactor is connected between the system neutral
and ground. Reactance grounding of generators is only used to limit ground fault current to a
value no greater than the generator three-phase fault current and, therefore, has very limited
application. Figure 50 is an example of a reactance-grounded generator. As was the case of
solidly grounded generators, Saudi Aramco does not use reactance-grounding.

Figure 50. Reactance-Grounded Generator
Source System Ground Versus Plant Generator Ground
Because of transformer connections (Figure 51), coordination is usually limited to one voltage
level. It becomes necessary to ground a number of these points simultaneously to ensure that the
system remains grounded when one or more of the sources are out of service.

Figure 51. System Ground Versus Generator Ground
SAES-P-114 Grounding Requirements
SAES-P-114 requires generators to be grounded depending on which of the following five

categories they fit:
• Large direct-connected synchronous generators (13.8 kV, greater than 12.5 MVA)
are low resistance grounded as per Figure 52.

Figure 52. Grounding of Large Direct-Connected Synchronous Generators
• Large unit-transformer connected synchronous generators

(13.8 kV, greater than 12.5 MVA) are high resistance grounded as per Figure 53.

Figure 53. Grounding of Large Unit-Transformer Connected Generators

• Medium direct-connected generators are low resistance grounded as per Figure 54.
Figure 54. Grounding of Medium Direct-Connected Generators

• Small standby/emergency generators are solidly grounded as per Figure 55 if they

are part of a separately derived system. Because the system shown in Figure 55 is
a separately derived system, no direct connection, including the neutral conductor,
is permitted to the other system. Therefore, the automated transfer switch (ATS)
shown in Figure 55 must be a 4-pole ATS.
Figure 55. Grounding of Low Voltage Generators-

Separately Derived System

• Small standby/emergency generators are solidly grounded as per

Figure 56 if they are not part of a separately derived system. Because the system
shown in Figure 56 is not part of a separately derived system, the neutral
conductor is permitted to be direct (solidly) connected as illustrated. Note: Figure
56 is shown for comparison purposes only, because most, if not all of Saudi
Aramco emergency generators are part of a separately derived system.
Figure 56. Grounding of Low Voltage Generators-Not

Separately Derived System

ELEMENTS OF GENERATOR PROTECTION
This section will describe the following essential elements of generator protection:
• Temperature protection
• Electrical protection
• Zone protection
Temperature Protection
Temperature protection of the generator is as important as both the electrical and mechanical
protection. Four types of temperature protection usually applied to large generators are:
• Rotor
• Stator
• Bearing
• Lubrication
Rotor
There are no simple methods for direct thermal protection of the rotor. Various indirect methods
are used either to approximate rotor temperatures or to act directly on the quantities that would
lead to excessive rotor temperatures. Protection schemes for the rotor are, therefore, directed at
the potential causes of thermal distress. For example, negative-sequence currents in the stator,
loss of excitation or loss of synchronism can cause excessive rotor temperatures due to circulating
currents in various paths of the rotor body.
The field circuit of a generator is an ungrounded system. As such, a single ground fault will not
generally affect generator operation. However, a second ground fault results in a portion of the
field winding short circuiting, producing unbalanced air gap fluxes in the machine. These
unbalanced fluxes may cause rotor vibration that can very quickly damage the generator. Also
unbalanced temperatures caused by unbalanced currents can cause similar damaging vibrations.
A DGF relay (ANSI Device 64) detects grounds in the generator field circuit (Figure 57). This
relay uses a very sensitive d’Arsonval movement to measure DC ground currents. The relay is
used as an alarm on the occurrence of a first ground to permit an orderly shutdown of the
generator. If a second ground occurs before the first is cleared, the field winding is short circuited
resulting in unbalance and vibrations that may severely damage the generator.

Figure 57. Field Ground Detection Relay
Vibration monitors (ANSI Device 39) of the displacement, velocity, acceleration or proximity
type are an optional protection for alarming or shutting down a prime mover. Vibration
protection is a supplement to field ground protection. It is also specified if problems with critical-
speed (resonant) vibration modes are anticipated or have been determined by operational
experience.
Stator
Large generators are protected from overheating in the armature windings or stator iron by a
temperature-responding relay (ANSI Device 49). The relay uses resistance temperature detectors
(RTDs) as sensing elements. RTDs are imbedded symmetrically in the generator windings. There
are typically 6, 12 or 24 RTDs, some of which might be designated as spares to be used only in
the case of a failure of another RTD. This form of relay protects the generator not only from
overheating due to overload current, but also from the overheating that can be caused by
blockage of ventilation ducts or other failures of the cooling system.

Most large generators are equipped with RTDs (Figure 58) that may be used in a bridge circuit to
provide sensing intelligence to an indicator or a relay
(e.g., DT-3 relay). The relay has contact-opening torque when the resistance is low, indicating
low machine temperature. When the temperature of the machine exceeds 120oC for class B
insulated machines, the bridge becomes unbalanced and the contact closes triggering an alarm,
which allows an operator to initiate remedial action such as load shedding or shutdown.
Figure 58. Stator RTD Protection
Bearing
An overtemperature relay that uses a thermocouple detector embedded in the bearing metal is
typically specified for both prime mover and generator bearings. This device usually has one
temperature setpoint for alarm and a higher setpoint for initiating a shutdown of the prime mover.
For example, bearing metal temperatures range from 150 - 170oF with 160oF being the expected
value. A typical alarm setpoint is 210oF and the trip setpoint is typically 225oF.
Lubrication
Lubrication oil system temperatures are typically measured using thermocouples on large systems
or simply thermometers on smaller lubrication systems.

For example, oil inlet temperatures range from 80-120oF with expected values of 100oF. Oil
drain temperatures range from 140-160oF with an expected temperature of 160oF. An alarm is
triggered for operator intervention when oil drain temperatures reach 170oF.
Electrical Protection
Figure 59 is a reproduction of SAES-P-114, Figure 5.1, page 092 of 132; Figure 60 is the
accompanying legend identifying the device functions. The paragraphs that follow will provide
short descriptions of the relays that protect a typical Saudi Aramco large direct-connected and/or
unit-transformer connected generator.

Figure 59. Large Direct-Connected Generator Protection Scheme

Figure 60. Protection Device Legend

Overcurrent
The function of overcurrent phase fault backup protection is to disconnect the generator if the
fault has not been cleared by other downstream protective devices (i.e., feeder overcurrent relays,
ANSI Devices 51/50). Phase fault backup protection prevents the generator and other auxiliary
components from exceeding their thermal limits as well as protects distribution components
against excessive damage. Two types of relays are used to provide this protection. Impedance
relays (ANSI Device 21) are used to protect unit generators (generator/transformer
combinations), and time overcurrent relays (ANSI Device 51) are used for non-unit installations
typically found in industrial/commercial applications. This Module will restrict discussion to use
of time overcurrent relays for backup phase fault protection.
Overcurrent relays (51V) used for backup protection are specifically constructed to make the
operating characteristics a function of voltage as well as current. Ordinary relays cannot be used
because, if they are set low to protect the generator for sustained fault currents (possibly less than
FLA), the generator would trip on normal loads or small overloads. If set high, the relay would
not respond at all for sustained fault currents under “stuck regulator” conditions.
A voltage restraint relay (GE IJCV) consists of a conventional induction disc overcurrent unit
with a voltage element so constructed that it applies a torque that opposes the operating torque
produced by the current coil. This restraining torque is proportional to voltage and effectively
controls the pickup current of the relay over a 4:1 range (Figure 61). The relay is calibrated and
rated for a range of tap settings with 100 percent voltage applied to the restraint coil. As the
voltage is reduced the current required to operate the relay at a given tap setting drops.
Figure 61. Voltage Restraint Relay
Differential Current (Fault)
Differential protection is suggested protection for instantaneous and sensitive protection for
generator internal faults and is very similar to motor differential protection. A constant
percentage, high sensitivity (10%) type CA (ANSI Device 87) differential relay (Figure 62) is
recommended. If CT saturation error exceeds 1%, the low sensitivity (25%) type CA relay
should be used.

Generator differential relays are usually arranged to trip the generator, field circuit, and neutral
breakers (if used) simultaneously using a manually reset lockout auxiliary relay. In some
applications the differential relay also trips the throttle and admits CO2 to the generator for fire
protection.
Figure 62. CA Generator Differential Relay
Ground Fault
For large generators, a separate device (87G) is considered essential for generator protection to
internal ground faults. Device 87G is a supplement or backup to the CA differential relay (87)
discussed previously. Because this relay (CWC) is not affected by external faults or transients, it
can be set for minimum time to clear internal faults faster. The CWC relay (Figure 63) operates
the lockout relay (Device 86) to trip and lockout the line and field breakers and the prime mover.

