MODULE 1: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT, MEANING, CONCEPTS AND APPROACHES

FALSE SAGOT
 MODULE 3: ISSUES ON DEVELOPMENT, STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND
DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

Content Outline
1. Issues on Development
a. Nature and Nurture
b. Continuity and Stages
c. Stability and Change
2. Stages of Human Development and their Description
a. The Prenatal Period
b. Infancy
c. Early Childhood
d. Middle and Late Childhood
e. Adolescence
f. Early Adulthood
g. Middle Adulthood
h. Late Adulthood
3. Developmental Tasks and Suggested Parent/Teacher Practices to support the
development of Children

ISSUES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

There are three major issues concerning human development which are the focus of
Developmental Psychology. These issues concern the following questions:
1. Is development the result of Nature (Genetic inheritance), or is it the result of experiences
and environmental influences? How much of our development is due to
genetic/biological inheritance and how much of it is due to environmental influences?
2. Is development continuous or passes through stages? Continuity and stages: What parts
of development are gradual and continuous, like riding an escalator? What parts change
abruptly in separate stages, like climbing rungs on a ladder? Does development involve
gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct changes (discontinuity)? Is it like a
seedling growing into a tree? Or a caterpillar becoming butterfly?

3. Stability and change: is development best described as involving stability or change? Are
we what our first experiences have made of us or do we develop into someone different
from who we were or used to be? Which of our traits persist through life? How do we
change as we age?
 NATURE AND NURTURE

• The unique genetic combination created by the union of our mother’s egg and father’s
sperm formed us as individuals.
• Our genetic inheritance predisposes both our shared humanity ad our individual
differences.
• It is also true that our experiences for us to be the individuals that we are.
• Our families, peers, or religion teach us how to think and act.
• Those differences due to genetic predisposition can be enhanced or modified by nurture.
• We are not formed by either Nature or Nurture, but by the interaction between those
two. Biological, psychological and social-cultural forces interact to influence our
development.
• The prevailing position is no longer Nature Vs. Nurture but it is about Nurturing Nature

or Biological inheritance nurtured by the environment.

CONTINUITY AND STAGES.
• Researchers who focus on the influence of learning and experience view development as
slow, gradual, ongoing process.
• On the other hand, those who emphasize the influence of biology tends toward explaining
development as a process of maturation, passing through a series of stages guided by
instructions programmed into our genes.
• Progress through the various stages may be quick and abrupt.
• It may be slow but we all pass through the stages in the same order.
STABILITY AND CHANGE
• Developmental psychologists’ research shows that we experience both stability and
change.
• Some people end to predict that children or adolescents will not change much in the
future. In some ways they are correct because some of our characteristics like
temperament are very stable. MacMillan Higher Ed cites studies related to the issue on
stability and change.
● a research team studied 1000 people from age 3 to 32, they were struck by the
consistency of temperament and emotionality across time. Out-of-control 3-year-
olds were the most likely, at age 32, to be out-of-control gamblers.
● Other research showed that the widest smilers in childhood and college photos
were, years later, the adults most likely to enjoy enduring marriages.
● And conscientious 12-year-olds tend to be, 40 years later, more occupationally
successful.
● Citing other studies, MacMillan Higher Ed. (n.d.) noted that we cannot predict all
of our eventual traits based on our early experiences. That is a deterministic
position.
● Some traits such as social attitudes are much less stable than temperament,

especially during the impressionable late adolescent years. Other older children
and adolescents can learn new ways of coping.
● It is true that delinquent children later have higher rates of work problems,
substance abuse, and crime, but many confused and troubled children blossom
into mature, successful adults. Happily for them, life is a process of becoming.
● Most shy, fearful toddlers begin opening up by age 4. In the years after
adolescence, most people become more conscientious, self-disciplined,
agreeable, and self-confident
● Conscientiousness increases especially during the twenties, and agreeableness
during the thirties.
● Many a 20-year-old goof-off has matured into a 40-year-old business or cultural
leader. (If you are the former, you aren’t done yet.) Such changes can occur
without changing a person’s position relative to others of the same age. The hard-
driving young adult may mellow by later life, yet still be a relatively hard-drivingsenior citizen.
Life requires both stability and change. Stability increasingly marks our personality as we age.
And stability gives us our identity. It lets us depend on others and be concerned about the
healthy development of the children in our lives. Our trust in our ability to change gives us hope
for a brighter future and lets us adapt and grow with experience.
Below is an article from Time Magazine that is worth integrating into our lesson on human
development. The article traces some of our developmental problems during the time when we
were still in our mother’s womb. Read and write you reaction on the article.

