Part and Mold Design

Bayer Corporation
Bayer Corporation • 100 Bayer Road • Pittsburgh, PA 15205-9741 • 1-800-622-6004

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Part and Mold Design
Illinois: 9801 W. Higgins Road, Suite 420, Rosemont, IL 60018-4704
1-847-692-5560 • Fax: 1-847-692-7408 THERMOPLASTICS

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Ontario: Bayer Inc.

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A Design Guide
THERMOPLASTICS
Note: The information contained in this bulletin is current as of April 2000.
Please contact Bayer Corporation to determine whether this
publication has been revised.
Printed on recycled paper KU-GE028 Copyright © 2000, Bayer Corporation Printed in U.S.A. 570 (25M) 04/00
INTRODUCTION
A product of the Bayer Design The manual focuses primarily on Contact your Bayer sales representative
Engineering Services Group, this manual plastic part and mold design, but also for copies of these publications.
is primarily intended as a reference includes chapters on the design process;
source for part designers and molding designing for assembly; machining and This publication was written specifically
engineers working with Bayer thermo- finishing; and painting, plating, and to assist our customers in the design and
plastic resins. The table of contents and decorating. For the most part, it excludes manufacture of products made from the
index were carefully constructed to information covered in the following Bayer line of thermoplastic engineering
guide you quickly to the information Bayer companion publications: resins. These resins include:
you need either by topic or by keyword.
The content was also organized to allow Material Selection: Thermoplastics and • Makrolon® Polycarbonate
the manual to function as an educational Polyurethanes: A comprehensive look at
text for anyone just entering the field of material testing and the issues to consider • Apec® High-Heat Polycarbonate
plastic-part manufacturing. Concepts when selecting a plastic material.
and terminology are introduced pro- • Bayblend® Polycarbonate/
gressively for logical cover-to-cover Joining Techniques: Includes infor- ABS Blend
reading. mation and guidelines on the methods
for joining plastics including mechanical • Makroblend® Polycarbonate Blend
fasteners, welding techniques, inserts,
snap fits, and solvent and adhesive • Triax® Polyamide/ABS Blend
bonding.
• Lustran® and Novodur® ABS
Snap-Fit Joints for Plastics: Contains
the engineering formulas and worked • Lustran® SAN
examples showing how to design snap-
fit joints for Bayer thermoplastic resins. • Cadon® SMA
• Centrex® ASA, AES and ASA/AES

Weatherable Polymers
• Durethan® Polyamide 6 and 66,

and Amorphous Polyamide
• Texin® and Desmopan®

Thermoplastic Polyurethane
• Pocan® PBT Polyester
1
Most of the design principles covered in Bayer CAMPUS: Software containing In addition to design manuals, Bayer
this manual apply to all of these resins. single and multi-point data that was Corporation provides design assistance
When discussing guidelines or issues generated according to uniform standards. in other forms such as seminars and
for a specific resin family, we reference Allows you to search grades of Bayer technical publications. Bayer also offers
these materials either by their Bayer resins that meet a particular set of a range of design engineering services
trade names or by their generic performance requirements. to its qualified customers. Contact your
polymer type. Bayer sales representative for more
www.bayer.com/polymers-usa: Bayer information on these other services.
The material data scattered throughout Web site containing product information
the chapters is included by way of on-line.
example only and may not reflect the
most current testing. In addition, much This manual provides general information
of the data is generic and may differ and guidelines. Because each product
from the properties of specific resin application is different, always conduct
grades. For up-to-date performance data a thorough engineering analysis of your
for specific Bayer resins, contact your design, and prototype test new designs
Bayer sales representative or refer to the under actual in-use conditions. Apply
following information sources: appropriate safety factors, especially
in applications in which failure could
Bayer Engineering Polymers Properties cause harm or injury.
Guide: Contains common single-point
properties by resin family and grade.
Bayer Plastics Product Information

Bulletin: Lists information and properties
for a specific material grade.
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Chapter 2
PART DESIGN PROCESS: CONCEPT TO FINISHED PART GENERAL DESIGN
7 Design Process 19 Wall Thickness

8 Defining Plastic Part Requirements 22 Flow Leaders and Restrictors
8 Mechanical Loading 24 Ribs
8 Temperature 24 Rib Design
8 Chemical Exposure 24 Rib Thickness
8 Electrical Performance 26 Rib Size
8 Weather Resistance 27 Rib Location and Numbers
8 Radiation 27 Bosses
8 Appearance 30 Gussets
9 Agency Approvals 30 Sharp Corners
9 Life Expectancy 32 Draft
9 Dimensional Tolerances 33 Holes and Cores
9 Processing 34 Undercuts
9 Production Quantities 34 Slides and Cores
9 Cost Constraints 36 Louvers and Vents
10 Assembly 37 Molded-In Threads
10 Thermoplastic Processing Methods 40 Lettering
10 Injection Molding 40 Tolerances
11 Extrusion 42 Bearings and Gears
12 Thermoforming
12 Blow Molding
13 Rotomolding
13 Optimizing Product Function
14 Consolidation
14 Hardware
14 Finish
15 Markings and Logos
15 Miscellaneous
15 Reducing Manufacturing Costs
15 Materials
16 Overhead
17 Labor
17 Scrap and Rework
17 Prototype Testing
3
Chapter 3 Chapter 4
STRUCTURAL DESIGN DESIGN FOR ASSEMBLY
45 Structural Considerations In Plastics 83 Part Consolidation

46 Stiffness 84 Mechanical Fasteners
46 Viscoelasticity 85 Snap-Fit Joints
48 Stress-Strain Behavior 88 Welding and Bonding
50 Molding Factors 89 Ultrasonic Welding
51 Short-Term Mechanical Properties 90 Vibration and Hot-Plate Welding
51 Tensile Properties 91 Spin Welding
52 Tensile Modulus 91 Solvent and Adhesive Bonding
52 Tensile Stress at Yield 92 Retention Features
52 Tensile Stress at Break 92 Alignment Features
53 Ultimate Strength 94 Orientation
53 Poisson's Ratio 94 Expansion Differences
53 Compressive Properties 94 Tolerances
53 Flexural Modulus
53 Coefficient of Friction
54 Long-Term Mechanical Properties Chapter 5
MACHINING AND FINISHING
54 Creep Properties
56 Stress Relaxation 97 Drilling and Reaming
56 Fatigue Properties 99 Tapping
58 Structural Design Formulas 99 Sawing
58 Use of Moduli 100 Punching, Blanking, and Die Cutting
59 Stress and Strain Limits 101 Milling
60 Uniaxial Tensile and Compressive Stress 101 Turning and Boring
61 Bending and Flexural Stress 102 Laser Machining
65 Shear Stress 103 Filing
66 Torsion 103 Sanding
67 Designing for Stiffness 103 Polishing and Buffing
67 Part Shape 104 Trimming, Finishing, and Flash Removal
70 Wall Thickness
71 Ribs
73 Long-Term Loading
76 Designing for Impact
78 Fatigue Applications
80 Thermal Loading
4
Chapter 6 Chapter 7
PAINTING, PLATING, AND DECORATING MOLD DESIGN
105 Painting 121 Mold Basics