Figure 63. CWC Ground Fault Relay
Loss of Field
Loss of field protection (ANSI Device 40) is applied to synchronous machines to avoid unstable
operation and potential loss of synchronism. This device senses when a generator’s excitation
system has been lost. This protection is important when generators are operating in parallel or in
parallel with the utility. When a synchronous generator loses its field excitation, it will operate as
an induction generator (Figure 64), obtaining its excitation from the other machines on the
system. When a synchronous generator operates in this manner, the generator rotor quickly
overheats due to the slip frequency currents induced in it. Moreover, the rest of the system has to
supply the VARs to the loads and to the induction generator. The loss of field relay (i.e., KLF)
trips a 94G1 relay to open the breaker.

Figure 64. Generator Current Locus
Phase Unbalance
Unbalanced loads, unbalanced system faults, open conductors, or other unsymmetrical operating
conditions result in an unbalance of the generator phase voltages. The resulting unbalanced
(negative sequence) currents induce double system frequency currents in the rotor that quickly
cause rotor overheating. Serious damage to the generator will occur if the unbalanced condition
is allowed to persist indefinitely. The ability of a generator to withstand these negative sequence
currents is defined by ANSI C50.13-1977 as (I2)2t = k, where the negative sequence current is
expressed in per unit of the full-load current and the time is given in seconds. Figure 65 lists the
k-values of typical generators.

Figure 65. Generator k-Values
A COQ negative sequence overcurrent relay (ANSI Device 46) is recommended where protection
from this unbalanced condition is desired. The relay consists of a time overcurrent unit with
extremely inverse characteristics matching the generator (I2)2t curves. The input to the relay is
connected through a filter that passes only negative phase sequence currents. The time dial
setting determines the level of protection offered by the relay and should be set to match the
(I2)2t limit of the generator being protected.
Frequency/Overspeed
To protect the rotating components of the generator and prime mover from being damaged by
excessive centrifugal forces, an electrical or mechanical overspeed detector is used. The
overspeed detector (ANSI Device 12) will initiate a governor action that interrupts the fuel or
steam input to the prime mover. For generators that are the only source for a power system, the
overspeed device is sometimes supplemented with an overfrequency relay (ANSI Device 81).
SAES-P-114 does not require this type of protection.
Voltage
Overvoltage - An overvoltage relay (ANSI Device 59) is specified to open the generator circuit
breaker to protect the generator from the excessive line-to-line voltages that can result from a
failure of the voltage regulator. This relay has a time-overvoltage characteristic: i.e., the larger
the overvoltage, the less the time interval to initiate a trip signal. This relay also trips the 94G1
lockout relay.

Voltage Balance - A voltage balance relay (ANSI Device 60) is used to continuously monitor the
availability of voltage transformer (VT) voltage, to block the operation of protective relays, and
to control devices that will operate incorrectly when a voltage transformer fuse opens. This
application requires two sets of VTs on the generator circuit. One set supplies voltage for the
backup overcurrent, directional power, and loss of excitation relays; the other set supplies voltage
for the voltage regulator, synchronizing relays and metering devices. In those cases where two
sets of voltage transformers on the generator circuit cannot be justified, the bus voltage
transformers may be used as the second set so long as dead bus startup of the generator is not
necessary. When the two sets of VTs have the same output voltage, the relay is balanced and
both the right and left contacts are open. When a fuse opens in any phase of one set of voltage
transformers, the unbalance will cause the left contact to close, which may both alarm and block
the tripping of protective devices 32, 40, and 51V. When a fuse opens in the second set of VTs,
the right contacts close, which may operate an alarm and switch the voltage regulator to manual
operation to prevent it from rising to ceiling voltage. This relay blocks the ANSI Device 51V and
ANSI Device 40 from nuisance tripping.
Sync Verification
Generator instability may be caused by prolonged fault clearing times, low system voltage, low
machine excitation, high impedance between the generator and the system or some line switching
operations. When a generator loses synchronism, the resulting high peak currents and off-
frequency operation cause winding stresses, pulsating torques, and mechanical resonances that are
potentially damaging to the generator. To minimize the possibility of damage, the generator
should be tripped without delay, preferably during the first half slip cycle of a loss-of-synchronism
condition. ANSI Device 78 is used to detect loss of synchronism (sync verification).
Reverse Power (Motoring)
Generator anti-motoring protection is designed for the prime mover, or the system, rather than for
the generator itself. Motoring results from low prime mover input to the generator, such as
would occur if steam supply to the turbine or oil supply to the diesel were lost. When the prime
mover input to the generator cannot meet all the losses, the deficiency is supplied by the system;
the generator absorbs real power, and reactive power flow (not relevant at this point) may be in or
out depending on the voltage (excitation). Under motoring conditions steam turbine blades can
overheat, water wheel turbine blades can cavitate, and fire or possible explosion can result in a
diesel unit.
Although there are a number of non-electrical (mechanical) protection schemes for the generator
prime mover, a reverse power relay (ANSI Device 32) is used to provide supplemental protection.
The reverse power relay should have sufficient sensitivity such that motoring power provides 5-10
times the minimum pickup power of the relay. An induction disc directional power relay is
frequently used to introduce sufficient time delay necessary to override momentary power surges
that might occur during synchronization. A time delay of 10-15 seconds is typical.

Type CRN-1 reverse power relays are extremely sensitive and are most often used on steam
turbine and water wheel generators. No ampere tap settings are required and the time dial is set
on 4, which provides a tripping time of approximately 20 seconds. Type CW reverse power
relays (three-phase application) are less sensitive and are most often used on diesel generators.
Zone Protection Concepts
Overlap
The general philosophy of relay application is to divide the power system into protective zones,
which can be protected with minimum system interruption. There are five basic protection zone
categories:
• Generator and unit type generator - transformer
• Transformers
• Buses
• Transmission, subtransmission and distribution circuits
• Motors
Figure 66 clearly shows the “overlapping” zones of protection.
Backup
Redundancy, or backup protection, is a key capability of any power system. Should the “primary”
protective device system (relays, breaker, etc.) fail, various “backup” systems (i.e. the next
upstream device) must be available to clear the problem.
Referring to Figure 66-Zone F, if an ANSI Device 51 relay on a feeder breaker failed to operate,
the 51V relay on the generator would operate. The application of the 51V relay is a classic
example of a backup, or overlapping relay.

Figure 66. Zones of Protection

AC GENERATOR PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
Nameplate Ratings
All generators have nameplates. The nameplate provides needed information about the ratings of
the generator. This information allows for the proper application and operation of the generator.
The nameplate also provides information that is used to identify the specific generator to the
manufacturer whenever it becomes necessary to consult the manufacturer about the generator.
Figure 67 illustrates the minimum amount of data that is required by NEMA MG-1 to be marked
on the nameplate of a large synchronous generator.
GENERATOR NAMEPLATE
kVA Rating Number of Phases
Output Frequency Operating Speed
Output Voltage Current per Terminal
Field Current Field Voltage
Manufacturer Temperature Rise
Frame Number/ Serial No. Power Factor
Figure 67. Typical Generator Nameplate Data
Nameplate ratings describe the boundaries or limits within which the generator should be applied
and operated. Nameplate ratings for a generator include ratings for kVA, kW, power factor,
terminal voltage, field current, speed, temperature rise, and insulation class. The following
sections describe each of these nameplate ratings.
kVA
The kVA rating stated on a generator’s nameplate is the full load continuous rating of the
generator. The expression kVA is an abbreviation for kilovolt-amperes. Represented using a
lower case “k” and a capital “V” and “A”, kVA is often referred to as the apparent power of the
generator, as opposed to the actual or real power (kW). For single phase generators, the kVA
rating is the product of the rated generator output voltage multiplied by the generator terminal
current, divided by 1000. For three-phase generators, the kVA rating is the product of the rated
generator output voltage and generator terminal current multiplied by the square root of three and
then divided by 1000. For these kVA ratings, the generator output voltage is the nameplate rated
terminal voltage and is represented by the symbol Vt, and the terminal current is the generator
full-load current and is represented by the symbol It. Figure 68 shows the formulas used to
calculate single phase and three-phase generator kVA ratings.