In this week’s TIME cover story, author Annie Murphy Paul writes: “What makes us the way we
are? Why are some people predisposed to be anxious, overweight or asthmatic? How is it that
some of us are prone to heart attacks, diabetes or high blood pressure?”
From the article, adapted from Paul’s forthcoming book Origins: How the Nine Months Before
Birth Shape the Rest of Our Lives (Sept. 2010, Free Press):

There’s a list of conventional answers to these questions. We are the way we are because it’s
in our genes. We turn out the way we do because of our childhood experiences. Or our health
and well-being stem from the lifestyle choices we make as adults.
But there’s another powerful source of influence you may not have considered: your life as a
fetus. The nutrition you received in the womb; the pollutants, drugs and infections you were
exposed to during gestation; your mother’s health and state of mind while she was pregnant
with you — all these factors shaped you as a baby and continue to affect you to this day.

THE FETAL ORIGIN THEORY BY DAVID BARKER

The most famous proponent of this hypothesis is David J. Barker, a British physician and
epidemiologist, who has argued that inadequate nutrition in utero “programs” the fetus to
have metabolic characteristics that can lead to future disease [Barker, 1992]. For example,
Barker argued that individuals starved in utero are more likely to become overweight as adults,
and that they are more likely to suffer from diseases associated with obesity including
cardiovascular problems and diabetes.
The fetal origins hypothesis combines several key ideas. First, the effects of fetal conditions are
persistent. Second, the health effects can remain latent for many years – typically heart disease
does not emerge as a problem until middle age, for example. Third, the hypothesized effects
reflect a specific biological mechanism, fetal “programming,” possibly through effects of the
environment on the epigenome, which are just beginning to be understood. The epigenome
can be conceived of as a series of switches that cause various parts of the genome to be
expressed – or not. The period while the fetus is in utero may be particularly important for
setting these switches [Petronis, 2010].
The fetal origins hypothesis also broadened the conventional focus on health behaviors of
adults, such as smoking, exercise, and diet, to include earlier environmental factors that might
affect the well-being of the fetus. The hypothesis has been controversial. Much of the early
evidence was mainly correlational, and did not effectively address potential confounders.
Perhaps surprisingly, some of the most convincing evidence in favor of a broader version of the

hypothesis comes from recent work in economics. Economists have also been active in
demonstrating that various environmental factors can have negative impacts on the
developing fetus, even at levels previously thought harmless. Later-life impacts extend to
“bread and butter” economic outcomes, including educational attainment and wages. Almond,
D., & Currie, J. (2011).
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES

John Santrock, a leading scholar in the field of Developmental Psychology divides the human
lifespan in eight periods or stages.
1. Prenatal Period from conception to birth
2. Infancy, from birth to 18-24 months
3. Early Childhood, 2 years to 5 years (Preschool years)
4. Middle and Late Childhood, 6 years to 11 years (Elementary School Years)
5. Adolescence, 10-12 years to 18-22 years ( High School to College Years)
6. Early Adulthood, 20 years to 30 years
7. Middle Adulthood, 20s to 30 years
8. Late Adulthood, 60s to 70s to death
DESCRIPTION OF THE STAGES
Developmental Tasks, Developmental Stages, and Providing Support and Assistance to

Facilitate Development of Children and Adolescents

THE CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

● In each stage of development, a certain task (job, duty to fulfill, a mission) or tasks expected

of every individual.