105 Types of Paints 121 Types of Molds
106 Paint Curing 124 Mold Bases and Cavities
106 Paint-Selection Considerations 125 Molding Undercuts
107 Spray Painting 128 Part Ejection
108 Other Painting Methods 130 Mold Venting
108 Masking 130 Parting-Line Vents
109 Other Design Considerations for Painting 131 Vent Placement
109 In-Mold Decorating 133 Sprues, Runners, and Gates
110 Film-Insert Molding 133 Sprues
111 Metallic Coatings 134 Runners
111 Electroplating 137 Runners for Multicavity Molds
112 Design Considerations for Electroplating 140 Gates
113 Molding Considerations for Electroplating 144 Other Gate Designs
114 Vacuum Metallization 145 Gate Optimization
115 Design Considerations for Vacuum Metallization 147 Gate Position
115 EMI/RFI Shielding 149 Hot-Runner Systems
115 Design Considerations for EMI/RFI Shielding 149 Hot-Runner Designs
116 Printing 149 Hot-Runner Gates
118 Labels and Decals 151 Valve Gates
119 Texture 151 Thermal Expansion and Isolation
152 Flow Channel Size
153 Mold Cooling
154 Mold-Cooling Considerations
155 Cooling-Channel Placement
158 Cooling-Line Configuration
159 Coolant Flow Rate
160 Mold Shrinkage
162 Mold Metals
163 Surface Treatments
164 Mold Cost and Quality
APPENDICES
165 Index
169 Part Design Checklist
5
6
Chapter 1
PART DESIGN PROCESS:
CONCEPT TO FINISHED PART
Many factors affect plastic-part design. DESIGN PROCESS Early input from various design and
Among these factors are: functional manufacturing groups also helps to
requirements, such as mechanical Like a successful play in football, focus attention on total product cost
loading and ultraviolet stability; successful plastic product design and rather than just the costs of individual
aesthetic needs, such as color, level of production requires team effort and a items or processes. Often adding a
transparency, and tactile response; and well-developed strategy. When designing processing step and related cost in one
economic concerns, such as cost of plastic parts, your team should consist area produces a greater reduction in
materials, labor, and capital equipment. of diverse players, including conceptual total product cost. For example, adding
These factors, coupled with other designers, stylists, design engineers, snap latches and nesting features may
design concerns — such as agency materials suppliers, mold makers, increase part and mold costs, and at the
approval, processing parameters, manufacturing personnel, processors, same time, produce greater savings in
and part consolidation — are discussed finishers, and decorators. Your chance assembly operations and related costs.
in this chapter. of producing a product that successfully Likewise, specifying a more-expensive
competes in the marketplace increases resin with molded-in color and UV
when your strategy takes full advantage resistance may increase your raw-
of team strengths, accounts for members’ material cost, while eliminating
limitations, and avoids overburdening painting costs.
any one person. As the designer, you
must consider these factors early in When designing and developing parts,
strategy development and make focus on defining and maximizing part
adjustments based upon input from the function and appearance, specifying
various people on the design team. actual part requirements, evaluating
process options, selecting an appropri-
Solicit simultaneous input from the var- ate material, reducing manufacturing
ious “players” early in product develop- costs, and conducting prototype testing.
ment, before many aspects of the design For the reasons stated above, these
have been determined and cannot be efforts should proceed simultaneously.
changed. Accommodate suggestions for
enhancing product performance, or for
simplifying and improving the various
manufacturing steps such as mold
construction, processing, assembly,
and finishing. Too often designs pass
sequentially from concept development
to manufacturing steps with features
that needlessly complicate production
and add cost.
7
DEFINING PLASTIC PART Chemical Exposure may be less severe if your part is
REQUIREMENTS exposed to weather elements only
Plastic parts encounter a wide variety of occasionally. For example, outdoor
Thoroughly ascertain and evaluate your chemicals both during manufacturing Christmas decorations and other season-
part and material requirements, which and in the end-use environment, al products may only have to satisfy the
will influence both part design and including mold releases, cutting oils, requirements for their specific, limited
material selection. When evaluating degreasers, lubricants, cleaning sol- exposure.
these requirements, consider more than vents, printing dyes, paints, adhesives,
just the intended, end-use conditions cooking greases, and automotive fluids.
and loads: Plastic parts are often sub- Make sure that these chemicals are Radiation
jected to harsher conditions during compatible with your selected material
manufacturing and shipping than in and final part. A variety of artificial sources — such
actual use. Look at all aspects of part as fluorescent lights, high-intensity dis-
and material performance including charge lamps, and gamma sterilization
the following. Electrical Performance units — emit radiation that can yellow
and/or degrade many plastics. If your
Note required electrical property values part will be exposed to a radiation
Mechanical Loading and nature of electrical loading. For source, consider painting it, or specifying
reference, list materials that are known a UV-stabilized resin.
Carefully evaluate all types of mechanical to have sufficient electrical performance
loading including short-term static in your application. Determine if
loads, impacts, and vibrational or your part requires EMI shielding or Appearance
cyclic loads that could lead to fatigue. UL testing.
Ascertain long-term loads that could Aesthetic requirements can entail many
cause creep or stress relaxation. Clearly material and part-design issues. For
identify impact requirements. Weather Resistance example, a need for transparency greatly
reduces the number of potential plastics,
Temperature, moisture, and UV sun especially if the part needs high clarity.
Temperature exposure affect plastic parts’ properties Color may also play an important role.
and appearance. The end-use of a product Plastics must often match the color of
Many material properties in plastics — determines the type of weather resistance other materials used in parts of an
impact strength, modulus, tensile required. For instance, external automo- assembly. Some applications require the
strength, and creep resistance to name a tive parts such as mirror housings must plastic part to weather at the same rate
few — vary with temperature. Consider withstand continuous outdoor exposure as other materials in an assembly.
the full range of end-use temperatures, and perform in the full range of weather
as well as temperatures to which the part conditions. Additionally, heat gain from
will be exposed during manufacturing, sun on dark surfaces may raise the upper
finishing, and shipping. Remember that temperature requirement considerably
impact resistance generally diminishes higher than maximum expected temper-
at lower temperatures. atures. Conversely, your requirements
8
Chapter 1
CONCEPT TO FINISHED PART continued
In resins, custom colors generally cost contact, United States Department of Processing
more than standard colors, particularly Agriculture (USDA) for plastics in
for small-order quantities. For certain meat and poultry equipment, and Determine if your part design places
colors and effects, some parts may need National Sanitation Foundation Testing special demands on processing. For
to be painted or decorated in the mold. Laboratory, Inc. (NSF) for plastics in example, will the part need a mold
Depending upon the application, parts food-processing and potable-water geometry that is particularly difficult
with metallic finishes may require applications. Always check for to fill, or would be prone to warpage
painting, in-mold decorating or vacuum compliance and approval from and bow. Address all part-ejection and
metallization. Surface finishes range appropriate agencies. Determine if regrind issues.
from high-gloss to heavy-matte. your part requires flame resistance in
Photoetching the mold steel can impart accordance with UL 94. If so, note
special surface textures for parts. rating and thickness. Production Quantities
Styling concerns may dictate the prod- The number of parts needed may
uct shape, look, and feel, especially if Life Expectancy influence decisions, including processing
the product is part of a component sys- methods, mold design, material choice,
tem or existing product family. Note all Many functional parts need to meet assembly techniques, and finishing
cosmetic and non-cosmetic surfaces. certain life-cycle expectations. Life methods. Generally for greater production
Among other things, these areas may expectancy may involve a time duration quantities, you should spend money to
influence gate, runner, and ejector-pin — as in years of outdoor exposure — streamline the process and optimize
positioning. time at a specific set of conditions — productivity early in the design process.
such as hours in boiling water — or
Many part designs must include mark- repetitions of an applied load or
ings or designs such as logos, warnings, condition — as in number of gamma Cost Constraints
instructions, and control labels. sterilization cycles or snap-arm
Determine if these features can be deflections. Determine a reasonable Plastic-part cost can be particularly
molded directly onto the part surface life expectancy for your part. important, if your molded part comprises
or if they must be added using one of all or most of the cost of the final product.
the decorating methods discussed in Be careful to consider total system cost,
Chapter 6. Dimensional Tolerances not just part and material cost.
Many applications have features

Agency Approvals requiring tight tolerances for proper fit
and function. Some mating parts require
Government and private agencies have only that mating features have the same
specifications and approval cycles for dimensions. Others must have absolute
many plastic parts. These agencies size and tolerance. Consider the effect
include Underwriters’ Laboratories of load, temperature, and creep on
(UL) for electrical devices, Military dimensions. Over-specification of
(MIL) for military applications, Food tolerance can increase product
and Drug Administration (FDA) for cost significantly.
applications with food and bodily-fluid
9
Assembly THERMOPLASTIC Injection Molding
PROCESSING METHODS
Address assembly requirements, such as The most common processing method
the number of times the product will be A variety of commercial methods are for Bayer thermoplastics, injection
disassembled or if assembly will be used to produce thermoplastic products. molding, involves forcing molten
automated. List likely or proposed Each has its specific design require- plastic into molds at high pressure. The
assembly methods: screws, welds, ments, as well as limitations. Usually plastic then forms to the shape of the
adhesives, snap-latches, etc. Note mating part design, size, and shape clearly mold as it cools and solidifies (see
materials and potential problem areas determine the best process. figure 1-1). Usually a quick-cycle
such as attachments to materials Occasionally, the part concept lends process, injection molding can produce
with different values of coefficient of itself to more than one process. Because large quantities of parts, accommodate
linear thermal expansion. State any product development differs depending a wide variety of part sizes, offer
recycling requirements. upon the process, your design team excellent part-to-part repeatability,
must decide which process to pursue and make parts with relatively tight
The “Part Requirements and Design early in product development. This tolerances. Molds can produce intricate
Checklist” in the back of this manual section briefly explains the common features and textures, as well as structural
serves as a guide when developing new processes used for thermoplastics from and assembly elements such as ribs and
products. Be sure not to overlook any Bayer Corporation. bosses. Undercuts and threads usually
requirements relevant to your specific
application. Also do not over-specify
your requirements. Because parts
Injection Molding Figure 1-1
perform as intended, the costs of over-
specification normally go uncorrected,
needlessly increasing part cost and
reducing part competitiveness.
The injection molding process can quickly produce large quantities of parts in
multi-cavity molds.
10
Chapter 1
Extrusion Figure 1-2 Extrusion
In extrusion forming, molten material

continuously passes through a die that
forms a profile which is sized, cooled,
and solidified. It produces continuous,
straight profiles, which are cut to
length. Most commonly used for sheet,
film, and pipe production, extrusion also
produces profiles used in applications
such as road markers, automotive trim,
store-shelf price holders, and window
frames (see figure 1-2). Production
rates, measured in linear units, such as
feet/minute, ordinarily are reasonably
high. Typically inexpensive for simple
profiles, extrusion dies usually
contribute little to product cost. Part
features such as holes or notches
require secondary operations that
add to final cost.
The extrusion process produces profile shapes used in the manufacture of window frames.
require mold mechanisms that add of each part. The same mold producing
to mold cost. 500,000 parts would contribute only
$0.10 to part cost. Additionally, mold
The injection molding process generally modifications for product design
requires large order quantities to offset changes can be very expensive. Very
high mold costs. For example, a large parts, such as automotive bumpers
$50,000 mold producing only 1,000 and fenders, require large and expensive
parts would contribute $50 to the cost molds and presses.
11
Thermoforming Figure 1-3 selection is limited to extrusion grades.
Secondary operations can play a large
role in part cost. Thermoformed parts
usually need to be trimmed to remove
excess sheet at the part periphery. This
process cannot produce features that
project from the part surface such as
ribs and bosses. Cutouts and holes
require secondary machining operations.
Blow Molding
Blow molding efficiently produces

hollow items such as bottles (see
figure 1-4), containers, and light globes.
The automobile industry has taken advantage of the production efficiency, appearance, light
weight, and performance of thermoformed engineering thermoplastics for many OEM and
after-market products like this tonneau cover.
Thermoforming Figure 1-4 Blow Molding
Thermoforming creates shapes from a

thermoplastic sheet that has been heated
to its softening point. Applied vacuum
or pressure draws or pushes the softened
sheet over an open mold or form where
it is then cooled to the conforming
shape. The process of stretching the
sheet over the form or mold causes
thinning of the wall, especially along
the sides of deep-drawn features. Mold
or form costs for this low-pressure
process are much lower than for injection
molds of comparable size.
Thermoforming can produce large parts

(see figure 1-3) on relatively inexpensive
molds and equipment. Because the
This large water bottle was blow molded in
plastic is purchased as sheet stock,
Makrolon polycarbonate resin.
materials tend to be costly. Material
12
Chapter 1
Design permitting, the process may Figure 1-5 Rotomolding This process is used for hollow shapes
also produce hollow shapes such as with large open volumes that promote
automotive air ducts and gas tanks. uniform material distribution, including
Wall thickness can vary throughout the decorative streetlight globes (see figure
part and may change with processing. 1-5) or hollow yard toys. Mold and
Blow molding cannot produce features equipment costs are typically low, and
that project from the surface such as the process is suited to low-production
ribs and bosses. Part geometry quantities and large parts. Cycle times
determines mold and equipment costs, run very long. Large production runs
which can range as high as those for may require multiple sets of molds.
injection molding.
The two most-common types of blow OPTIMIZING

molding are extrusion and injection. In PRODUCT FUNCTION
extrusion blow molding, mold halves
pinch the end of a hanging extruded The molding process affords many
tube — called a parison — until it opportunities to enhance part function-
seals. Air pressure applied into the tube ality and reduce product cost. For exam-
expands the tube and forces it against Rotomolding can produce large hollow ple, the per-part mold costs associated
the walls of the hollow mold. The parts such as this polycarbonate street with adding functional details to the
light globe.
blown shape then cools as a thin-walled part design are usually insignificant.
hollow shape. A secondary step removes Molds reproduce many features practi-
the vestige at the pinch-off area. cally for free. Carefully review all
Rotomolding aspects of your design with an eye
Injection blow molding substitutes a toward optimization, including part
molded shape in place of the extruded In rotomolding, a measured quantity of and hardware consolidation, finishing
parison. Air pressure applied from thermoplastic resin, usually powdered, considerations, and needed markings
inside the still-soft molded shape is placed inside a mold, which is then and logos, which are discussed in
expands the shape into the form of the externally heated. As the mold rotates this section.
hollow mold. This process eliminates on two perpendicular axes, the resin
pinch-off vestige and facilitates molded coats the heated mold surface. This
features on the open end such as screw continues until all the plastic melts to
threads for lids. form the walls of the hollow, molded
shape. While still rotating, the mold is
cooled to solidify the shape.
13
Consolidation Figure 1-6 Hinges
Within the constraints of good molding

practice and practical mold construction, PL
look for opportunities to reduce the
number of parts in an assembly through
part consolidation. A single molded part
can often combine the functionality of
two or more parts. Slight
Undercut
Hardware
Clever part design can often eliminate

or reduce the need for hardware fasteners
such as screws, nuts, washers, and
spacers. Molded-in hinges can replace
metal ones in many applications (see
figure 1-6). Molded-in cable guides
perform the same function as metal ones
at virtually no added cost. Reducing
hardware lessens material and assembly
costs, and simplifies dismantling for
Molded-in hinge features can eliminate the need for hinge hardware.
recycling.
Finish
Consider specifying a molded-in color

instead of paint. The cost savings could
more than justify any increase in mater-
ial cost for a colored material with the
required exposure performance. If you
must paint, select a plastic that paints
easily, preferably one that does not
require surface etching and/or primer.
14
Chapter 1
Markings and Logos REDUCING of good design and molding practice,