kVA1F =
kVA3F =
Where: Vt is in volts
It is in amperes
Figure 68. Generator kVA Formulas
kW
The kW rating given on the nameplate of a generator is the full load rating of the generator in
kilowatts. This nameplate rating is the actual or real power in kilowatts that the generator can
supply to a load on a continuous basis. The units of kilowatts are represented using the letters
kW and is normally written with a lower case “k” and a capital “W”.
Power Factor
The value of the power factor given on a generator nameplate is the limit of power factor at which
the generator is designed to be operated. The value of power factor given for the generator
represents the ratio of generator kilowatt output to the generator kilovolt-amp output and is
usually expressed as a percentage. The power factor can also be determined by calculating the
cosine of the phase angle between the generator terminal voltage and the generator terminal
current. In theory, the value of power factor for a generator operating under load can vary over a
range from -1.0 to 1.0. However, in practice, a power factor approaching a positive 1.0 is
desired. Power factor is normally represented by the letters PF, which is an abbreviation of the
words “power factor”. Figure 69 shows examples of power factor for three generator operating
conditions. In Figure 69, power factor is determined by the equation,
PF = = Cos q
Where q = angle between Vt and It

Figure 69. Examples of Generator Power Factor

Terminal Voltage
The output voltage of the generator is called the terminal voltage. The terminal voltage rating
given on the generator nameplate is the nominal level of voltage that the generator uses to supply
current to the load. When a generator is not loaded, that is when it is not supplying any current,
the terminal voltage is equal to the voltage induced by the generator’s rotating field into the stator
windings, referred to as the internal induced voltage. When the generator is supplying current,
the terminal voltage is no longer equal to the internal induced voltage, but is equal to a vector
summation of the internal induced voltage less the voltage dropped across the generator internal
impedance.
Field Current
The field current marked on the generator nameplate is the value of current that is supplied to the
rotor field winding when the generator is operated at nameplate rated kVA and nameplate rated
power factor.
Speed
The speed given on a generator nameplate is the speed that the generator must operate at in order
to produce the nameplate rated frequency. If a generator has a dual speed rating on its nameplate,
such as 3600/3000 rpm, it will have a dual frequency rating. For the example of 3600/3000 rpm,
the dual frequency rating would be 60/50 hertz. The rated speed of a generator varies in direct
proportion to its frequency and in inverse proportion to the number of generator poles. Figure 70
shows the formula used to calculate rated generator speed.
Speed =
Frequency =
Figure 70. Generator Speed and Frequency Relationship
Temperature Rise
The temperature rise given on a generator nameplate is the limit of the expected rise in
temperature, over ambient temperature, that will be experienced by the conductors within the
armature windings under generator full-load conditions. The temperature rise is expressed in
degrees centigrade (oC). Typical temperature rise ratings for generators are 55 oC and 65 oC.

Insulation Class
The insulation class given for a generator identifies the class of insulation system used for the
generator windings and supporting structural parts. Insulation systems are divided into classes
according to the thermal endurance of the system for temperature rating purposes. Four classes
of insulation systems are used in generators, namely, Classes A, B, F, and H. These classes are
established in accordance with IEEE Standard 1, General Principles for Temperature Limits in the
Rating of Electrical Equipment.
When considering the insulation classes for a generator insulation system based on thermal
endurance, it is informative to note that insulation systems also have a separate class rating based
on voltage. The voltage class rating, expressed in units of volts, is determined by the quantity and
quality of the material under electrical voltage stress.
Ratings Interrelationships
kVA, kW, Power Factor
The interrelationship of kVA, kW, and power factor can be described by first recalling the formula
that relates these three parameters. As described earlier, the formula for power factor is, PF =
kW/kVA = cos q. Examination of this formula shows that a change to anyone of the three
parameters will affect one or both of the other two. As a result, if a change were made to an
operating generator in an effort to change the value of one of the these nameplate parameters, the
change would also affect one or both of the other parameters.
As an example, assume that a generator is operating at a given kVA level and it is desired to
increase that level. In theory, making a change that would increase the current, increase the
voltage, or increase both would result in an increase to the generator kVA. However, several
factors must be considered before such a change is made. First, it must be remembered that the
kVA rating given on the nameplate is the maximum full-load kVA at which the generator may be
safely operated. Therefore, any changes made to the kVA level should not exceed this rating.
Next, it must be noted that the generator has a nameplate current rating that is determined by the
size of conductors used in the winding and the amount of heat (I2R) loss allowed for the
generator. Therefore, any adjustments made to the operation of the generator should not allow
this current limit to be exceeded. With regard to changing the voltage, two items must be
considered. One item is that the generator has a nameplate rated voltage that must not be
exceeded. And the other item is that power systems supplied by generators must maintain a
reasonably stable operating voltage in order to meet customer needs. Finally, after careful
consideration of the above factors, It must be noted that changing the kVA will cause the kW
and/or the PF to change because kW = (kVA)(PF) = (kVA)(cos q). Because the nameplate kW
rating represents the upper limit of real power that can be supplied by the generator, and the
nameplate PF rating represents the highest value of power factor that the generator can be
operated at, care must be taken to assure that any change to the kVA does not cause the rating of
kW or PF to be exceeded.

The following example problem illustrates the relationship between the nameplate kVA, kW, and
power factor for a three-phase generator.
Example A: A three-phase generator has a nameplate kVA rating of 20,000 kVA and a
nameplate kW rating of 18,000 kW. Determine the nameplate PF rating.
Answer : The power factor for a three-phase generator is defined by the equation,
PF = kW / kVA
substituting the given nameplate ratings for kW and kVA gives,
PF = 18,000 kW / 20,000 kVA
PF = 0.9
kVA, kW, Voltage
To describe the interrelationship between kVA, kW and voltage, first recall that the relationship
between power factor, kVA and kW can be expressed as,
PF = kW/kVA = cos q
Reviewing this equation, it can be seen that if power factor is held constant, any increase in kW
will result in an increase of kVA, and any decrease in kW will result in a decrease of kVA. From
this analysis it is seen that kW and kVA interrelate directly with one another and any change to
one parameter can result in a change to the other.
Next, consider that both kW and kVA are limited by the generator nameplate current rating.
Therefore, dividing the generator nameplate kW or kVA rating by the generator nameplate
current rating will yield the generator nameplate terminal voltage rating. This result can be seen
by reviewing the equation for a generator’s three-phase kVA rating.
kVA3F =
where: Vt is nameplate rated volts
It is nameplate rated amperes
Reviewing this equation, it can be seen that dividing the kVA by the current (It) and the square
root of three results in the nameplate rated terminal volts.
The following example problem illustrates the relationship between the nameplate kVA,
nameplate Vt and nameplate It for a three-phase generator.

Example B: A three-phase generator has a nameplate kVA rating of 12,000 kVA and a
nameplate It of 502 amperes. Determine the nameplate Vt rating.
Answer : The equation for three-phase kVA is,
kVA3F =
substituting the values for kVA and It, and solving for Vt gives,
Vt = = = 13.8 kV
Saturation Curve Parameters
Saturation curve parameters describe the relationship between the field excitation current and the
voltage induced in the stationary armature windings. The field excitation current produces a
revolving magnetic field that is used to generate the induced voltage.
The parameter of induced voltage exhibits three unique characteristics in conjunction with the
parameter of field current. These characteristics, which can be defined mathematically and shown
graphically, are caused by the presence of magnetic iron in the field windings. The three
characteristics are known as:
• Magnetic Friction
• Magnetic Saturation
• Magnetic Memory
Each of these three characteristics helps to determine the shape of a typical generator saturation
curve, such as the one shown in Figure 71. The following paragraphs describe how the saturation
curve shown in Figure 71 is generated as field current is applied to the field winding, and the role
that each of the above three characteristics play in shaping the resultant saturation curve.
The generation of the saturation curve shown in Figure 71 begins with the application of field
current to the field windings. As the magnetic material in the rotor poles becomes encompassed
by the magnetic field produced by the field current, the molecules of the magnetic material tend to
align in the direction of the magnetic field. Under this condition energy is absorbed into the
magnetic material. Of the total energy absorbed, some is stored by the molecular alignment, and
some is used to overcome a magnetic friction that resists the alignment. As the field current is
increased, the magnetic field is strengthened, and more molecules become aligned. As more
molecules become aligned, more energy is absorbed, and the field density increases, with a
resultant increase in the armature induced voltage. The combination of these actions shape the
ascending portion of the saturation curve.