● Robert Havighurst (in Corpuz, B., et.al., 2010) defines developmental task as one that arises

at a certain period in our life.

● The successful achievement of tasks leads to happiness and success in the completion of later

tasks.

o Failure to achieve them may lead to unhappiness and difficulty with later tasks.

HAVIGHURST’S DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

Note that Havighurst has 6 developmental stages while Santrock has 8 stages. Havighurst did not

include the Prenatal Period and combined Infancy and Early childhood. Santrock on the other

hand identified Infancy and Early Childhood as two separate periods.

The following set of developmental tasks is from the perspective of parents advocating for the

healthy development of children by assisting them the stages of development. It is important for

you, not only as future teachers, but also as future parents to understand the nature of children

and the various developmental tasks your children are expected to achieve as they go through

the stages of development.

Developmental tasks refer to the broad “jobs” of childhood that need to be accomplished in

each stage in order to learn life skills at the appropriate time. The tasks of one stage do not need

to be completely mastered before a child begins the tasks of the next stage. However, the sooner

he masters a task, the easier it will be to tackle the tasks of the next stage.

Children continue to work on most tasks throughout childhood, even though there is usually one

stage at which any one task is most prominent.

These developmental tasks guide parents and teachers in their practices to help the full

development of these children and adolescents. When parents and teachers understand these

developmental tasks, they are in a better position to help in the development of children. They

can do the following to facilitate development:

1. They can model and teach skills that will help them to successfully complete the tasks.

2. They can be more patient.

3. They are less likely to blame themselves or their children when they behave in a

frustrating yet developmentally appropriate ways such as

a. All the “no’s” and not sharing of toddlerhood

b. the strict adherence to rules on one hand mixed with breaking rules at other times

of school age children

c. the defiance, opposition and criticalness and peer focus of teens

When children are able to fulfill the tasks, it is important that parents and teachers affirm

them for practicing/mastering their developmental tasks.

DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES AND DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS ARE PRESENTED BELOW:

INFANCY FROM BIRTH TO 18 MONTHS

Description of Developmental Stage

Infancy – 18 months

Babies and very young children depend on adults to meet all their needs.

They do not see themselves as separate people from their parents.

They form opinions (for good or bad) by taking in the caretakers’ feelings about them.

WHAT ARE THE DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS DURING THIS PERIOD?

INFANTS NEED TO:

● Learn to trust their environment

● Believe that their needs are important

● feel loved and worthy of being cared for

● establish a bond with their caretakers

● explore their world

WHAT DO PARENTS/CAREGIVERS NEED TO DO TO SUPPORT AND ASSIST INFANTS IN THEIR

DEVELOPMENT? PARENTS AND CAREGIVERS NEED TO:

• offer calm and consistent care

• meet their needs whenever possible.

• Know that it is important to hold and cuddle your babies when they cry.

• maintain schedules and rituals. For example, at bedtime, bath-time, mealtime in order

to help them feel secure.

• talk to them even though they may not understand the words.

o They will understand the attention and the warm feelings which are
communicated non-verbally.

• provide a safe environment for them to explore.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE

18 months to 3 years

Children this age are very active and move back and forth between wanting to be independent

and wanting the security of their parents.

One moment they will be negative and use their favorite word “no” (even for things they

actually do want) as a way to express their power and show that they have their own opinions;

and the next moment they will be clamoring for their parents’ love and attention.

They become frustrated easily, and their frequent inability to communicate their thoughts,

complete tasks on their own, and have things on their own terms.

Their frequent tantrums are an expression of that frustration.

WHAT ARE THE DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS DURING THIS PERIOD? CHILDREN NEED TO:

• become more independent

• begin to see themselves as separate from the parents

• “owning things” – this age group does not like to share (even things that are not their

own!)

• continue to explore their world

• begin to identify feelings and express them in appropriate ways

What do parents/caregivers need to do to support and assist children in their development?