MANUFACTURING COSTS consider some of the following:
Secondary methods of adding direc-
tions, markings, and logos — including Although many factors contribute to • Core out unneeded thickness and
labels, decals, printing, stamping, etc. costs of producing plastic parts, most wall stock;
— add cost and labor. Molded-in tech- costs fall into one of four basic categories:
niques, when applied properly, produce materials, overhead, labor, and scrap/ • Use ribs, stiffening features, and
permanent lettering and designs at a rework. This section highlights potential supports to provide equivalent
very low cost (see figure 1-7). Mixtures methods for reducing these manufacturing stiffness with less wall thickness;
of gloss and texture can increase contrast costs. Carefully evaluate the effect each
for improved visibility. cost-reduction step may have on your • Optimize runner systems to
product’s performance and overall cost. minimize waste;
Miscellaneous • Use standard colors, which are less

Materials expensive than custom colors;
Look for opportunities to add easily-
molded features to simplify assembly To reduce material costs, you must • Compare the price of materials that
and enhance product function such as reduce material usage and obtain the meet your product requirements, but
aligning posts, nesting ribs, finger grips, best material value. Within the limits avoid making your selection based
guides, stops, stand-offs, hooks, clips, upon price alone; and
and access holes.
• Consider other issues such as material
quality, lot-to-lot consistency, on-time
delivery, and services offered by
Figure 1-7 Molded-In Illustrations the supplier.
This molded in schematic is a cost effective alternative to labels or printing.
15
Overhead This last option requires careful
evaluation to determine if machine-
Hourly press rates comprise a significant cost-per-part savings compensate for
portion of part cost. The rate varies by the added mold cost.
region and increases with press size.
Some options to consider when Mold costs, usually amortized over a
evaluating overhead costs include: specified number of parts or years, can
also make up a significant portion of
• Maximizing the number of parts part cost. This is particularly true if
produced per hour to reduce the the production quantities are low. The
machine overhead cost per part; complex relationship between mold
cost, mold quality, and molding
• Avoiding thick sections in your part efficiency is covered in Chapter 7.
and runner system that can increase
cooling time;
• Designing your mold with good

cooling and plenty of draft for easy
ejection; and
• Increasing the number of cavities in

a mold to increase hourly production.
16
Chapter 1
Labor Scrap and Rework PROTOTYPE TESTING
When looking to maintain or lower your Part and mold design can contribute to Prototype testing allows you to test
labor costs, consider the following: quality problems and scrap. To avoid and optimize part design and material
rework and minimize scrap generation, selection before investing in expensive
• Simplify or eliminate manual tasks consider the following: production tooling. Good prototype
as much as possible; testing duplicates molding, processing,
• Follow the part design recommenda- and assembly conditions as closely as
• Design parts and molds for automatic tions and guidelines outlined in possible. Molded prototype parts can
degating or place gates in areas that Chapter 2; also be tested under the same range of
don’t require careful trimming; mechanical, chemical, and environmen-
• Avoid specifying tighter tolerances tal conditions that the production parts
• Keep parting lines and mold kiss-off than actually needed; and must endure.
areas in good condition to avoid
flash removal; • Adjust the mold steel to produce Simplifying or eliminating prototype
parts in the middle of the tolerance testing increases the chance of problems
• Design parting lines and kiss-off range, when molding parts with that could lead to delays and expensive
points to orient flash in a less critical tight tolerances. modifications in production tooling.
direction; and You should thoroughly prototype test
In the long run, this last suggestion all new designs.
• Streamline and/or automate is usually less expensive than trying
time-consuming assembly steps. to produce parts at the edge of the
tolerance range by molding in a narrow
processing window.
Do not select your mold maker based

on price alone. Cheap molds often
require costly rework and frequent
mold maintenance, and are prone to
part quality problems.
17
18
Chapter 2
GENERAL DESIGN
While engineering resins are used Critical Thickness Figure 2-1

20
in many diverse and demanding
applications, there are design elements
18
that are common to most plastic parts,
such as ribs, wall thickness, bosses, 16
gussets, and draft. This chapter
covers these general design issues, 14
as well as others you should consider 140°F (60°C)
12
when designing parts made of
thermoplastic resins. 73°F (23°C)
10
IZOD IMPACT STRENGTH (ft•lb/in)

8 -4°F (-20°C)
Izod impact
2
strength of
Makrolon
0
polycarbonate vs.
0.100 0.140 0.180 0.220 0.260 0.300 0.340
thickness at various
temperatures.
THICKNESS (in)
WALL THICKNESS stiffness. Increasing wall thickness also

adds to part weight, cycle times, and
Wall thickness strongly influences material cost. Consider using geometric
many key part characteristics, including features — such as ribs, curves, and
mechanical performance and feel, corrugations — to stiffen parts. These
cosmetic appearance, moldability, and features can add sufficient strength,
economy. The optimum thickness with very little increase in weight, cycle
is often a balance between opposing time, or cost. For more information
tendencies, such as strength versus on designing for part stiffness, see
weight reduction or durability versus Chapter 3.
cost. Give wall thickness careful
consideration in the design stage to Both geometric and material factors
avoid expensive mold modifications determine the effect of wall thickness
and molding problems in production. on impact performance. Generally,
increasing wall thickness reduces
In simple, flat-wall sections, each deflection during impact and increases
10% increase in wall thickness provides the energy required to produce failure.
approximately a 33% increase in In some cases, increasing wall thickness
19
can stiffen the part to the point that the • Avoid designs with thin areas pressures. This can drive up the
geometry cannot flex and absorb the surrounded by thick perimeter molding costs and offset any material
impact energy. The result can be a sections as they are prone to gas savings. Thin-wall molding is generally
decrease in impact performance. Some entrapment problems (see figure 2-2); more suited for size or weight reduction
materials, polycarbonate for example, than for cost savings. Parts with wall
lose impact strength if the thickness • Maintain uniform nominal wall thicknesses greater than 2 mm can also
exceeds a limit known as the critical thickness; and be considered as thin-walled parts if
thickness. Above the critical thickness their flow-length-to-thickness ratios are
parts made of polycarbonate can show a • Avoid wall thickness variations too high for conventional molding.
marked decrease in impact performance. that result in filling from thin to
Walls with thickness greater than the thick sections. Usually, low-shrinkage materials,
critical thickness may undergo brittle, such as most amorphous or filled resins,
rather than ductile, failure during Thin-walled parts — those with main can tolerate nominal wall thickness
impact. The critical thickness reduces walls that are less than 1.5 mm thick — variations up to about 25% without sig-
with lowering temperature and molecular may require special high-performance nificant filling, warpage, or appearance
weight. The critical thickness for molding equipment to achieve the problems. Unfilled crystalline resins,
medium-viscosity polycarbonate at required filling speeds and injection because of their high molding shrinkage,
room temperature is approximately
3/16 inch (see figure 2-1).
Consider moldability when selecting Figure 2-2 Racetracking

the wall thicknesses for your part. Flow
length — the distance from the gate to
the last area fill — must be within
acceptable limits for the plastic resin Incorrect
chosen. Excessively thin walls may
develop high molding stresses, cosmetic Air Trap
problems, and filling problems that

could restrict the processing window.
Thick
Conversely, overly thick walls can Thin
extend cycle times and create packing
problems. Other points to consider
Correct
when addressing wall thickness include:
Consistent
Wall
Thickness
Non-uniform wall thickness can lead to air traps.
20
Chapter 2
GENERAL DESIGN continued
Coring Figure 2-3 • Make the outside radius one wall-

thickness larger than the inside radius
to maintain constant wall thickness
through corners (see figure 2-4); and
• Round or taper thickness transitions

to minimize read-through and
possible blush or gloss differences
(see figure 2-5). Blending also
reduces the molded-in stresses and
stress concentration associated with
abrupt changes in thickness.
In some cases, thickness-dependent

properties such as flame retardency,
electrical resistance, and sound deaden-
ing determine the minimum required
thickness. If your part requires
these properties, be sure the material
provides the needed performance at the
thicknesses chosen. UL flammability
ratings, for example, are listed with the
minimum wall thickness for which
the rating applies.
Core out thick sections as shown on right to maintain a more uniform wall thickness.
can only tolerate about half as much Many designs, especially those converted
thickness variation. These guidelines from cast metal to plastic, have thick
pertain to the part’s main walls. Ribs sections that could cause sinks or voids.
and other protrusions from the wall When adapting these designs to plastic
must be thinner to avoid sink. For more parts, consider the following:
information about designing ribs and
other protrusions, see the section on • Core or redesign thick areas to
ribs in this chapter. create a more uniform wall thickness
(see figure 2-3);
21
FLOW LEADERS AND should extend from the gate without Flow restrictors, areas of reduced
RESTRICTORS restrictions. thickness intended to modify the filling
pattern, can alleviate air-entrapment
Occasionally designers incorporate To avoid possible warpage and shrink- problems (see figure 2-7) or move
thicker channels, called flow leaders or age problems, limit the added thickness knitlines. When restricting thick flow
internal runners, into the part design. to no more than 25% of the nominal channels as in figure 2-7, use the
These flow leaders help mold filling wall for low-shrinkage, amorphous or following rules of thumb in your design:
or packing in areas far from the gate. filled materials and to 15% for unfilled
Additionally, flow leaders can balance crystalline resins. Carefully transition • Extend the restrictor across the
filling in non-symmetrical parts, alter the flow leader into the wall to minimize entire channel profile to effectively
the filling pattern, and reduce sink in read-through and gloss differences on redirect flow;
thick sections (see figure 2-6). For the other side of the wall.
best results, the flow-leader thickness
Figure 2-4 Corner Design Figure 2-5 Thickness Transitions
Too Thin
Incorrect
Too Thick Correct
Correct
t
R2 R1
Correct
R2 = R1 + t
Internal and external corner radii should originate from the same point. Blend transitions to minimize read-through.
22
Chapter 2
Flow Leaders Figure 2-6 Flow Restrictors Figure 2-7
Flow Leader
Corners typically fill late in box-shaped parts. Adding flow leaders

balances flow to the part perimeter.
Gate
Flow restrictors can change the filling pattern to correct problems