Figure 71. Typical Generator Saturation Curve
As additional current is provided to the field winding, the magnetic density increases linearly with
increased field current until the magnetic material reaches its limit to absorb magnetic energy and
align molecules. Continuing to increase the field current at this point, produces more field
intensity, but the lines of flux travel outside the magnetic iron and the field density of the iron is
not changed. This point is the upper peak of the saturation curve and is known as the magnetic
saturation point. When this limit is reached, further increases of field current will not result in
increased armature voltage.

Having reached the saturation point of the curve shown in Figure 71, the descending portion of
the curve is generated by reducing the amplitude of the field current. As current is reduced, the
molecules in the iron tend to remain aligned and maintain the field density. This alignment of
molecules causes the curve to travel or move to the left, showing a higher volts per field ampere
ratio. As the field current is further reduced, eventually stored energy in the material is released,
but the field density change will continue to lag the current change. This action causes the
descending portion of the curve to be displaced to the left of the ascending portion. The area
between the ascending and descending portions of the curve is referred to as hysteresis. When the
field current is completely removed, stored energy remains and a small field intensity or memory
exists. The effect is that an induced armature voltage can be obtained with a lower field current
after first applying field current and reaching saturation, and then decreasing field current.
The saturation curves provided by manufacturers for a specific generator normally exclude and do
not show the effect of hysteresis. The curves provided are typically a family of curves that show
induced voltage versus field current for different operating conditions. Figure 72 shows a typical
family of saturation curves supplied by a manufacturer for a given generator.

Figure 72. Example of Manufacturer Saturation Curves for a Specific Generator
Excitation Current (IE)
The field excitation current (IE) is supplied by a DC voltage source. Because the voltage is DC,
the steady state current that flows in the field windings, to produce the magnetic field in the rotor
poles, is determined by Ohms Law,
I = E / R. The resistance R in the circuit is a combination of the winding conductor resistance and
an external resistance. Figure 73 shows a generator field supplied by a DC source and controlled
with a variable resistor

Figure 73. Generator Field Circuit
With reference to the saturation curve shown in Figure 71, several characteristics of the field
excitation current can be noted. The first thing to note is that the field excitation current does not
have a linear relationship with the induced voltage. Additionally it is noted that at zero current
there is a residual induced voltage, and at high currents the curve flattens and no additional
voltage is produced with increased current. Another characteristic of interest is that for excitation
current values between zero and maximum, there are actually two curves. One curve provides
induced voltage values for ascending values of excitation current, and the other curve provides
voltage values for descending values of current. The area between the two curves, called
hysteresis, is caused by the magnetic memory of the field poles, and the flatness at the top of the
curve is caused by magnetic saturation.
Generators are normally designed to use an excitation current that results in operation of the
generator near the knee or top of the saturation curve.
Terminal Voltage (Vt)
The generator terminal voltage is derived from the induced voltage. It is equal to the induced
voltage minus the generator internal voltage drop. The value of induced voltage is determined by
the rotating field density, which in turn is determined by the field current. The generator internal
voltage drop is equal to the load current multiplied by the generator internal impedance.
For a generator without load, the terminal voltage can be determined from the generator’s
saturation curve. This determination is possible because terminal voltage is equal to induced
voltage when the generator has no load. To read the terminal voltage from the saturation curve,
enter the curve on the horizontal axis at the value of excitation current being used. Using the
excitation current value as the starting point, follow a vertical line from the excitation current
value until it intersects the saturation curve. At the point of intersection, follow a horizontal line
from the intersection point to the voltage axis and read the value of voltage. Be aware that when
a saturation curve shows the hysteresis, one value of excitation current can intersect the saturation
curve at two points giving two different values of voltage. For this case, it must be determined
whether the value of field excitation current being used to read the curve was established on the
ascending or descending portion of the curve.

The voltage read from the saturation curve, as explained above, is the voltage induced in the
armature windings of the generator. At no load, the induced voltage is equal to the terminal
voltage, but as the generator is loaded there is a difference between their values.
Generators are normally designed to be operated in a voltage range near the knee or top of the
saturation curve. Operation at this point on the curve prevents the generator from producing
voltages that would exceed insulation and application limits.
Load
When load is applied to a generator an IR voltage drop caused by generator internal resistance
occurs. As a result the terminal voltage of a loaded generator is different from the terminal
voltage of an unloaded generator. In addition to the IR voltage drop caused by internal
resistance, generators have an internal inductive impedance that causes an inductive voltage drop.
In conjunction with the generator internal resistance and inductance, the generator has external
load impedance that is also made up of resistance and inductance. Both the internal and external
impedances contribute to the determination of the generator load. Because the external load
impedance varies, it is not practical to illustrate the net effect of all loads with a single saturation
curve. However, illustration of any single load can be accomplished by developing a saturation
curve for the generator at that load by using either test methods or vector mathematics.
Power Factor
The power factor, or cosine of the angle between the induced voltage in the generator and the
terminal current from the generator, can be substantially different than the power factor between
the generator terminal voltage and terminal current. The reason and cause for this difference is
the interaction of the external load impedance with the generator internal impedance. As an
example, consider a generator that has a pure resistive external load. For this case, the resistance
of the external load will interact with the internal inductance of the generator to cause a lagging
power factor between the generator induced voltage and terminal current. At the same time, the
pure resistance external load will cause the terminal voltage to be in-phase with the terminal
current, thus causing a unity power factor between the terminal voltage and terminal current.
Generator Performance vs. Saturation
Load vs. Voltage Relationship
To describe the relationship between generator voltage and load, keep in mind that when a
generator is running and field current is applied, a voltage is induced in the generator armature
windings. For this condition, if the generator is not supplying load current, the terminal voltage is
in effect applied across an open circuit. The result is that the terminal voltage and the induced
voltage are the same. However, when a load is applied to the generator, current flows through
the internal impedance of the generator causing a voltage drop across the impedance. As a result,
the terminal voltage and induced voltage become different values.

The induced voltage of a generator can be calculated using Ohm’s Law provided certain
generator parameters are known. The generator parameters required to be known for calculation
of the induced voltage include: internal impedance, terminal voltage, load current, and power
factor of the load with respect to the terminal voltage. When these parameters are known, the
equations shown in Figure 74 can be used to describe the relationship between induced voltage,
terminal voltage, and load current.
I (load) =
Z (load) =
V (induced) = V (terminal) + (I (load) x Z (gen))
I (load) =
Figure 74. Formulas Showing Relationship between Generator Voltage and Load
With reference to the formulas shown in Figure 74, it can be seen that both the terminal voltage
and induced voltage will vary with load. It can also be seen that the two voltages are different
and that the difference is a vector relationship. Because the objective of a power generating
system is to regulate and maintain the terminal voltage, when changes in load current cause the
terminal voltage to change, adjustments must be made to correct the terminal voltage. However,
the adjustment to correct the terminal voltage must be accomplished by making changes to the
generator induced voltage. The changes to the generator induced voltage are made by changing
the field excitation current. When the induced voltage is known and a saturation curve for the
specific generator is on hand, the change of excitation current required to adjust the induced
voltage can be determined.
Effects of Load and Excitation Current Changes
Figure 75 shows the equivalent circuit for a generator that is rated at 60 kVA and 480 volts.
Figure 76 shows the manufacturer saturation curves for the same generator. In the following
sections, the information for the generator described in these two figures will be used together
with vector mathematics to show the effects of load and excitation current changes for several
examples of different load conditions.

Figure 75. Equivalent Circuit for 60 kVA, 480 V Generator

Figure 76. Saturation Curve for 60 kVA, 480 V Generator
No Load - The first load condition considered for the generator described in Figures 75 and 76 is
the no load condition. As described earlier, when the generator is operating with no load, the
terminal voltage is equal to the induced voltage. The relationship between load and excitation
current for this example can be determined by consulting the saturation curve shown in Figure 76.
Knowing that the induced voltage is equal to the no load voltage, which for this generator is 480
volts, the excitation current required to produce this voltage is determined from the curve to be
4.0 amperes.
Full Load-.8 PF Lag - The next load condition considered for the generator described in Figures 75
and 76 is with the generator operating at full-load, but with a 0.8 lagging power factor. At this
operating condition the generator is supplying full-load, and the load current is lagging the
terminal voltage with a 0.8 power factor. Figure 77 shows the vector diagram for this load
condition. Following the figure is a description of the mathematical solution used to develop the
vectors shown in Figure 77.