Parents and caregivers need to:

• baby-proof your home so that they can explore and do things on their own with safety

and without you having to oversee everything they do

• set firm limits around safety issues

• recognize that ‘no’ is the beginning of separation and self-assertion

• offer acceptable choices as a way to gain cooperation

• give them two “yesses” for every time you have to say “no” to them
• choose your battles, letting go of many issues that do not put them in danger to avoid

unnecessary power struggles

• allow them to “own” their things and not expect them to share graciously – they need

to fully experience “owning” before they can genuinely share their things

• accept positive and negative feelings

• teach the difference between their feelings and their behavior;

• help them recognize and express their feelings in appropriate ways while setting limits

on unacceptable behavior

• permitting and encourage them to do whatever they are capable of as long as it is safe

to do

• provide a variety of things for your children to experience.

The next stage is . . . .Early Childhood

CHILDREN AGES 4 TO 5 EARLY CHILDHOOD

Description of the Developmental Stage4 to 5 years

• Children this age are active and on the move.

• They ask a lot of questions (how, why, when, how long) as they try to understand the

world.

• They like to try on different identities by role playing and playing “make-believe.”

• They also like to be involved in many different activities and some are beginning to be

quite social.

• They may resist listening to their parents’ instructions as they experiment with power

in the relationships.

What are the developmental tasks during this period? Children need to:

• learn how to plan out and engage in a task

• continue to explore their world and discover how it work

• learn how to use power

• learn that behaviors have consequences

• acquire socially appropriate behavior

WHAT DO PARENTS/CAREGIVERS NEED TO DO TO SUPPORT AND ASSIST CHILDREN IN THEIR
DEVELOPMENT? PARENTS/CAREGIVERS AND PRESCHOOL TEACHERS NEED TO:

• Set limits

o follow through with appropriate consequences to teach about cause and effect

and to teach children to be accountable for their choices

• allow them to make decisions about things that impact them so they gain a sense of

control over their lives

• teach them words to name and ways to express their feelings

• encourage their “make-believe” play while helping them to distinguish between

fantasy and reality.

• Encourage emotional and cognitive needs

o support their involvement in activities that interest them

o provide information about the world

o correct misinformation

o answer their many questions

o give them freedom to explore and experiment as long as it is safe

• Social development:

o Encouraging relationships with peers

THE NEXT STAGE IS THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL YEARS .

Children ages 6 to 11 Middle to late childhood

Description of the Developmental Stage 6 to 11 years

• 6 – 11-year-olds ask a lot of questions as they gather information about the world and

how it works.

• They are also eager to learn new skills, including social skills.

• They are very interested in rules and why they exist.

• They want people to obey rules even though they do not necessarily abide by them.

• They may test rules, disagree with them, break them, or try to set them as they learn

to make the rules their own.

• They use their more mature reasoning abilities to understand the reasons why the rules
exist and to differentiate between wants and needs.

• Along with exploration of rules and the beginnings of a cooperative spirit, games

become prominent in their play

What are the developmental tasks during this period? Children need to:

• master difficult tasks

• accept and follow rules and internalizing the

• develop responsibility

• learn many new skills, including social skills (especially same-sex peer relationships)

• select adult role models of the same sex

• continue to learn how the world works

• increase their independence

• enhance their ability to reason

• becoming more cooperative

What do parents/caregivers need to do to support and assist children in their development?

Parents/caregivers and teachers need to:

• Set limits

o allow children to see the results of their behavior by imposing appropriate

consequences and following through with the consequences you set

o set negotiable and non-negotiable rules

• let them make decisions about things that affect them, to the degree that their

judgment allows

• point out what is real versus fantasy and encouraging children to report events

accurately.

• Young children may lie or steal. Without thinking they are doomed to a life of crime and

without blaming or humiliating them, you can confront children with the facts and help

them to tell the truth and make amends

• assign chores to encourage cooperation, responsibility, and feeling that they are part of

and are needed in the family.