such as gas traps.
• Reduce the thickness by no more than
33% in high-shrinkage resins or 50%
for low-shrinkage materials; and Flow leader and restrictor placement Today, computerized flow simulation
were traditionally determined by trial enables designers to calculate the
• Lengthen the restrictor to and error after the mold was sampled. correct size and placement before
decrease flow. mold construction.
23
RIBS This section deals with general guide- Rib Thickness
lines for ribs and part design; structural
Ribs provide a means to economically considerations are covered in Chapter 3. Many factors go into determining the
augment stiffness and strength in molded appropriate rib thickness. Thick ribs
parts without increasing overall wall often cause sink and cosmetic problems
thickness. Other uses for ribs include: Rib Design on the opposite surface of the wall to
which they are attached (see figure 2-8).
• Locating and captivating components Proper rib design involves five main The material, rib thickness, surface
of an assembly; issues: thickness, height, location, texture, color, proximity to a gate,
quantity, and moldability. Consider and a variety of processing conditions
• Providing alignment in mating these issues carefully when designing determine the severity of sink. Table 2-1
parts; and ribs. gives common guidelines for rib thick-
ness for a variety of materials. These
• Acting as stops or guides for guidelines are based upon subjective
mechanisms. observations under common conditions
Figure 2-8 Sink Figure 2-9 Offset Rib
Sink opposite thick rib.
Offset rib to reduce read-through and sink.
24
Chapter 2
Table 2-1 Rib Thickness as a Percentage of Wall Thickness of flow hesitation, thin ribs near the gate
can sometimes be more difficult to fill
than those further away. Flow entering
Resin Minimal Sink Slight Sink the thin ribs hesitates and freezes while
PC 50% (40% if high gloss) 66% the thicker wall sections fill.
ABS 40% 60%
PC/ABS 50% 66% Ribs usually project from the main wall
Polyamide (Unfilled) 30% 40% in the mold-opening direction and are
Polyamide (Glass-Filled) 33% 50% formed in blind holes in the mold steel.
PBT Polyester (Unfilled) 30% 40% To facilitate part ejection from the
PBT Polyester (Filled) 33% 50% mold, ribs generally require at least
one-half degree of draft per side (see
figure 2-10). More than one degree of
and pertain to the thickness at the base often tolerate ribs that are thicker than draft per side can lead to excessive rib
of the rib. Highly glossy, critical sur- the percentages in these guidelines. On thickness reduction and filling problems
faces may require thinner ribs. Placing parts with wall thicknesses that are 1.0 in tall ribs.
ribs opposite character marks or steps mm or less, the rib thickness should be
can hide rib read-through (see figure equal to the wall thickness. Rib thickness Thick ribs form thickened flow channels
2-9). Thin-walled parts — those with also directly affects moldability. Very where they intersect the base wall.
walls that are less than 1.5 mm — can thin ribs can be difficult to fill. Because These channels can enhance flow in the
rib direction and alter the filling pattern.
The base of thick ribs is often a good
location for gas channels in gas-assist
Rib Design Guidelines Figure 2-10 molding applications. The gas-assist
process takes advantage of these channels
for filling, and hollows the channels
Draft* with injected gas to avoid problems
with sink, voids, or excessive shrinkage.
Radius = 0.125T
Rib thickness also determines the
0.5T cooling rate and degree of shrinkage in
ribs, which in turn affects overall part
warpage. In materials with nearly
uniform shrinkage in the flow and
T
cross-flow directions, thinner ribs tend
to solidify earlier and shrink less than
the base wall. In this situation, the ends
*Minimum 0.5° Per Side of ribbed surfaces may warp toward the
Rib design guidelines.
25
Warpage vs. Rib Thickness Figure 2-11 Rib Size
Generally, taller ribs provide greater

Thin Rib Thick Rib
support. To avoid mold filling, venting,
and ejection problems, standard rules of
thumb limit rib height to approximately
three times the rib-base thickness.
Because of the required draft for ejection,
the tops of tall ribs may become too thin
to fill easily. Additionally, very tall ribs
are prone to buckling under load. If
you encounter one of these conditions,
consider designing two or more shorter,
thinner ribs to provide the same support
Warpage vs. rib thickness in unfilled resins. with improved moldability (see figure
2-13). Maintain enough space between
ribs for adequate mold cooling: for
short ribs allow at least two times the
opposing wall (see figure 2-11). As rib direction becomes more aligned along wall thickness.
thickness approaches the wall thickness, the length of the ribs, this effect
this type of warpage generally decreases. diminishes. Warpage can reverse as
However, ribs that are the same thick- the ribs become thicker than the wall.
ness as the wall may develop ends that
warp toward the ribbed side. To prevent
this warpage, design extra mold cooling
on the ribbed side to compensate for the Figure 2-12 Warpage vs. Rib Thickness
added heat load from the ribs.
Thin Rib Thick Rib

For glass-filled materials with higher
shrinkage in the cross-flow versus flow
direction, the effect of rib thickness on
warpage can be quite different (see
figure 2-12). Because thin ribs tend to
fill from the base up, rather than along
their length, high cross-flow shrinkage
over the length of the rib can cause the
ends to warp toward the ribs. As rib
thickness increases and the flow
Warpage vs. rib thickness in glass-filled resins.
26
Chapter 2
Multiple Ribs Figure 2-13
Boss Design Figure 2-14
2.0 to
2.4D
0.060 in
0.5t (1.5 mm)
d
t
0.3t max.
2t t
Replace large problematic ribs with multiple shorter ribs. Typical boss design.
Rib Location and Numbers to mold-cooling difficulties and warpage. cylindrical projections with holes
Typically much easier to add than designed to receive screws, threaded
Carefully consider the location and remove, ribs should be applied sparing- inserts, or other types of fastening
quantity of ribs to avoid worsening ly in the original design and added as hardware. As a rule of thumb, the outside
problems the ribs were intended to needed to fine tune performance. diameter of bosses should remain within
correct. For example, ribs added to 2.0 to 2.4 times the outside diameter of
increase part strength and prevent the screw or insert (see figure 2-14).
breakage might actually reduce the BOSSES
ability of the part to absorb impacts
without failure. Likewise, a grid of ribs Bosses find use in many part designs
added to ensure part flatness may lead as points for attachment and assembly.
The most common variety consists of
27
Boss Sink Recess Figure 2-15
Bosses Figure 2-16
Incorrect
Correct
30°
0.3t
t
A recess around the base of a thick boss reduces sink. Connecting bosses to walls.
To limit sink on the surface opposite the Specifying smaller screws or inserts Normally, the boss hole should extend
boss, keep the ratio of boss-wall thick- often prevents overly thick bosses. to the base-wall level, even if the full
ness to nominal-wall thickness the same Small screws attain surprisingly depth is not needed for assembly.
as the guidelines for rib thickness (see high retention forces (see the Bayer Shallower holes can leave thick sections,
table 2-1). To reduce stress concentra- Joining Techniques manual). If the resulting in sink or voids. Deeper holes
tion and potential breakage, bosses boss-wall thickness must exceed the reduce the base wall thickness, leading
should have a blended radius, rather recommended ratio, consider adding a to filling problems, knitlines, or surface
than a sharp edge, at their base. Larger recess around the base of the boss blemishes. The goal is to maintain a
radii minimize stress concentration but (as shown in figure 2-15) to reduce the uniform thickness in the attachment
increase the chance of sink or voids. severity of sink. wall (see figure 2-18).
• For most applications, a 0.015- Avoid bosses that merge into sidewalls Because of the required draft, tall
inch blend (fillet) radius provides a because they can form thick sections bosses — those greater than five times
good compromise between strength that lead to sink. Instead, position the their outside diameter — can create a
and appearance. bosses away from the sidewall, and if filling problem at their top or a thick
needed, use connecting ribs for support section at their base. Additionally, the
(see figure 2-16). Consider using open-
boss designs for bosses near a standing
wall (see figure 2-17).
28
Chapter 2
Boss in Attachment Wall Figure 2-17 Boss Core Depth Figure 2-18
Core Too Short Core Too Long

A
Radius Too Large Correct

Section A-A
Open bosses maintain uniform thickness in the attachment wall.
cores in tall bosses can be difficult to

cool and support. Consider coring a tall
boss from two sides or extending tall
gussets to the standoff height rather
Boss holes should extend to the base-wall level.
than the whole boss (see figure 2-19).
Long-Core Alternatives Figure 2-19
Incorrect Correct Correct Correct
Core
Too
Long
Options to reduce the length of excessively long core pins.
29
Other alternatives include splitting a is a concern. Because of their shape and SHARP CORNERS
long boss into two shorter mating bosses the EDM process for burning gussets
(see figure 2-20) or repositioning the into the mold, gussets are prone to Avoid sharp corners in your design.
boss to a location where it can be shorter. ejection problems. Specify proper Sharp inside corners concentrate stresses
draft and draw polishing to help with from mechanical loading, substantially
mold release. reducing mechanical performance.
GUSSETS Figure 2-22 shows the effect of root
The location of gussets in the mold radius on stress concentration in a
Gussets are rib-like features that add steel generally prevents practical direct simple, cantilevered snap arm. The
support to structures such as bosses, venting. Avoid designing gussets that stress concentration factor climbs
ribs, and walls (see figure 2-21). As could trap gasses and cause filling and sharply as the radius-to-thickness
with ribs, limit gusset thickness to one- packing problems. Adjust the shape ratio drops below approximately 0.2.
half to two-thirds the thickness of the or thickness to push gasses out of the Conversely, large ratios cause thick
walls to which they are attached if sink gussets and to areas that are more easily sections, leading to sinks or voids.
vented (see figure 2-21).
Figure 2-20 Mating Bosses Figure 2-21 Gussets
Incorrect Correct
Incorrect Correct
Air Trap Position
of flow
front at
regular
time
intervals
Excessively long bosses can often be replaced by two shorter bosses. Contour lines show flow front position at incremental time intervals.
Squared gussets can trap air in the corners.
30
Chapter 2
• A radius-to-thickness ratio of Fillet Radius and Stress Concentration Figure 2-22

approximately 0.15 provides a good
compromise between performance 3.0
P
and appearance for most applications
Stress Concentration Factor

R
subjected to light to moderate 2.5
impact loads.
2.0
Initially use a minimal corner radius h
when designing parts made of high- 1.5
shrinkage materials with low-notch
sensitivity, such as Durethan polyamide,
1.0
to prevent sink and read-through. Inside 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
R/h
corner radii can then be increased as
needed based upon prototype testing. Effects of a fillet radius on stress concentration.
In critical areas, corner radii should

appear as a range, rather than a maximum
allowable value, on the product drawings. Round Edges Figure 2-23
A maximum value allows the mold maker
to leave corners sharp as machined Easy Difficult
with less than a 0.005-inch radius.
Avoid universal radius specifications
that round edges needlessly and
increase mold cost (see figure 2-23).
In addition to reducing mechanical

performance, sharp corners can cause
high, localized shear rates, resulting in Easy Difficult
material damage, high molding stresses,
and possible cosmetic defects.
Avoid universal radius specifications that round edges needlessly and increase mold cost.
31
DRAFT Figure 2-24 Draft
Parts with No Draft Parts with Draft

Draft — providing angles or tapers on
product features such as walls, ribs, Incorrect Correct
0.5° Min.
posts, and bosses that lie parallel to the
direction of release from the mold —
eases part ejection. Figure 2-24 shows
common draft guidelines.
How a specific feature is formed in the

mold determines the type of draft needed. Incorrect Correct
Features formed by blind holes or 0.5° Min.
pockets — such as most bosses, ribs,
and posts — should taper thinner as they
extend into the mold. Surfaces formed
by slides may not need draft if the steel
separates from the surface before ejection.
Other rules of thumb for designing
draft include:
Incorrect Correct
Draw Polish
• Draft all surfaces parallel to the
direction of steel separation;
• Angle walls and other features that

are formed in both mold halves to
facilitate ejection and maintain
0.5° Min.
uniform wall thickness;
Common draft guidelines.