Figure 77. Vector Diagram of Generator Voltage with 0.8 Lagging Power Factor
The mathematical solution used to develop the vector diagram shown in

Figure 77 includes the following steps:
• Since PF = 0.8, the cosine of the angle is equal to 0.8, and the
arc-cosine 0.8 ª 37o.
• Vt is 480 volts and leads the load current by 37o. Therefore Vt can be divided into
two components, one component in line with the current vector and one
perpendicular to the current vector. The two components are respectively,
480 volts x cos 37o and 480 volts x sin 37o.
480 volts x cos 37o= 480 volts x 0.8 = 384 volts.
480 volts x sin 37o= 480 volts x 0.6 = 288 volts.
• The generator’s resistive internal voltage drop is the full load current times the
internal effective resistance.
The full load current is equal to the rated full load in kVA divided by rated
terminal voltage and is, 60,000 VA / 480 volts = 125 amps.
• The generator internal resistance given by Figure 75 is 0.04 ohm.
Therefore the generator internal resistive voltage drop is,

125 amp x 0.04 ohm = 5 volts. This drop is a vector voltage in line with the
current.

• The generator internal inductive voltage drop is equal to the full load current times
the generator inductive reactance. From Figure 75, the generator internal
inductive reactance is 0.2 ohm.
Therefore the generator internal inductive voltage drop is equal to, 125 amps x 0.2
ohm = 25 volts. This voltage is perpendicular to the current vector.
• Collecting vector voltages in the same direction yields the following:
384 volts + 5 volts = 389 volts in line with the current vector
288 volts + 25 volts = 313 volts perpendicular to the current vector.
The voltage induced in the generator is the vector sum of the two and is equal to,
[(389)2 + (313)2]1/2 = 499 volts. This voltage leads the current by the arc
tangent of 313/389 = 39o.
• From the saturation curve in Figure 76 it is seen that a field excitation of 4.4 amps
is required to produce an induced voltage of 499 volts.
Full Load- .8 PF Lead - The next load condition considered for the generator described in Figures
75 and 76 is with the generator operating at full-load, but with a 0.8 leading power factor. This
operating condition states that with the generator supplying full-load, the load current is leading
the terminal voltage with a 0.8 power factor. Figure 78 shows the vector diagram for this load
condition. Following the figure is a description of the mathematical solution used to develop the
vectors shown in Figure 78.
When a generator is supplying a lagging load, the terminal and induced voltages are in the first
quadrant, and the generator internal inductive voltage drop adds to the external load inductive
voltage drop. When the generator is supplying a leading load, the terminal and induced voltages
are in the fourth quadrant. The vector addition of the external load capacitive voltage drop to the
inductive voltage drop of the generator becomes the difference. The result as seen in Figure 78 is
that the induced voltage is lower than the terminal voltage.

Figure 78. Vector Diagram of Generator Voltage with 0.8 Leading Power Factor
The mathematical solution used to develop the vector diagram shown in Figure 78 includes the
following steps:
• Vt =[(480 volts x cos 323o)2 + (480 volts x sin 323o)2]1/2

= 480 volts and lags the load current by 37o
• VInd = [(480 volts x cos 323o+ 125 amps x 0.04 ohms)2 +

... (480 volts x sin 323o+ 125 amps x 0.2 ohms)2] 1/2
= [(384 volts + 5 volts)2 + ( - 288 volts + 25 volts)2 ] 1/2
=[ (389 volts)2 + (263)2]1/2
= 470 volts
• The angle between the load current and the induced voltage is equal to the arc-
tangent of 263/384, which is equal to 34o, and the induced voltage lags the
current.
• From the saturation curve shown in Figure 76, a field excitation current of 3.8
amps would be required to produce the 470 volts.
Full load- 1.0 PF - The next load condition considered for the generator described in Figures 75 and
76 is with the generator operating at full-load and unity power factor. This operating condition
states that the generator is delivering full load current with the current in phase with the terminal
voltage. Figure 79 shows the vector diagram for this load condition. Following the figure is a
description of the mathematical solution used to develop the vectors shown in Figure 79.

Figure 79. Vector Diagram of Generator Voltage with 1.0 Power Factor
The mathematical solution used to develop the vector diagram shown in

Figure 79 includes the following steps:
• With the generator terminal voltage and current in phase, the induced voltage is
determined by:
VInd = [( 480 volts + 5 volts)2 + ( 25 volts)2]1/2 = 486 volts.

The voltage leads the current by the angle equal to the
arc-tangent 25/485 = 3o.
• From the saturation curve in Figure 76, a field excitation current of 4.1 amps is
required to produce the 486 volts.
Reduced Load will affect the generator internal voltage drop that is caused by load current flowing
through the generator internal impedance. The lower the current, the lower will be the internal
voltage drop. As described previously, when load current is reduced, the terminal voltage
approaches the value of the induced voltage, and the terminal voltage becomes equal to the
induced voltage when load current is zero.
Self Excitation occurs when the impedance of a generator load is capacitive and equal to the
impedance of the generator. In effect, this condition creates a tuned-circuit between the generator
and load impedances. As shown in the previous example for leading power factor, the induced
voltage required for a leading power factor load is lower that the terminal voltage. Thus, when
self excitation occurs, the generator voltage will go as high as the generator will allow. For this
reason, generators should be operated near the top of their saturation curves to prevent excessive
voltages by limiting the upper voltage. For most applications, loads are inductive and therefore
do not cause a self excitation problem. However, some of the newer low-loss power
transformers, when unloaded, can be capacitive and therefore care should be taken to avoid a self
excitation condition. Manufacturers of these transformers prevent self excitation during no load
tests by operating the generator near saturation for full load voltage. In field operations,
generators are normally matched to their applications and therefore do not cause self excitation
problems.

Reactance Values
The term reactance as applied to the analysis and design of synchronous generators is virtually
always inductive. Therefore, the use of the term reactance in this Information sheet will always
mean inductive reactance. The reactance of a generator is important for two major reasons. The
first is that the reactance limits and determines the current produced by the generator during fault
conditions. The second reason is that the reactance affects the stability of generator operation
during both transient and steady state conditions. Unfortunately, while a high reactance limits the
short-circuit current, it reduces the ability of the generator to remain stable for system operations.
The mathematical symbol for reactance is “X”. The mathematical equation for inductive
reactance is X = 2 x p x f x L, where p = 3.414, f = frequency in hertz, and L = inductance of
the circuit. It is useful to note that reactance is an AC quantity and will have a value of zero in
DC circuits or when the value of frequency is zero.
The value of inductance in a generator varies as the operating conditions for the generator vary.
Basically, the fundamental equation for inductance is given by:
L = l _ (I x 108) = NØ _ (I x 108)
Where: N = the number of turns linked by the flux Ø
Ø = the number of flux lines
I = the current in the conductor
With reference to these equations for inductance and reactance, it is seen that the effective value
of reactance in a generator varies in accordance with the amount of current flowing and the
amount of flux produced. In addition, the value of reactance is dependent on the permeance of
the flux paths and the saturation limits for the flux density. Because there are multiple flux
sources in a generator, the effective value of reactance for a generator is also dependent on the
interaction of these flux sources. As described earlier, the multiple flux sources in a generator are
identified as the direct axis of the rotor field, the quadrature axis of the rotor field, and the
magnetic axis of the stator armature winding as shown in Figure 80.

Figure 80. Magnetic Axis’ in a Single Phase Generator
Because the determination of generator reactance values can be complex, the manufacturer
performs a number of factory tests under controlled and defined conditions to measure and
identify generator reactance values. Three effective reactance values that a manufacturer
measures are the synchronous reactance (Xd), the transient reactance (X’d), and the subtransient
reactance (X”d). These reactances are defined in the following sections

Synchronous Reactance (Xd)
Synchronous reactance is identified by the symbol Xd and is the armature reactance introduced by
the direct axis of the rotor during the flow of armature current. Synchronous reactance is also
defined as the reactance present during generator short-circuit conditions. The value of this
reactance determines the amplitude of steady-state fault current. As previously described, when
current flows through the generator, the voltage dropped across the generator impedance causes
the induced voltage and terminal voltage to be different. The impedance across which this voltage
drop occurs is called the generator synchronous impedance. A major reactive component of this
impedance is the synchronous reactance (Xd). Other components of the synchronous impedance
include the reactance created by the quadrature axis (Xq) of the rotor and the generator’s
effective resistance.
The value of synchronous reactance is used for two purposes. First, it is used to approximate the
reactance that is present in the armature circuit. When used for this purpose, the value of
synchronous reactance is combined with the generator resistance value and used to calculate
generator induced voltage. The calculation for induced voltage requires that generator terminal
voltage and current be known. The inverse is also true. That is, if the induced voltage and load
impedance are known, the generator armature current and terminal voltage can be determined.
Figure 81 shows a vector diagram that illustrates the relationship between induced voltage,
terminal voltage, armature current, and synchronous impedance.
Figure 81. Vector Diagram Illustrating Affect of Synchronous Reactance on Generator