Encouraging emotional and cognitive development

• help them to understand their feelings and identify the feelings of others

• teach them to solve problems so they can deal with conflict and life’s challenges

• encourage activities that reflect their interests, build skills, and increase their confidence

and sense of accomplishment

• allow, encourage, and help them to finish tasks

• praise them for trying to do things

• be a reliable source of information

Social development

• provide time with friends

• introduce them to role models other than their parents.

The next stage is Adolescence . . .this is your current developmental stage . . .

ADOLESCENTS AGES 12-18 YEARS OLD

Description of the Developmental Stage

12 to 18 years

Many teens weather the storms of the age with little stress.

Although parents often approach their children’s adolescent years with concern, most teens

experience these adolescent years with great enthusiasm for and healthy involvement in all

aspects of a well-rounded life.

• Teens can be delightful and fun to have around.

• They can be very creative, energetic, idealistic, compassionate, altruistic, and engaging.

• Teens often use their new intellectual ability to think abstractly. This is the age when

passionate involvement in ‘causes’ often becomes a prominent focus of a teen’s life.

• Some teenagers are moody.

• They may suffer from anxiety as they confront the many changes they are experiencing

socially, emotionally, intellectually, and physically.

• Many teens become very critical of everything their parents do.

• In efforts to separate from their parents and become their own person, they become
very judgmental about things their parents say and believe in.

• The peer group becomes very important in their lives now.

o It serves as their new “security blanket”. To help them with this separation, their

friend connections allow them to partially cast off the family that has cared for

them until now and to forge their own way in the world.

o The peer group also serves as a testing ground for relating to the opposite sex

and for belonging to groups.

o Teens’ social relationships help them to learn to navigate relationships now and

throughout their lives.

• They often re-connect with parents in late adolescence/early adulthood.

o At that point in their development, they become less dependent on their peers

and more confident of themselves and their identities.

What are the developmental tasks during this period?

YOUneed to:

o establish your own identity

o separate emotionally from your parents

o experiment with different values and decide for your own values

o learn about how to relate to the opposite sex

o begin to renegotiate relationships with your family members

What do parents/caregivers and teachers need to do to support and assist children in their

development?

Parents/Caregivers/Teachers need to: (Some portions are highly applicable for teachers in the

classroom setting)

Set limits

o gradually turn over decision-making to your teens:

o allow them to make decisions about things that effect their lives to the extent that their

judgment permits
o match their increased judgment and responsibility with increased privileges

o continue to set firm rules and limits about safety matter and important values – you

are still the parent and have the ultimate authority in your home

o set and follow through with consequences

o choose your battles – you might let issues about clothing or appearance go

o continue to monitor friendships, academic performance, internet/technology use; step

in if you feel your children need guidance or limits

Encourage emotional and cognitive development

o remember that even if your teens are pushing you away, they really do still want your

input; find new ways to stay connected

o continue to let your teens know what your values are

o be a good role model

o celebrate their growing up and growing independence.

Social development

o encourage healthy peer involvement; make your home teen-friendly without

compromising your values

o support involvement in activities that interest your teen

Let us try to summarize what were presented in this module through this illustration. You can

make your own illustration depicting how you understood the module.
 MODULE 4: SELECTED TOPICS IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Content Outline

1. Growth and Nutrition in Early Childhood

2. Motor Skill Development

3. Brain Development and Nutrition

4. Attachment Theory

5. Parenting Styles

GROWTH AND NUTRITION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

Growth in early childhood

• Children between the ages of 2 and 6 years tend to grow about 3 inches in height each year and gain
about 4 to 5 pounds in weight each year.

• The average 6-year-old weighs about 46 pounds and is about 46 inches in height.

• The 3-year-old is very similar to a toddler with a large head, large stomach, short arms, and short legs.

• During early childhood, children start to lose some of their baby fat, making them less like a baby, and
more like a child as they progress through this stage.

• By around age 3, children will have all 20 of their primary teeth, and by around age 4, may have 20/20
vision.

• Many children take a daytime nap until around age 4 or 5, then sleep between 11 and 13 hours at
night.

• By the time the child reaches age 6, the torso has lengthened and body proportions have become
more like those of adults.

o It should be noted that these growth patterns are seen where children receive adequate nutrition.