• Use the standard one degree of draft
plus one additional degree of draft for
every 0.001 inch of texture depth as
a rule of thumb; and Less draft increases the chance of The mold finish, resin, part geometry,
damaging the part during ejection. and mold ejection system determine
• Use a draft angle of at least one-half Additionally, molders may have to the amount of draft needed. Generally,
degree for most materials. Design apply mold release or special mold sur- polished mold surfaces require less draft
permitting, use one degree of draft face coatings or treatments, ultimately than surfaces with machined finishes.
for easy part ejection. SAN resins leading to longer cycle times and higher An exception is thermoplastic poly-
typically require one to two degrees part costs. urethane resin, which tends to eject easier
of draft. from frosted mold surfaces. Parts with
many cores may need a higher amount
of draft.
32
Chapter 2
Figure 2-25 Interlocking Cores Figure 2-26 Core Mismatch
Reduced Hole Correct Through-Hole
The ends of the long cores should interlock into mating surfaces When feasible, make one core larger to accommodate mismatch in
for support. the mold.
Some part designs leave little room for add slides or hydraulic moving cores avoid the need for long delicate cores,
ejector pins. Parts with little ejector-pin that can increase the cost of mold such as the alternative boss designs in
contact area often need extra draft to construction and maintenance (see figures 2-19 and 2-20.
prevent distortion during ejection. In section on undercuts).
addition to a generous draft, some deep If the core is supported on both ends,
closed-bottomed shapes may need air During mold filling, the advancing the guidelines for length-to-diameter
valves at the top of the core to relieve plastic flow can exert very high side ratio double: typically 6:1 but up to
the vacuum that forms during ejection forces on tall cores forming deep or 10:1 if the filling around the core is
(See figure 7-13 in Chapter 7). long holes. These forces can push or symmetrical. The level of support on
bend the cores out of position, altering the core ends determines the maximum
the molded part. Under severe conditions, suggested ratio (see figure 2-25).
HOLES AND CORES this bending can fatigue the mold steel Properly interlocked cores typically
and break the core. resist deflection better than cores that
Cores are the protruding parts of the simply kiss off. Single cores for through-
mold that form the inside surfaces of Generally, the depth-to-diameter ratio holes can interlock into the opposite
features such as holes, pockets, and for blind holes should not exceed 3:1. mold half for support.
recesses. Cores also remove plastic Ratios up to 5:1 are feasible if filling
from thick areas to maintain a uniform progresses symmetrically around the Mismatch can reduce the size of the
wall thickness. Whenever possible, unsupported hole core or if the core is opening in holes formed by mating cores.
design parts so that the cores can separate in an area of slow-moving flow. Design permitting, make one core
from the part in the mold-opening Consider alternative part designs that slightly larger (see figure 2-26). Even
direction. Otherwise, you may have to
33
with some mismatch, the required hole part can flex enough to strip from the and reinforced grades of polyamide 6.
diameter can be maintained. Tight- mold during ejection, depending upon Undercuts up to 2% are possible in parts
tolerance holes that cannot be stepped the undercut’s depth and shape and the made of these resins, if the walls are
may require interlocking features on the resin’s flexibility. Undercuts can only flexible and the leading edges are
cores to correct for minor misalignment. be stripped if they are located away rounded or angled for easy ejection.
These features add to mold construction from stiffening features such as corners Typically, parts made of flexible resins,
and maintenance costs. On short and ribs. In addition, the part must have such as unfilled polyamide 6 or thermo-
through-holes that can be molded with room to flex and deform. Generally, plastic polyurethane elastomer, can
one core, round the edge on just one guidelines for stripping undercuts from tolerate 5% undercuts. Under ideal
side of hole to eliminate a mating core round features limit the maximum conditions, they may tolerate up to
and avoid mismatch (see figure 2-27). amount of the undercut to a percentage 10% undercuts.
defined as follows and illustrated in
figure 2-28 as:
UNDERCUTS Slides and Cores
D–d
% Undercut = x 100
Some design features, because of their D Most undercuts cannot strip from the
orientation, place portions of the mold mold, needing an additional mechanism
in the way of the ejecting plastic part. Generally, avoid stripping undercuts in the mold to move certain components
Called “undercuts,” these elements can in parts made of stiff resins such as prior to ejection (see Chapter 7). The
be difficult to redesign. Sometimes, the polycarbonate, polycarbonate blends, types of mechanisms include slides,
Mismatch Figure 2-27 Stripping Undercut Guidelines Figure 2-28
Mismatch No Mismatch
30 – 45°
Lead Angle
d
D
Rounding both edges of the hole creates a potential for mismatch. Undercut features can often successfully strip from the mold during
ejection if the undercut percentage is within the guidelines for the
material type.
34
Chapter 2
Sidewall Windows Figure 2-29 Snap Fit Figure 2-30
Draw
Snap Fit
Bypass steel can form windows in sidewalls without moving slides. Snap-fit hook molded through hole to form undercut.
Wire Guides Figure 2-31 split cores, collapsible cores, split cavi-
ties, and core pulls. Cams, cam pins,
lifters, or springs activate most of these
as the mold opens. Others use external
devices such as hydraulic or pneumatic
Draw cylinders to generate movement. All of
these mechanisms add to mold cost and
complexity, as well as maintenance.
They also add hidden costs in the form
of increased production scrap, quality
problems, flash removal, and increased
mold downtime.
Clever part design or minor design

concessions often can eliminate complex
mechanisms for undercuts. Various
design solutions for this problem are
illustrated in figures 2-29 through 2-31.
Simple wire guides can be molded with bypass steel in the mold.
Get input from your mold designer
early in product design to help identify
options and reduce mold complexity.
35
LOUVERS AND VENTS Carefully consider the molding process Consult all pertinent agency specifica-
during part design to simplify the mold tions for cooling vents in electrical
Minor variations in cooling-vent design and lower molding costs. Extending devices. Vent designs respond different-
can have a major impact on the molding vents over the top of a corner edge can ly to the flame and safety tests required
costs. For instance, molds designed with facilitate straight draw of the vent coring by many electrical devices. Fully test all
numerous, angled kiss-offs of bypass and eliminate a side action in the mold cooling-vent designs for compliance.
cores are expensive to construct and (see figure 2-32). Angling the louver
maintain. Additionally, these molds surface can also allow vent slots to be
are susceptible to damage and flash molded without side actions in the mold
problems. Using moving slides or cores (see figure 2-33).
to form vents adds to mold cost and
complexity.
Figure 2-32 Vent Slots Figure 2-33 Louvers on Sloping Wall
Mold
Core
Mold
Cavity
Direction of Draw
Extending vent slots over the corner edge eliminates the need for a
side action in the mold.
Mold
Part
Mold
Direction of Draw
Louvers on sloping walls can be molded in the direction of draw.
36
Chapter 2
Thread Profiles Figure 2-34 Occasionally, threads in parts made of

flexible plastics, such as unfilled
R = 0.125P
P polyamide 6 or polyurethane elas-
0.5P 60° tomers, can be stripped from the mold
without special mechanisms. Rarely
suited to filled resins or stiff plastics
such as polycarbonate, this option
usually requires generously rounded
American National (Unified)
threads and a diameter-to-wall-thickness
0.371P
P ratio greater than 20 to 1. Usually,
molding threads on removable cores
29° reduces mold cost and complexity
0.5P
but adds substantially to the costs of
0.5P
molding and secondary operations.
For this reason, limit this option to
Acme
low-production quantities or designs
0.125P P
that would be prohibitively complex to
5°
mold otherwise.
50°
0.69P
50° Thread profiles for metal screws often
have sharp edges and corners that can
0.125P reduce the part’s mechanical performance
Common thread and create molding problems in plastic
Buttress
profiles used in designs. Rounding the thread’s crests
plastic parts. and roots lessens these effects. Figure
2-34 shows common thread profiles
used in plastics. Although less common
than the American National (Unified)
MOLDED-IN THREADS cost. Typically, threads that do not lie thread, Acme and Buttress threads
on the parting line require slides or side generally work better in plastic assemblies.
The molding process accommodates actions that could add to molding costs. Consider the following when specifying
thread forming directly in a part, avoiding All threads molded in two halves are molded-in threads:
the expense of secondary, thread-cutting prone to parting line flash or mismatch.
steps. The cost and complexity of the
tooling usually determines the feasibility Thread designs requiring unscrewing
of molding threads. Always compare devices add the most cost to the mold.
this cost to the cost of alternative attach- Most of the mechanisms for molding
ment options, such as self-tapping screws. internal threads — such as collapsible
and unscrewing cores — significantly
Easily molded in both mold halves, increase the mold’s cost and complexity.
external threads centered on the mold
parting line add little to the molding
37
• Use the maximum allowable radius • Avoid tapered threads unless you threads, design the external threads on
at the thread’s crest and root; can provide a positive stop that the plastic component to avoid hoop
limits hoop stresses to safe limits stress in plastic or use straight threads
• Stop threads short of the end to avoid for the material. and an “O” ring to produce the seal
making thin, feathered threads that can (see figure 2-36). Also, assure that
easily cross-thread (see figure 2-35); Tapered pipe threads, common in any thread dopes or thread lockers are
plumbing for fluid-tight connections, compatible with your selected plastic
• Limit thread pitch to no more than are slightly conical and tapered and can resin. Polycarbonate resins, in particular,
32 threads per inch for ease of place excessive hoop stresses on the are susceptible to chemical attack from
molding and protection from internal threads of a plastic part. When many of these compounds.
cross threading; and mating plastic and metal tapered
Figure 2-35 Threads Figure 2-36 Pipe Threads
Not Recommended
Incorrect Correct
Tapered threads create
Bulge large hoop stress.
F
t
Incorrect Correct
Metal or NPT L Bulge
Plastic Pipe Plastic Fitting
Recommended
Design guidelines to avoid cross threading.