Voltage

The second use of synchronous reactance (Xd) is to determine the value of generator steady-state
fault current. When a fault condition occurs on a generator, an instantaneous high value of fault
current develops. The initial value of the fault current consists of a high value AC component and
a high value DC component. Over a period of time, the DC component of the fault current
decays to zero and the AC component diminishes to a steady-state value. The value of the
steady-state fault current is determined by the value of the generator synchronous impedance,
which includes the synchronous reactance (Xd), and the value of the generator induced voltage.
Figure 82 shows the waveform of a fault current with the DC component, total component, and
steady-state current identified. In practice, the actual value of synchronous reactance (Xd) for a
given generator is determined by performing a short-circuit test on the generator.
Figure 82. Fault Current Waveform
Transient Reactance (X’d)
As described previously, when a fault or short circuit occurs, there is a period of time during
which the generator supplies a current higher than the slightly later occurring steady-state fault
value. The period of time from the initially higher fault current until the later occurring steady-
state value is reached is called the transient time. In order for the fault current to be higher during
the transient period than for the steady-state period, one of three conditions must exist during the
transient period. These include that during this period the generator voltage be higher, the
generator impedance be lower, or a combination of the two conditions exist. The source that
causes the condition that allows higher current during the transient period is the energy stored in
the various magnetic circuits in the generator. During short circuits, this energy is released and
added to the energy creating the fault current.
The higher currents during the transient period are explained by establishing that lower reactance
exist during this period. This reactance is called the transient reactance (X’d). The current during
the transient period is called the transient current (I’d) and consists of a DC component added to
an AC component. Both current components decay exponentially during the transient period.
The rate of current decay is determined by the time constant of the circuit where the fault energy
is being released. In turn, the time constant of the faulted circuit is determined by the ratio of the
effective reactance to the effective resistance and can range from 2 to 6 seconds.

Figure 83 illustrates the time-current relationship during the transient period of a short-circuit
fault. In this figure the transient time (T’d), and the rms values for transient current (I’d) and
steady-state (synchronous) current (Id) are marked for easy identification. The value of transient
reactance (X’d) is determined by first making a short-circuit test on the generator and recording
the value of fault current. From the recorded current, the maximum value for the transient current
(I’d) is measured and then divided by the value of induced voltage for the generator at the time of
the fault to give the value of the transient reactance.

Figure 83. Transient Time-Current Relationship

Subtransient Reactance (X’’d)
The subtransient reactance (X’’d) is similar to the transient reactance in that it is an effective
reactance used to describe fault current. At the instant of a fault, the several magnetic fields
within a generator release their stored energy to add to the energy of the fault. This release of
stored energy causes the first instant of fault current to be higher than the combined transient and
steady-state fault currents. The initial fault current is called the subtransient current (I’’d) and is
attributed to the effective reactance called the subtransient reactance (X’’d). The magnetic circuit
that causes the subtransient current collapses quickly, usually in less than 0.05 seconds, thus the
subtransient current is present for only a short period of time.
Figure 84 illustrates the time-current relationship during the subtransient time period. In this
figure the subtransient time (T”d), and the rms values for subtransient current (I”d) and transient
current (I’d) are marked for easy identification. The value of subtransient reactance (X”d) is
determined by first making a short-circuit test on the generator and recording the value of fault
current. From the recorded current, the maximum value for the subtransient current (I”d) is
measured and then divided by the value of induced voltage for the generator at the time of the
fault to give the value of the subtransient reactance. From the relative values of subtransient,
transient and synchronous currents, it can be noted that the value of subtransient reactance (X’’d)
is less than the value of transient reactance (X’d), and the value of transient reactance (X’d) is less
than the value of synchronous reactance (Xd).
Figure 84. Subtransient Current and Time

Decrement Curve Model
Figure 85 shows the decrement curve model for three-phase armature short-circuit current. The
model is a time versus rms current graph of the three components that make up the armature
short-circuit current. These components include the steady-state, transient and subtransient
components. Using this model, the direct axis synchronous, transient, and subtransient reactances
(i.e. Xd, X’d, X’’d) can be determined.

Figure 85. Decrement Curve
With reference to Figure 85, the model illustrates the fault current produced by a generator during
short-circuit conditions. For this model, the DC component has been removed and the three AC
components that make up the curve are given in units of rms amperes. The rms values are
determined by dividing peak current values by the square root of two (1.414). Reviewing this
model shows that at the initiation of the fault, a high subtransient current (I”d) is produced. This
current is followed by a transient current (I’d) and finally a steady-state current (Id). The
magnitudes of these currents are determined by the voltage produced inside the generator and the
impedance in the generator circuit. At the very instant that the fault is initiated, the voltage in the
generator is equal to the voltage that was present immediately prior to the fault. When the fault
occurs, the fault current produces a strong magnetic field in the armature, and the flux from this
field passes through the rotor field. The result is an increase in the field current. An example of
this result can be seen in the oscillogram shown in Figure 86. This oscillogram shows a typical
oscillogram of a sudden three-phase short circuit.

Figure 86. Typical Oscillogram of a Sudden Three-Phase Short Circuit
Synchronous Reactance (Xd)
The three reactance values for Xd, X’d, and X’’d for a given generator can be determined by
using the measured current values from a short-circuit oscillogram for the given generator, similar
to the one shown in Figure 86 and the relationships given in the decrement model curve shown in
Figure 85. The synchronous reactance can be determined using the following steps:

• From the decrement model curve note the formula for Xd to be

Xd = Erated _ Id, where Erated is a voltage obtained from the no-load air gap line
in the generator’s family of saturation curves, and Id is the steady-state current
after the transient has diminished.
• Determine Erated and Xd using the saturation curves provided by the manufacturer
for the given generator.
• Determine the symmetrical current component Id by measuring the steady-state

rms current from the short-circuit oscillogram.
Transient Reactance (X’d)
The value of transient reactance for a given generator can be determined by using the measured
current values from a short-circuit oscillogram for the given generator, similar to the one shown in
Figure 86, the relationships given in the decrement model curve shown in Figure 85, and the
following steps:
• From the decrement model curve note that the formula for X’d is
X’d = Erated _ I’d, where Erated is a voltage obtained from the no-load air gap line
in the generator’s family of saturation curves, and I’d is the transient current
component at the beginning of the fault.
• Determine the transient current component I’d by measuring the excess of the
symmetrical component of armature current (except for the first few cycles) over the
steady-state component and plotting the difference on semi-log graph paper. Because
the transient component is an exponential function, plotting it on log paper will yield a
straight line. Extend the straight line back to zero time and add the value of
symmetrical current to obtain the value of transient current I’d (refer to Figures 87 and
88). Calculate the value of transient reactance using the equation X’d = Erated _ I’d.
Figure 87. Envelope of a Synchronous Generator’s Short-Circuit Current

Figure 88. Subtransient and Transient Currents Plotted to Semi-logarithmic Coordinates
Subtransient Reactance (X”d)
The value of subtransient reactance for a given generator can be determined by using the
measured current values from a short-circuit oscillogram for the given generator, similar to the
one shown in Figure 86, the relationships given in the decrement model curve shown in Figure 85,
and the following steps:
• From the decrement model curve note the formula for X’’d to be
X’’d = Erated _ I’’d, where Erated is a voltage obtained from the no-load air gap
line in the generator’s family of saturation curves, and I’’d is the current at the
instant of fault.
• Knowing the symmetrical and transient components (determined above), determine the
subtransient current component I”d by plotting the excess of the symmetrical
component of armature current over the transient component on semi-log graph paper.
Extend the straight line back to zero time and add the zero time value to the transient
component to get the subtransient component I”d (refer to Figures 87 and 88).
Calculate the value of subtransient reactance using the equation X”d = Erated _ I”d.