• Studies from many countries support the assertion that children tend to grow more slowly in low SES
areas, and thus they are smaller.

• This growth rate is slower than that of infancy and is accompanied by a reduced appetite between the
ages of 2 and 6. This change can sometimes be surprising to parents and lead to the development of
poor eating habits.
 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

• During the first few years of life, children’s brains grow and develop at an astonishing pace.

• This growth period also includes physical development and coordination during which young children
are learning how to move and use their bodies – otherwise known as motor development.

• Motor development means the physical growth and strengthening of a child’s bones, muscles and
ability to move and touch his/her surroundings.

• A child’s motor development falls into two categories: fine motor and gross motor

EARLY CHILDHOOD IS A TIME OF DEVELOPMENT OF BOTH GROSS AND FINE MOTOR SKILLS.

• Early childhood is a time when children are especially attracted to motion and song.

• Days are filled with moving, jumping, running, swinging and clapping, and every place becomes a
playground.

• Children’s songs are often accompanied by arm and leg movements or cues to turn around or move
from left to right.

• Running, jumping, dancing movements, etc. all afford children the ability to improve their gross motor
skills.

• Fine motor skills are also being refined in activities such as pouring water into a container, drawing,
coloring, and using scissors.
o Some children’s songs promote fine motor skills as well (remember the song “itsy, bitsy, spider”).

o Mastering the fine art of cutting one’s own fingernails or tying their shoes will take a lot of practice
and maturation.

o Fine motor skills continue to develop in middle childhood, but for preschoolers, the type of play that
deliberately involves these skills is emphasized.

WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCE OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT? THEIR LINK TO COGNITIVE AND SOCIO-
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT.

• Motor development is important throughout a child’s early life, because physical development is tied
to other development areas.

o For example, if a child is able to crawl or walk (gross motor skills), he/she can more easily explore their
physical environment, which affects cognitive development. Exploration of the environment enables the
child to see, touch, hear, smell the environment leading to acquisition of information (knowledge) about
the environment and the many objects in it.

• Social and emotional development progresses when a child can speak, eat and drink (fine motor skills).

• Motor skills help connect your child to new experiences.

o When a preschooler learns how to jump and kick a ball, it allows her to play sports with other kids,
opening up her world to a new game, skills, and social activities.
 ON BRAIN MATURATION

• The brain is about 75 percent of its adult weight by two years of age.

• By age 6, it is at 95 percent of its adult weight.

• The development of myelin (myelination) and the development of new synapses (through the process
of synaptic pruning) continues to occur in the cortex and as it does we see a corresponding change in
what the child is capable of doing.

• Remember that myelin is the coating around the axon that facilitates neural transmission.
 IMPORTANCE OF THE EARLY YEARS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRAIN THROUGH NUTRITION.

(This is a challenge for children from economically-disadvantaged families. Effects are seen in the
academic outcome of learners from poor families without adequate food/nutrition. This partly explain
why students from poor families do poorly in school.)

• The cognitive, social, and emotional parts of the brain continue to develop across the lifespan.

• A great deal of the brain’s ultimate structure and capacity is shaped early in life before the age of 3
years.

• The ramifications are large because failure to optimize brain development early in life appears to
have long-term consequences with respect to education, job potential, and adult mental health.

• These long-term consequences are the “ultimate cost to society” of early life adversity.

• Among the factors that influence early brain development, three stand out has having particularly
profound effects:
o reduction of toxic stress and inflammation,

o presence of strong social support and secure attachment, and

o provision of optimal nutrition

▪ food insecurity, or inadequate food due to lack of money or other resourcesresult to

malnutrition/undernutrition which consequently affect learning of children from poor families.