Plastic Pipe NPT Metal Fitting
Plastic Pipe Straight

Thread “O”-Ring Plastic
Compression Fitting
Seal
Standard NPT tapered pipe threads can cause excessive hoop

stresses in the plastic fitting.
38
Chapter 2
Medical Connectors Figure 2-37
Luer-lock thread used in medical applications.
For best performance, use threads Figure 2-38 Molded Threads

designed specifically for plastics. Parts
External
that do not have to mate with standard
Internal
metal threads can have unique threads
that meet the specific application and
material requirements. The medical
industry, for example, has developed
special, plastic-thread designs for
Luer-lock tubing connectors (see figure
2-37). Thread designs can also be
simplified for ease of molding as
shown in figure 2-38.
Examples of thread designs that were modified for ease of molding.
39
LETTERING Figure 2-39 Lettering
The molding process adapts easily for

molding-in logos, labels, warnings,
diagrams, and instructions, saving the
expense of stick-on or painted labels,
and enhancing recyclability. Deep,
sharp lettering is prone to cosmetic
problems, such as streaks and tear
drops, particularly when near the gate
(see figure 2-39). To address these
cosmetic issues, consider the following:
• Limit the depth or height of lettering

into or out of the part surface to
approximately 0.010 inch; and
• Angle or round the side walls of the

letters as shown in figure 2-40.
TOLERANCES Deep, sharp lettering can cause teardrop defects as shown on

top photo. The bottom shows the improvement with rounded,
Many variables contribute to the shallow lettering.
dimensional stability and achievable

tolerances in molded parts, including
processing variability, mold construction,
material characteristics, and part Figure 2-40 Lettering
geometry. To improve your ability
to maintain specified tolerances
in production: α α
W W
R R d
α ≥ 30° W ≥ 2•d d = 0.010 in (Max.)
Design suggestions for the cross-sectional profile of lettering.
40
Chapter 2
• Use low-shrinkage materials in parts To avoid unnecessary molding costs, Geometric tolerancing methods can
with tight tolerances; specify tight tolerances only when need- expand the effective molding tolerance
ed. Generally, the size and variability of by better defining the size and position
• Avoid tight tolerances in dimensions other part features determine the actual requirements for the assembly. Rather
affected by the alignment of the mold tolerance required for any one component than define the position and size of fea-
halves or moving mold components or feature within an assembly. Rather tures separately, geometric tolerancing
such as slides; than dividing the allowable variability defines a tolerance envelope in which
equally over the various features that size and position are considered
• Design parts and assemblies to avoid govern fit and function, allot a greater simultaneously.
tight tolerances in areas prone to portion of the total tolerance range
warpage or distortion; and to features that are difficult to control. Figure 2-41 shows the size and position
Reserve tight tolerances for features of a hole specified in both standard and
• Adjust the mold to produce that can accommodate them reasonably. geometric tolerances. The standard tol-
dimensions in the middle of tolerance erances hold the position and size of the
range at optimum processing hole to ±0.003. The geometric toler-
conditions for the material. ances specify a hole size tolerance of
Tolerances Figure 2-41 Unlike standard

tolerancing,
geometric
tolerancing can
Standard Geometric
Tolerances Tolerances allow a feature
position to vary
with the size of
the feature.
0.500 Dia. ±0.003 0.500 Dia. ±0.003
0.006 M
0.750 0.750
±0.003
1.000
±0.003 1.000
41
±0.003 but allow the position tolerance BEARINGS AND GEARS • When the mating components of a
to vary within a 0.006 tolerance zone bearing or gear are made of the same
when the hole is at its smallest diameter Material friction and wear properties material, the wear level is much
(maximum material condition). When play a key role in the performance of higher, unless the load and temperature
the hole is larger than the minimum bearings and gears made of plastic. For are very low;
size, the difference between the actual instance, Durethan polyamide resins
hole size and the minimum hole size exhibit properties suitable for many gear • When both contacting plastics are
can be added to the tolerance zone for and bearing applications. Used frequently unfilled, usually wear is greater on
the position tolerance. At the maximum as over-molded, gear-tooth liners, Texin the moving surface;
hole size, 0.503, the position tolerance thermoplastic urethane elastomers
zone for the center of the hole is 0.012 demonstrate excellent abrasion resistance • When plastic components will
or ±0.006 from the stated vertical and and shock-dampening properties. wear against steel, use glass fillers
horizontal positions. As the hole to increase the life of plastic
becomes larger, the position can vary Because plastic parts exhibit complex components; and
more without restricting the required wear behavior, predicting gear and
through-hole for the post or screw bearing performance can be difficult. • When designing bearing parts for
that passes through the hole (see However, certain trends prevail: longevity, keep frictional heating
figure 2-42). low and ensure that heat dissipates
quickly from the bearing surface.
Tolerances Figure 2-42
Tolerance Zone Tolerance Zone

for Largest Hole for Smallest Hole
Required Through-Hole Size
As the hole size increases, the position tolerance can increase without restricting the
through-hole clearance.
42
Chapter 2
Approximate PV Limits
The PV factor, a major factor in the Table 2-2 at 100 Feet/Minute If chemically compatible, lubricants
formation of frictional heat, is the prod- can more than double the PV limit
uct of the pressure (P) exerted on the and greatly increase the life of gears
projected area of the bushing and the and bearings.
surface velocity (V) of the shaft. Testing Polycarbonate 500
shows that plastics exhibit a sharp Thermoplastic PU 1,500 Differences in the coefficient of linear
increase in wear at PV values above a Polyamide 6 2,000 thermal expansion between the shaft and
limit characteristic of the specific resin Polyamide 6/6 2,500 the bushing can change the clearance
(see table 2-2). The PV factor for the Polyamide 6 30% GF 8,500 and affect part life. Calculate the
bushing must not exceed the PV limit clearance throughout the service
(minus appropriate safety factor) • Avoid soft-metal shafts when the temperature range, maintaining a
established for the selected resin. loads or rotational speeds are high; minimum clearance of approximately
0.005 inch per inch of diameter. Always
Many factors influence the effective PV • Add holes or grooves to the inside test your specific shaft and bushing
limit and actual bushing performance. of the bushing to capture debris and combination under the full range of
For instance, bushings made of plastic prevent premature wear; temperatures, speeds, loads, and
last longer when the shafts are hard and environmental conditions before
finely polished. Other points to consider: • Protect the bearings with seals or specifying a bushing material or design.
guards in dirty environments; and
• Check the compatibility of lubricants

with your specific plastic.
43
44
Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
This chapter assumes the reader has STRUCTURAL The mechanical properties of plastics
a working knowledge of mechanical CONSIDERATIONS differ from metals in several important
engineering and part design, and IN PLASTICS ways:
therefore focuses primarily upon those
aspects of structural design that are When designing parts made of plastics, • Plastics exhibit much less strength
unique or particularly relevant to be sure to consider not only the magni- and stiffness;
plastics. Two main goals of this chapter tude of mechanical loads but also their
are to show how to use published data type and duration. More so than for • Mechanical properties are time and
to address the unusual behavior of most materials, plastics can exhibit temperature dependent;
plastics in part design, and to show how dramatically different behavior depending
to take advantage of the design freedom on whether the loading is instantaneous, • Plastics typically exhibit nonlinear
afforded by molding processes to meet long term, or vibratory in nature. mechanical behavior; and
your structural requirements. Temperature and other environmental
conditions can also dramatically affect • Processing and flow orientation can
the mechanical performance greatly affect properties.
of the plastic material. Many aspects
of plastic behavior, including visco- The following sections briefly discuss
elasticity and sensitivity to a variety of the relevance of these differences when
processing-related factors, make pre- designing plastic parts. For more on
dicting a given part’s performance in a these topics, consult the Bayer
specific environment very difficult. Use Corporation companion to this manual:
structural calculations conservatively Material Selection: Thermoplastics
and apply adequate safety factors. We and Polyurethanes.
strongly suggest prototype testing for all
applications.
Plastic part design must also take into

account not only the structural require-
ments anticipated in the end-use
application, but also the less obvious
mechanical loads and stresses that
can occur during operations such as
manufacturing, assembly, and shipping.
These other sources of mechanical
loads can often place the highest
structural demands on the plastic part.
Carefully evaluate all of the structural
loads the part must endure throughout
its entire life cycle.
45
Stiffness Viscoelasticity temperature-dependent behavior occurs
because the polymer chains in the part
Designing parts with adequate stiffness Plastics exhibit viscoelastic behaviors do not return to their original position
can be difficult, particularly if your part under load: they show both plastic and when the load is removed. The Voight-
was made of metal originally. If your elastic deformation. This dual behavior Maxwell model of springs and dashpots
design needs the strength and/or stiffness accounts for the peculiar mechanical illustrates these characteristics (see
of a metal part, you must account for properties found in plastics. Under mild figure 3-1). Spring A in the Maxwell
the large disparity between plastic and loading conditions, plastics usually model represents the instantaneous
metal mechanical properties (see table return to their original shape when the response to load and the linear recovery
3-1). Increasing wall thickness may load is removed, exhibiting an elastic when the load is removed. Dashpot A
compensate for the lower stiffness of response. Under long-term, heavy loads connected to the spring simulates the
plastic resins. In practice, however, the or at elevated temperatures, this same permanent deformation that occurs
molding process limits wall thickness to plastic will deform, behaving more like over time.
approximately 0.25 inch in solid, injection- a high-viscosity liquid. This time- and
molded parts. More typically, wall
thickness ranges from 0.060 to 0.160
inches. Generally, good part designs
incorporate stiffening features and use Table 3-1 Property Comparison of Metals and Plastics
part geometry to help achieve required
stiffness and strength. These design
Modulus of Tensile Yield
considerations are covered in greater Elasticity Strength Strength Poisson’s
detail in the section Designing for Material (106 psi) (1,000 psi) (1,000 psi) Ratio
Stiffness on page 67. Steel 28.5 70 40 0.29
Copper (Annealed) 15.6 32 5 0.36
Aluminum 10.0 56 34 0.33
SAN 0.47 4 5 0.35
Voight-Maxwell Model Figure 3-1 Polycarbonate 0.35 10 9 0.38
ABS 0.34 — 6 0.39
PA* Unfilled 0.16 8 6 0.40
PA* 30% Glass 0.72 15 — 0.34
PC/ABS 0.35 7 8 0.38
Spring A
* Conditioned
Maxwell
Dashpot A
Voight
Spring B Dashpot B
Voight-Maxwell
model simulating
viscoelastic
characteristics.
46
Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL DESIGN continued
Stress-Strain vs. Temperature Figure 3-2