Capability Curve Parameters
The following sections describe the various parameters of a typical generator capability curve. A
generator capability curve is a graph that identifies the guaranteed kW and kVA output for a
generator for operating conditions that limit hot spot temperatures to practical operating values.
Figure 89 shows an example of a generator capability curve.
With reference to Figure 89, it is seen that the capability curve is divided into two sections (upper
and lower). The upper section shows a plot of the generator output kW on the horizontal axis
versus the generator lagging reactive power (kVARs) on the upper vertical axis. The lower
section shows the generator output kW on the same horizontal axis versus the generator leading
reactive power (kVARs) on the lower vertical axis. The plot of the curve is drawn in a manner
that limits the hot spot temperatures in stator and rotor windings, and in the stator core, to
practical operating values, and to limit the temperature differential across the insulation of the
windings. These capabilities for the generator are determined by manufacturer calculations and
testing and are not directly determinable from the usual temperatures observed during commercial
operation.

Figure 89. Generator Capability Curve
Prime Mover
Generator prime mover limitations are one of the parameters used to help define capability curves.
Prime movers have limitations that are expressed in terms of the maximum torque that they can
produce for use in converting mechanical to electrical power. When applicable, these limitations
can be overlaid on the capability curve and made a part of the curve defining parameters. For
large turbine generators where hydrogen cooling is employed, the cooling is a limitation for the
capability of the generator. When hydrogen is used for generator cooling, multiple limitations
may be introduced by the various pressures that can be used for the cooling hydrogen. The
capability curve shown in Figure 89 illustrates a generator that is driven by a prime mover with
adequate torque (no torque limitation overlay), but one that is limited by the hydrogen cooling
pressure that is used. For the generator described by Figure 89, hydrogen at 60 psig is used to
cool the generator.

Load kW
Another parameter that is used to define a generator capability curve is the kW output of the
generator. The value of kW output is plotted on the horizontal axis of the curve. The maximum
kW output that a generator can produce is determined from the capability curve by reading the
value of megawatts at the intersection of the curve with the center horizontal axis. This maximum
kW value represents the generator nameplate rated kVA when the generator is operating at unity
power factor. By design, the maximum kW output value cannot exceed the torque available from
the prime mover or the cooling capability of the generator.
Load kVAR
Load kVAR is also a parameter that helps to define a generator capability curve. The value of
load kVAR is plotted on the vertical axis of the curve. Because kVARs contain amperes, they
produce heating in the generator due to I2R losses. In addition to heating from I2R effects,
kVARs also introduce additional sources of heat that result from the magnetic effects and flux
coupling between the rotor and stator fields. As a result, the amount of kVARs that may flow in
a generator without causing excessive heating is limited by the cooling capability of the generator.
In addition to the concern for overheating of generator components, it must also be considered
that the more reactive power that is allowed to flow in a generator, the lower will be its kW
power output.
Load kVA
Load kVA is a parameter that defines the capability curve as a result of kVAR and kW being
defining parameters. The load kVA is the vector sum of the generator kVAR and kW output.
The kVAR and kW for the generator can be determined from a kVA line drawn on the capability
curve.
Underexcitation-Leading Power Factor
Leading power factor is another parameter that helps to define the capability curve. This
parameter is shown on the lower portion of the curve where the maximum allowed flow of
leading kVARs for the generator is plotted. The leading power factor parameter is identified by
drawing a straight line from the origin (zero point) to the cooling limit curve. The set of points
(loci) that make up the line define the kW and kVA output of the generator for operation at a
given leading power factor. The curve illustrated in Figure 89 shows a line drawn to describe
operation at the leading power factor value of 0.95.

Overexcitation-Lagging Power Factor
Lagging power factor is an important parameter used to help define a generator capability curve
because the generator normally operates with a lagging power factor. The lagging power factor
parameter is shown on the upper portion of the capability curve where lagging kVARs are
plotted. The lagging power factor parameter is identified on the curve by drawing a straight line
from the origin to the cooling limit in the upper portion of the curve. Figure 89 shows a line
drawn to describe lagging power factor operation at the value of 0.90.
Generator Performance vs. Capability
In order to describe generator kVA performance, it is necessary to describe generator

performance characteristics. A generator capability curve provides information that helps to
describe performance characteristics. Figure 90 shows a generator capability curve with specific
component information and cooling limits identified. This curve is used as a reference for the
following sections that describe performance characteristics that include: power factor versus
VAR capability, synchronous reactance, generator components, VAR flow and unbalanced
voltages, and VAR compensation.

Figure 90. Generator Capability Curves with Identified Cooling Limit Sources
Power Factor Versus VAR Capability

One of the performance characteristics that describes the operation of a generator is the
interrelationship of load power factor and reactive power. The relationship between these
parameters (power factor and MVARs) effects the amount of reactive power that will flow in the
generator. Because reactive power is a measure of current flow, increased reactive power results
in increased current flow for a constant kW output, which in turn causes increased I2R losses and
increased heating of the generator components. To minimize the losses and heating, generator
operations are performed in a manner to minimize reactive power. However, because generators
are required to produce and circulate reactive power as a normal part of their operation, it is
important to determine the maximum MVAR levels that can be maintained without overheating
the generator components.

The maximum reactive power (MVARs) that a generator may produce when operating at a given
kVA load and power factor, can be read directly from the generator capability curve. With
reference to Figure 90, it is seen that the MVAR capability of the generator varies with power
factor and that it increases with decreasing values of power factor. For the generator described
by Figure 90, the maximum lagging MVAR capability when operating at a power factor of 0.935
lagging is read at the intersection of the 0.935 power factor line and the cooling limit curve for the
operating cooling pressure. Thus, when this generator is operated at the reduced cooling pressure
of 30 psig and 0.935 PF lagging, the maximum MVAR capability is approximately 160 MVAR.
However, when the generator is operated at the rated cooling pressure of 60 psig and a power
factor of 0.935 lagging, the maximum MVAR capability is increased to approximately 200
MVAR. The increased MVAR capacity for this example results from the increased cooling of the
generator at its rated pressure. As seen in Figure 90, the absolute maximum MVAR capability for
the generator (410 MVAR, overexcited) occurs at the value of zero power factor, however, it is
also noted that the MVAR capability at this point is less than the maximum MW capability for the
generator (600 MW) when operated at 1.0 power factor.
With reference to component heating, the capability curve of Figure 90 shows that the maximum
capability of the generator when operated in the power factor range between 0.95 leading and
0.90 lagging (nameplate rating) is limited by the temperature of the stator winding. This limit
results because operation on this portion of the curve corresponds to operation at constant stator
amperes with field current always less that the maximum allowed.
When the generator is operated overexcited in the power factor range between zero and 0.90
lagging, heating of the rotor winding becomes the limiting factor to the generator capability. This
limit occurs because operation on this portion of the capability curve requires increased field
current that leads to increased heating of the rotor winding.
The maximum capability of the generator when operated underexcited in the power factor range
between zero and 0.95 leading is limited by the heating of the stator core iron. The temperature
of the stator core becomes the limiting factor when operating on this portion of the curve because
at this operating condition considerable leakage flux leaves the end of the stator core and passes
through various end iron structures and into the retaining ring. This flux path results in high
losses in the first few inches of stator core iron and thus heating of this area.
Synchronous Reactance X(d)
Synchronous reactance is identified by the symbol Xd and is the armature reactance introduced by
the direct axis of the rotor during the flow of armature current. Because the rotor magnetic field
is able to influence the armature reactance (synchronous reactance), and because the strength of
the rotor field is a limit of the capability of the generator, it follows that an interrelationship exists
between the synchronous reactance and the output capability of a generator.

This relationship can be described by noting that the power angle (torque angle) between the
stator and rotor fields varies as a function of the generator load and the rotor field strength. For a
constant external generator kW load, lowering the field current reduces the torque angle and
increases the generator kVA output required to maintain the external load. This results in higher
stator current, a stronger stator magnetic field, and a closer alignment of the stator and rotor
fields. In turn, these actions affect the saturation of the rotor and the synchronous reactance of
the stator.
The affect that these reactions have on the generator output capability is that the increased stator
current causes increased heating in the stator. The increased stator heating becomes a limiting
characteristic for the output of the generator. In a like manner, increased rotor field current
causes increased heating of the rotor winding and is another limitation to the output capability of
the generator. These limitations to the generator output capability are identified on the generator
capability curve (Refer Figure 90).
Generator Components
Generator components affect the shape and limits of the capability curve. In particular, the
thermal capacity of and ability to cool the generator components helps to determine the shape of
the capability curve (Refer Figure 90).
One of the affects of generator components on the capability curve can be explained by noting
that when a generator is operated at a lagging power factor that is less than the nameplate rated
power factor, overheating of the rotor field windings become the limiting factor. When the
generator is operated in this area of the capability curve, the rotor windings are required to carry
higher current than when the generator is operated between rated and unity power factor. As a
result of carrying higher currents, the rotor windings are subject to additional heating. As long as
the kVA level of operation remains within the cooling limits of the capability curve, overheating
will not occur. However, when operated within this area of the capability curve (between rated
lagging power factor and zero power factor) the thermal limit of the rotor and rotor winding
determines the shape of the capability curve.
Another component that affects the capability curve is the armature winding. When the generator
is operated in the power factor range between rated lagging power factor and rated leading power
factor, the current flowing through the armature windings is at a maximum. As a result, the
temperature rise of the stator windings becomes a limiting factor. Thus the thermal limit of the
armature windings and the ability of the generator to cool them determines the shape of the
capability curve for operation in this range.
When operating the generator under-excited at a leading power factor value that is less than the
rated leading power factor, the flux distribution in the generator is such that high losses occur in
the first few inches of the iron at the ends of the stator core. Under these circumstances, the
temperature of the stator core becomes the limiting factor of operation and thus is responsible for
the shape of the capability curve for operation in this region.