▪ (Source: Cusick, S. E., & Georgieff, M. K. (2016). The Role of Nutrition in Brain Development: The
Golden Opportunity of the "First 1000 Days". The Journal of

pediatrics, 175, 16–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2016.05.013. Retrieved from

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4981537/)

• Along the same vein, study of Chinyoka, K. (2014) highlighted the same negative impact of food
insecurity or inadequate food and nutrition. Findings revealed that

o malnutrition affected not only the physical growth of children but also the cognitive development.
Consequently, it affected negatively the academic performance, health and survival of learners.

o Hungry and undernourished grade 7 learners failed to take on physical work and sports activities for
obvious reasons of lacking in physical strength and energy; unable to regularly attend school and
unable to concentrate or focus on academic tasks when they are in school. The end result is no
learning happens in those children.
 ATTACHMENT AFFECTS BRAIN DEVELOPMENT IN TWO IMPORTANT WAYS:

1. because the child feels safe and cared for, the brain can use its energy to develop pathways crucial for
higher level thinking. Secure attachment is particularly related to the development of the frontal cortex,
which is responsible for decision making, judgment, and reasoning (DeBellis & Thomas; Dozier, et al., IN
Practice Notes, 2014).

2. by providing a "home base" from which a child can safely explore the world, secure attachment allows
the child to have more varied experiences and therefore build more connections in the brain, Practice
Notes, 2014).

EFFECT OF STRONG/POSITIVE EMOTIONAL BOND ON THE SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE

CHILD:

• Attachment to a primary caregiver is the foundation of all future relationships. When there is a secure
attachment, you learn how to trust others, how to respond emotionally, and how others will respond
to you (Bowlby In Practice Notes, 20
The PARENTING STYLES commonly used in psychology today are based on the work of Diana Baumrind,
a developmental psychologist at the University of California at Berkeley, in the 1960s. Maccoby and
Martin also contributed by refining the model in the 1980s.

DIANA BAUMRIND’S PARENTING STYLES THEORY

• Based on extensive observation, interviews and analyses, Baumrind initially identified three different
types of parenting styles:

1. authoritative parenting,

2. authoritarian parenting and

3. permissive parenting.

• Maccoby and Martin (1983) were the ones who expanded this 3-parenting-styles model using a two-
dimensional framework.

• They expanded Baumrind’s permissive parenting style into two different types:
1. permissive parenting (also known as indulgent parenting style) and

2. neglectful parenting (also known as uninvolved parenting style).

• These four parenting styles are sometimes called the Baumrind parenting styles or Maccoby and
Martin parenting styles. The four types of parenting styles are:

1. Authoritative

2. Authoritarian (or Disciplinarian)

3. Permissive (or Indulgent)

4. Neglectful (or Uninvolved)

Parenting styles are categorized based on two dimensions of parenting behavior:

• DEMANDINGNESS

o refers to the extend parents control their children’s behavior or demand their maturity;

o also, refers to level of control and expectations; involves discipline and confrontation strategies.

• RESPONSIVENESS

o refers to the degree parents are accepting and sensitive to their children’semotional and
developmental needs;

o pertains to expression of affection and communication;

▪ refers to how warm, caring, and respectful the adult is to the child.
 WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF TEMPERAMENT? (IN CORPUZ, ET AL., 2010).

1. ACTIVITY LEVEL; some children are active, full of energy, move a lot while others are placid or inactive

2. MOOD: some are smiley and cheerful while others are in a low-key mode, look solemn or unhappy

3. THRESHOLD FOR DISTRESS: some are very sensitive, get very easily upset when stressed

4. RHYTHMICITY: some follow regular and predictable schedule for eating, sleeping, urinating, bowel
movement; while others can be unpredictable and no regular schedule

5. INTENSITY OF RESPONSE: some children react with high intensity to stressful situation, while others
seem relaxed and chill

6. APPROACH-WITHDRAWAL: some are cautious, wary and fearful to approach things or people; while
other seem to be confident and enjoy approaching new things and people

7. DISTRACTIBILITY: some get easily distracted and lose focus but others can concentrate on what they
do despite distractions

8. ADAPTABILITY: some can adapt easily to new situations but other children can find it difficult to
adapt or make adjustments

9. PERSISTENCE: some persist in doing their tasks but other children easily give up especially when they
find it difficult.