MPa
100 psi
Makrolon 2658 PC 14,000
12,000
80 -20°C
0°C
10,000
23°C
60
40°
8,000
60°C
90°C 6,370
6,000
40
120°C
4,900
4,000
20
2,000
STRESS
0
0 1.35 2 2.30 4 6 8 10
1.75
STRAIN (%)
Viscoelasticity causes most plastics stress relaxation, the reduction in stress

to lose stiffness and strength as the over time in a part under constant strain
temperature increases (see figure 3-2). or deformation. To account for this
As a plastic part is exposed to higher behavior, designers should use data
temperatures, it becomes more ductile: that reflect the correct temperature,
yield strength decreases and the strain- load, and duration to which the part will
at-break value increases. Plastic parts be exposed. These topics are discussed
also exhibit creep, the increase in more fully in the section Long-Term
deformation over time in parts under Loading on page 73.
continuous load or stress, as well as
47
Stress-Strain Behavior Viscoelasticity Figure 3-3
A simple tensile test determines the Metals

stress-strain behavior of plastic materi-
Elastic (Hookean)
als. The results, usually expressed as a
curve, show the relationship between
stress, the force per original cross-
sectional area, and strain, the percentage
of change in length as a result of the Unreinforced
force. Nearly linear at very low stress Plastics
and strain levels, the stress-strain

behavior of plastics tends to become
increasingly nonlinear as these loads
increase. In this context, the term “non-
Viscoelastic
linear” means that the resulting strain
at any particular point does not vary
proportionally with the applied stress.
STRESS
(Voight-Maxwell)
STRAIN
Metals usually function within the elastic (Hookean) range of mechanical behavior.
Unreinforced plastics tend to exhibit nonlinear behavior represented here by the
combination of springs and dashpots.
48
Chapter 3
Secant Modulus Figure 3-4 Figure 3-3 shows typical stress-strain

curves for steel and unreinforced
Ε Young’s thermoplastic materials. While metals
can exhibit plastic behavior, they typically
σsecant
Ε secant = function within the elastic (Hookean)
ε secant
range of mechanical performance.
Because of viscoelasticity, unreinforced
Ε secant plastic materials tend to exhibit non-
linear behavior through much of their
operating range. Even at low strain
σsecant
Actual
values, plastics tend to exhibit some
Curve nonlinear behavior. As a result, using
the tensile modulus or Young’s modulus,
derived from stress over strain in the
linear region of the stress-strain curve,
in structural calculations could lead to
an error. You may need to calculate the
secant modulus, which represents the
stiffness of a material at a specific strain
or stress level (see figure 3-4). The use
of secant modulus is discussed in the
example problems later in this chapter.
STRESS (σ)
ε secant
STRAIN (ε)
The Young’s modulus derived from the stress-strain behavior at very low strain can overstate
the material stiffness. A calculated secant modulus can better represent material stiffness at
a specific stress or strain.
49
Stress-Strain Stress-Strain
Parallel to Orientation Figure 3-5 Perpendicular to Orientation Figure 3-6
120 80
Durethan BKV 130 Durethan BKV 130
70
100
23°C 60 23°C
80
50
40°C 40°C
60 40
60°C 60°C
30
40
90°C 90°C
30 120°C 20 120°C
150°C
STRESS (N/mm2)
150°C
STRESS (N/mm2)
20
10
0 0
0 1 1.3 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
STRAIN (%) STRAIN (%)
This graph shows the stress-strain performance parallel to fiber This graph shows the stress-strain performance perpendicular
orientation at various temperatures for a 30% glass-filled PA 6 to fiber orientation at various temperatures for a 30% glass-filled
material after conditioning. PA 6 material after conditioning.
Molding Factors a given part can endure. Always add and 3-6 show stress versus strain for a
reasonable safety factors and test 30% glass-filled PA 6 in the parallel-to-
The injection-molding process introduces prototype parts before actual production. fiber and perpendicular-to-fiber directions.
stresses and orientations that affect
the mechanical performance of plastic In glass-filled resins, fiber orientation Unless otherwise stated, most mechanical
parts. The standard test bars used to also affects mechanical performance: properties derive from end-gated test
determine most mechanical properties fatigue strength for a given fiber-filled bars that exhibit a high degree of orien-
have low levels of molding stress. The resin is often many times greater when tation in the direction of the applied test
high molding stresses in an actual part the fibers are aligned lengthwise, rather load. Mechanical calculations based
may reduce certain mechanical properties, than perpendicular to the fatigue load. on this kind of data may over-predict
such as the amount of applied stress Stress-strain performance in the direction material stiffness and performance in
of fiber orientation can also differ greatly
from the performance in the direction
perpendicular to the fibers. Figures 3-5
50
Chapter 3
parts with random fiber orientation or SHORT-TERM Tensile Properties

in applications in which the fibers lie MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
perpendicular to the applied loads. Fiber Tensile properties are measured in a
orientation in an actual part is seldom This section gives some commonly used device that stretches a molded test bar
as uniform as it is in test bars. Address criteria to define and describe the short- between two clamping jaws. The jaws
this potential source of error in your term strength mechanical behavior of separate at a steady rate, and the device
calculations and apply appropriate safety thermoplastic materials. Specific prop- records the force per cross-sectional
factors. For critical parts, you may want erty data for Bayer materials can be area (stress) required to stretch the
to perform a structural finite-element found in the CAMPUS© database system sample from 0% elongation to break.
analysis using fiber-orientation data for plastics, and in Bayer’s Property The results are often graphed as stress
from mold-filling analysis and unique Guide. Consult the Bayer publication versus percentage elongation (strain).
mechanical properties for the orientation Material Selection for information on Figure 3-7 shows the kinds of stress-strain
and cross-orientation directions. the various test methods and property behavior exhibited by plastics. Rigid
data used for thermoplastics engineering plastics exhibit a nearly linear behavior
resins. These publications are available similar to metals. Ductile materials
through your Bayer sales representative. display a more complex behavior.
Figure 3-7
100
Cast Polyester
Non-Reinforced
(Rigid, Brittle)
80
PC (Ductile)
TENSILE STRESS (σ) (MPa)
60 PU Elastomer
(Rubber-Like)
(95 Shore A)
40 ABS
(Ductile)
20
0 //
0 10 20 120 200 400 600 800 1,000
ELONGATION (ε) (%)
These curves illustrate the characteristic differences in the stress-strain behavior of

various plastics.
51
Figure 3-8 identifies the transitional Figure 3-8
points in the stress-strain behavior of
ductile plastics. Point A, the proportional
Ultimate Strength
limit, shows the end of the region in
which the resin exhibits linear stress- E
strain behavior. Point B is the elastic C Yield Point

limit, or the point after which the part B D
will be permanently deformed even Elastic Limit Break

Point
after the load is removed. Applications
that cannot tolerate any permanent Proportional Limit
A
deformation must stay below the elastic
STRESS
limit. Point C, the yield point, marks

the beginning of the region in which
ductile plastics continue to deform with-
out a corresponding increase in stress. STRAIN
Elongation at yield gives the upper
Typical stress-strain behavior of unreinforced plastics.
limit for applications that can tolerate
the small permanent deformation that
occurs between the elastic limit and the
yield point, but not the larger deformation
that occurs during yield. Point D, the Tensile Modulus Tensile Stress at Yield
break point, shows the strain value
when the test bar breaks. Commonly used in structural calculations, Tensile stress at yield, the stress level
tensile modulus measures material corresponding to the point of zero slope
stiffness. Higher values indicate greater on the stress-strain curve, generally
stiffness. Because of plastic’s viscoelastic establishes the upper limit for applications
behavior, determining tensile modulus that can tolerate only small permanent
is more subjective and less precise for deformations. Tensile-stress-at-yield
plastics than it is for metals and most values can be measured only for materials
other materials. Mathematically, you that yield under test conditions.
can determine the tensile modulus by
taking the ratio of stress to strain as
measured below the proportional limit Tensile Stress at Break
on the stress-strain curves. When dealing
with materials with no clear linear Tensile stress at break is defined as the
region, you can calculate the modulus stress applied to the tensile bar at the
at some specified strain value, typically time of fracture during the steady-
at 0.1%. For some applications, buckling deflection-rate tensile test. Data for
analysis, for example, it may be more tensile stress at break establish the
appropriate to derive a modulus from upper limits for two types of applications:
the slope of a line drawn tangent to
the curve at a point on the stress-strain
diagram (tangent modulus).
52
Chapter 3
one-time-use applications that normally approximately 30% stronger under for tensile modulus typically correlate
fail because of fractures, and applications compressive loading. Consult your Bayer well with those of the flexural modulus
in which the parts can still function after representative if your application requires in solid plastics, but differ greatly for
undergoing permanent deformation. detailed analysis in a compressive mode. foamed plastics that form solid skins.
Assuming that the compressive strength
equals the tensile strength usually results
Ultimate Strength in a conservative design. Coefficient of Friction
Ultimate strength measures the highest The coefficient of friction is the ratio of
stress value encountered during the Flexural Modulus friction force, the force needed to initiate
tensile test. This value should be used or maintain sliding, to normal force,
in general strength comparisons, rather Defined as the ratio of stress to strain in the force perpendicular to the contact
than as a design criterion. Ultimate the elastic region of a stress-strain curve surfaces. Coefficients are commonly
strength is usually the stress level at the derived from flexural testing, flexural listed for two types of friction: static
breaking point in brittle materials. For modulus measures a resin’s stiffness friction, the forces acting on the
ductile materials, it is often the value during bending. A test bar subjected to surfaces to resist initial movement, and
at yield or break. bending loads distributes tensile and dynamic friction, the forces acting
compressive stresses through its thickness. between surfaces that are already sliding.
The flexural modulus is based upon the Table 3-2 lists typical values for
Poisson’s Ratio calculated outer-fiber stress. Test values common plastics.
As a plastic specimen stretches longitu-

dinally in response to tensile loading, it Coefficients of Friction (Static) Ranges
narrows laterally. Poisson’s ratio mea- Table 3-2 for Various Materials
sures the ratio of lateral to longitudinal
strains as the material undergoes tensile
Material On Self On Steel
loading. Poisson’s ratio usually falls
PTFE 0.10 – 0.25 0.10 – 0.25
between 0.35 and 0.40 for engineering
PE Rigid 0.40 – 0.50 0.20 – 0.25
resins (see table 3-1). Some elastomeric
PP 0.35 – 0.45 0.25 – 0.35
materials approach the constant-volume
POM 0.25 – 0.50 0.15 – 0.35
value of 0.50.
PA 0.30 – 0.50 0.30 – 0.40
PBT 0.30 – 0.40 0.30 – 0.40
PS 0.45 – 0.60 0.40 – 0.50
Compressive Properties
SAN 0.45 – 0.65 0.40 – 0.55
PC 0.40 – 0.65 0.35 – 0.55
Under equivalent loading conditions,
PMMA 0.60 – 0.70 0.50 – 0.60
plastics tend to fail in tension rather
ABS 0.60 – 0.75 0.50 – 0.65
than compression. For this reason it is
PE Flexible 0.65 – 0.75 0.55 – 0.60
more common to test tensile properties
PVC 0.55 – 0.60 0.55 – 0.60
rather than compressive properties.
As a rule of thumb, plastics tend to be
53
LONG-TERM Creep and Recovery Figure 3-9
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Creep Recovery
5
si
6,0 00 p
Time and temperature affect the long-
3
psi
term mechanical properties of plastics 5,000
because they affect polymer-chain 2 psi
4,000
mobility. Plastics under constant load
si
tend to deform over time to redistribute 3,000 p
100
si
and lower internal stresses. The mobility 7 2,000 p
of polymer chains determines the rate of
5
this stress redistribution. Higher temper-
Load
atures increase the free space between 3 Removed
molecules, as well as the molecular- 2
vibration energies, resulting in a
corresponding increase in polymer-chain
STRAIN (ε) (%)
10-1
mobility. Even at moderate temperatures,
7
polymer chains can reorient in response
to applied loads, if given enough time. 5
Two consequences of long-term

3
loading are creep, the added deforma- 10-1 100 101 102 103 10-1 100 101 102 103 104
tion that occurs over time in parts under
constant stress, and stress relaxation, TIME (hours)
the reduction in stress in parts subjected
Creep and recovery of Makrolon polycarbonate at 73°F (23°C).
to constant strain.
Creep Properties weight axially on the end of a test bar

and monitoring increases in the bar
Over time, parts subjected to a constant length over time. Presented graphically
load often distort beyond their initial in a variety of forms, creep and recovery
deformation; they creep. Long-term data is often plotted as strain versus time
creep data helps designers estimate and at various stress levels throughout the
adjust for this additional deformation. A creep and recovery phases (see figure 3-9).
common creep test involves hanging a
54
Chapter 3
Isochronous Stress-Strain Figure 3-10
psi 23°C (73°F) MPa

50% RH
50
7,000
6,000 10 -1
10 0 40
10 1
hours
5,200 10 2
5,000
10 3
10 4
6x10 4 30
4,000
3,750 Crazing
3,000
2,800 20
TENSILE STRESS ( σ )
2,000
10
1,000
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

1.2
STRAIN ( ε ) (%)
Isochronous stress-strain curves at 73°F (23°C) for Makrolon polycarbonate.
Another popular form for creep data, duration of 1,000 hours, we see in figure
the isochronous stress-strain curve, 3-10 that the corresponding strain is
plots tensile stress versus strain at given 1.2%. Dividing the stress by the strain,
time increments (see figure 3-10). To we calculate an apparent modulus of
determine the apparent modulus or 220,000 psi. Substituting this apparent
creep modulus, divide the calculated modulus or creep modulus into deflection
stress by the resulting strain as read formulas, in place of the instantaneous
from the isochronous curve corresponding tensile modulus, will enable the formula
to the time duration desired. For example, to better predict the deformation that will
assuming room-temperature conditions, occur over time.
a tensile stress of 2,800 psi, and a load
55
Isochronous Stress-Strain Figure 3-11 10,000 hours. Stress-relaxation modulus,
calculated by dividing the stress (after
MPa
a specific time) by the fixed strain value,
psi
176°F (80°C) accounts for stress relaxation in standard
30
10 -2
4,000 engineering equations.