VAR Flow / Unbalanced Voltages
Unbalanced (phase) generator voltages cause reactive power in the form of VARs to flow in the
circuit. The greater the unbalance, the greater will be the flow of reactive power. The increased
flow of reactive power affects the power factor and reduces the amount of real (useful) power
that the generator can deliver. For this reason, it is desirable to keep phase voltages balanced as
close as practical.
Because a generator has one rotor and one set of field windings, all three phases of the stator
winding are exposed to exactly the same magnetic field and thus generate balanced voltages.
However, if there are substantially different phase currents due to different phase loads, an
unbalance will exist for the terminal phase voltages.
A condition that can result in unbalanced voltages is one where a generator is required to supply
large blocks of single-phase loads. For this condition, even though care may be used to balance
the generator phase loading by distribution selection, the demand of the users of the single phase
loads can vary greatly and often, causing unbalance of phase currents and thus unbalance of phase
voltages.
When the phase voltages become unbalanced, all of the equipment connected to the system is
exposed to the unbalanced voltages including three-phase equipment, and thus causing unwanted
VARs to be generated.
VAR Compensation
When unwanted VARs exist in a generator circuit, compensation is accomplished by adjusting the
generator field current. Reducing the field current reduces lagging VARs, and increasing field
current reduces leading VARs. For a three-phase generator, unbalanced loads on the individual
phases results in unwanted VAR flow through the generator. Under normal conditions, this
unbalance cannot be completely corrected to eliminated the unwanted VAR flow, but can only be
corrected to a practical balance that reduces the VAR flow.
The method normally used to compensate for unwanted VAR flow is the method of cross-current
compensation. This method uses control components to automatically adjust the field current of
the generator to an optimum point for the given conditions and thereby reduce VAR flow. The
cross-current compensation method accomplishes this adjustment by measuring the output
voltage and current of the generator, comparing the phase relationship of the two signals,
determining what type of adjustment is required to minimize the VAR flow, and then sending an
appropriate control signal to the exciter field to make the adjustment.

GLOSSARY
armature The component of a generator in whose coils an

alternating voltage is produced due to the relative motion
of a magnetic flux field causing the lines of
flux to cross the armature winding.
brushless exciter A main field exciter consisting of a rotating armature

within a stationary field. The AC voltage produced on the
armature is rectified to a DC voltage by rotating
rectification components assembled onto the shaft of the
exciter, thus eliminating the need for collector rings and
brushes.
collector rings A set of metal rings, mounted on the rotor of a generator,

and designed to conduct DC current via
carbon brushes into and out of the rotor windings.
compounding curves A set of curves that is supplied by the manufacturer of a

generator. The curves describe the specific operational
characteristics that relate field current, armature current,
and output power factor.
directly-connected A generator whose output terminals are connected to the

generator power distribution system without the interposition of a
power transformer.
dynamic stability A measure of the time response of a rotor displacement

angle and terminal voltage to a sudden change in load.
excitation The process of establishing and maintaining the magnetic

field of a generator.
excitation system The source of field current for a generator, including its
means of control.
field The magnetic field of a generator; synonymous with rotor.
governor The automatic control element of a prime mover that

regulates it to a constant rotational speed.
generator V-curve A curve that describes the relationship between field

current and armature current for fixed values of load and
power with constant terminal voltage.

generator power angle A curve that describes the relationship between the torque
curve angle and the electrical power produced by a generator for
a constant value of field current.
inner-cooled machine A generator in which the stator coil coolant flows

internally through the coils, the parallel rings, and the lead
bushings, with heat transfer consequently occurring
by means of direct contact between the conductors and the
cooling medium.
insulation class A rating given to the insulation system of a generator that

identifies the maximum temperatures at which the
insulation is designed to operate.
megavolt-ampere The value obtained when the sum of the products of phase
(MVA) voltages and line current outputs of a generator are
divided by one-million.
megavolt-ampere The value obtained when the sum of the products of

reactive (MVAR) output phase voltages and the reactive components of
output line currents of a generator are divided by one-
million.
megawatt (MW) The value obtained when the sum of the product of output
phase voltages and resistive components of output line
currents of a generator are divided by one-million.
motoring The condition of a generator when it is driven by the

power from other generation sources of the distribution
system. In common usage, this term usually implies the
special case of motoring when the fuel or steam supply of
the prime mover has been interrupted and when the
generator remains connected to the system.
overexcited generator A generator whose stator voltage is higher than that of the
distribution system and that is supplying reactive power
(VARs) to the system.
power factor The real power to apparent power ratio; the decimal
fraction by which volt-amperes must be multiplied to
obtain watts.
rated MW The maximum continuous MW output of a generator that

can be delivered at rated power factor without exceeding
the temperature limits of winding components.

rated power factor The value of lagging power factor at which the stator-
winding-limited capability curve meets the rotor-winding-
limited capability curve.
regulator The excitation system controlling mechanism, which

senses a change in the voltage or current at each phase of
the generator terminals, and, which, corrects for the
change by adjusting the field current or by tripping the
generator offline.
rotor displacement The angular difference between the rotor pole and the
(torque) angle rotating magnetic field of the stator, also referred to as the
torque angle.
steady-state stability The ability of a generator to maintain a stable speed under

steady conditions.
temperature rise rating The temperature rise rating given on a generator

nameplate describes the limit of expected rise in
temperature over ambient.
terminal voltage The output voltage of a generator measured at the

generator terminals. Its value is equal to the induced
voltage minus the generator internal voltage drop.
under-excited generator A generator whose stator voltage is lower than that of the
distribution system and is taking reactive
power (VARs) from the system.
voltage regulator The automatic control component of the excitation system

through which the output voltage of the generator is
established and maintained.

Engineering Encyclopedia: Generator Fundamentals

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What are the main components of an electrical generator?

What are the main components of an electrical generator?

What factors affect the output voltage of a generator?

What factors affect the output voltage of a generator?

Engineering Encyclopedia

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Chapter : Electrical For additional information on this subject, contact

ELEMENTS OF A POWER GENERATOR......................................................................... 2

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Source System Ground Versus Plant Generator Ground................................68

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VAR Flow / Unbalanced Voltages ..............................................................126

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Table of Figures Page

Figure 1. Sinusoidal Voltage Output......................................................................... 3

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Figure 29. Stator Winding End-Turn Support ..........................................................37

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Figure 58. Stator RTD Protection............................................................................77

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Figure 86. Typical Oscillogram of a Sudden Three-Phase Short Circuit..................116

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ELEMENTS OF A POWER GENERATOR

Basic Generator Principles

Mechanical to Electrical Conversion

Sinusoidal Voltage Output

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Figure 1. Sinusoidal Voltage Output

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Figure 2. Rotating Flux Fields

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Figure 3. Single-Phase Generator

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Figure 4. Elementary Three-Phase Generator

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Figure 5. One Cycle of Three-Phase Sinusoidal Waveshape

Motor Versus Generator Comparison

In comparing a generator to a motor, several differences and similarities can be identified. To

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Figure 6. Torque Angle at No-Load

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Figure 7. Torque Angle at Rated Load

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Figure 8. Equivalent Circuit

Figure 9. Vector Diagram

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Figure 10. Cross-Section View of Stator Windings for

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Figure 11. Three-Phase Generator and Sine Wave Relationship

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ELEMENTS OF A POWER GENERATION SYSTEM

_ Prime Mover Governors (Speed Control)

Purpose and Types of Prime Movers

Types of Prime Movers

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