10-1
100
Hours
These curves also may show when
3,000 101
102
20 crazing could occur in transparent poly-
103 carbonate parts. Crazing — the formation
104 of tiny, reflective cracks that can appear
TENSILE STRESS (σ)
2,000
when a part is subjected to long-term
10 loads — precedes larger cracks and part
1,000 failure. In figure 3-10, you can see that
crazing occurs at 2.5% strain after
Crazing
10,000 hours at room temperature.
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Fatigue Properties
STRAIN (ε) (%)
Isochronous stress-strain curves at 176°F (80°C) for Makrolon polycarbonate. Molded plastic parts exposed to cyclic
loading often fail at substantially lower
stress and strain levels than parts under
As mentioned earlier, temperature affects Stress Relaxation static loading, a phenomenon known
the long-term and short-term properties as fatigue. Applications that expose
of plastics. Compare the isochronous Stress relaxation, the stress reduction parts to heavy vibrations or repeated
stress-strain curve for polycarbonate at that occurs in parts subjected to constant deflections — such as snowplow headlight
room temperature in figure 3-10 with strain over time, is an important design housings, one-piece salad tongs, and
the curves in figure 3-11 for the same concern for parts that will be subjected high-use snap-latch closures — need
material at 176°F (80°C). In general, to long-term deflection. Because of plastics with good fatigue characteristics.
higher ambient temperatures will cause stress relaxation, press fits, spring fingers,
more creep deformation. Be sure to use and other part features subject to Fatigue curves, generated from tests
creep data derived at temperatures constant strain can show a reduced that subject test specimens to cyclic
appropriate for your application. retention or deflection force over time loading until failure or a fixed reduction
(see example problem 3-7). in stress or strain, provide a useful means
for comparing the relative fatigue
You can derive stress-relaxation endurance of different plastics. The
information from isochronous stress- results are often presented in the form
strain curves by noting the change in of S-N curves (see figure 3-12) that plot
stress corresponding to a given strain on the stress amplitude against the number
the different time curves. In figure 3-10, of cycles to failure. Fatigue information
the tensile stress at 2% strain drops can also appear as stress or strain limits
from an instantaneous value of 5,200 on stress-strain curves as in figure 3-13.
psi to approximately 3,750 psi after
56
Chapter 3
S-N Curves Figure 3-12

48
7 Hz
Bending
44
7 Hz
(S) STRESS AMPLITUDE ±σα (N/mm2)
Tensile
40
7 Hz
36
Fatigue test
curve for glass-
filled Durethan
32 polyamide in
10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
three cyclic-
loading modes.
(N) NUMBER OF CYCLES TO BREAK, NB
Dynamic Load Limits Figure 3-13

50
Loading: Dynamic
45
-20
40
0
23
35
40 °C
30 60
Design Limit
90
25
TENSILE STRESS (N/mm2)
20
15
10 Stress-strain
curves for
5 Bayblend T85MN
Safety Factor: 1.00
PC/ABS showing
0 limits at various
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 temperatures for
dynamic loading.
STRAIN (ε) (%)
57
The white line shows the suggested STRUCTURAL solid plastics undergoing short-term
design limit at various temperatures DESIGN FORMULAS loading below the proportional limit can
for a Bayblend PC/ABS resin used in use either the flexural modulus or the
applications subjected to dynamic fatigue Finite-element-analysis (FEA) techniques, published instantaneous tensile modulus.
loading for 107 cycles. now common in plastic part design,
provide valuable information about the For short-term loads in the nonlinear
Fatigue properties are sensitive to many mechanical performance of complex or region above the proportional limit,
factors including notch effects, environ- critical designs. For simple geometries such as assembly stresses, you will have
mental factors, stress concentrators, and noncritical parts, standard design to use a secant modulus, calculated
loading frequency, and temperature. formulas can give good results if the from the curves and based upon the
Surface texture, surface finish, and material remains within its elastic limit. actual calculated stress. To calculate
whether the part is plated also affect Even in a complex part, an area or feature secant modulus, first solve the stress
fatigue performance. In contrast to metals, under load can often be represented by equation, which is independent of the
plastics have a high degree of inherent standard formulas. elastic modulus for the material. Next
damping and relatively low thermal read the strain corresponding to this
conductivity. Therefore, vibration Because they are primarily a function of calculated stress on the appropriate
frequencies as low as 10 Hz can cause part geometry and load and not material stress-strain curve. Then, divide the
heat generation in plastic parts. This properties, stress calculation formulas calculated stress by the strain to obtain
can lead to thermal failure if the energy derived for metals apply directly to the secant modulus for that stress level.
cannot be properly dissipated by other plastics. Generally material dependent, The secant modulus typically provides
means, such as convection. deflection formulas require elastic satisfactory predictions of deflections
(Young’s) modulus and sometimes in applications that experience higher
Fiber orientation can also affect fatigue Poisson’s ratio, ν. Poisson’s ratio varies strain levels. See example problem 3-3
performance. Fatigue strength for a slightly with temperature and loading for a demonstration of this procedure.
given fiber-filled resin can be many conditions, but usually only to an
times greater when the fibers are insignificant degree. Single-point data
aligned lengthwise in the direction of suffices for most calculations. Table
loading rather than perpendicularly. 3-1 lists typical values for a variety
When calculating fatigue-life values, of materials.
use fatigue data that is appropriate for
your application, and always include a
suitable safety factor. Use of Moduli
For short-term loads at room tempera-

tures and stress levels below a resin’s
proportional limit, use the instantaneous
elastic modulus. At other temperatures,
use isothermal stress-strain curves to
calculate elastic modulus — simply
stress divided by strain in the linear
region — at the desired temperature.
Simple bending calculations involving
58
Chapter 3
For long-term loads, use a creep or Stress limits are best determined from given load and geometry to determine if
apparent modulus derived from isochro- isochronous stress-strain curves showing the limit is exceeded. Be sure to multiply
nous stress-strain curves. A time- either crazing or design limits for the the result by an appropriate stress-
dependent property, creep modulus is given time and temperature. Of course, concentration factor (see figure 3-32)
the calculated stress divided by the appropriate safety factors should always before making the comparison. If the
corresponding strain value read from be used. Use a safety factor of at least limit is exceeded, reduce the load or
the isochronous stress-strain curve for 2.0 — higher values are necessary in increase the cross-sectional area to reduce
the desired time span. Because the critical applications. General stress limits stress below the limit. Note that because
strain value is always changing in a part (such as 25% of the published tensile the stress equation itself is not modulus-
that is exhibiting creep, the creep modu- yield stress) usually have large inherent dependent, it is almost always used in
lus is also time dependent. Calculations safety factors, but become less conserv- conjunction with the deflection equation
using the creep modulus, a decreased- ative at elevated temperatures or long-time to evaluate true design performance.
representative modulus value, predict use conditions. To apply a stress limit,
the deflection that occurs after a period simply solve the stress equation for the Table 3-3 lists the permissible short-term
of time. See the Long-Term Properties strain limits at room temperature for
section in this chapter for more infor- various families of Bayer engineering
Permissible
mation and example problems dealing plastics. One-time, short-duration load
Short-Term Strain
with creep behavior. Table 3-3 Limits at 23°C (73°F) applications that stay below these limits
typically do not fracture or exhibit
significant permanent deformation.
Stress and Strain Limits Designs that see multiple applications
of an applied load should stay below
Unreinforced
Plastics differ in the level of stress or 60% of these values. Permissible strain
Apec High Heat PC 4.0%
strain they can tolerate in structural values are typically used to design parts
Bayblend PC/ABS 2.5%
applications. Engineering strain is with short-term or intermittent loads
Centrex ASA 1.9%
defined as the change in length of a such as cantilever snap arms. If a strain-
Durethan PA cond. 6.0%
specimen divided by its original length dry 4.0%
based formula is not available, it can be
and is represented by the symbol ε. The Lustran ABS 1.8%
created by substituting σ / ε for E in the
actual units of strain are length divided Makroblend Polycarb. Blends 3.5%
deflection equation, then substituting
by length (inches per inch, millimeters Makrolon PC 4.0%
the complete stress equation for σ.
per millimeter) but it is most often Triax PA/ABS 3.4%
represented as a percentage. Stress has
units of force per cross-sectional area Glass-Fiber-Reinforced (% Glass)
(pounds per square inch = psi, Newtons Makrolon (10%) PC 2.2%
per square millimeter = Megapascals, Triax (15%) PA/ABS 2.2%
MPa). Because stress and strain are Makrolon (20%) PC 2.0%
interrelated, plastic parts can be designed Durethan (30%) PA cond. 2.0%
based on either stress or strain limits. dry 1.5%
General guide data for the allowable short-
term strain for snap joints (single joining
operation); for frequent separation and
rejoining, use about 60% of these values.
59
Uniaxial Tensile and Compressive Stress Example 3-1: Tensile Stress and Strain Esecant = 4,000 psi / 0.0135
= 296,296 psi
Because most plastic part failures are A 5-inch-long bar with a cross section
tensile failures and this failure mode is of 0.5 inch by 0.125 inch is exposed to The definition of engineering strain is
easy to test, the majority of the available a 250-pound tensile load. Calculate the ∆L / L, so to find the change in length,
stress-strain data were produced using stress and elongation of the Makrolon ∆L, multiply the original length of the
tensile test methods. The compressive polycarbonate bar. sample by the strain. For the Young’s
strength of plastic usually exceeds modulus case, ∆L = (5 inch)(0.011) =
the tensile strength, but because it is The definition of stress is load divided 0.055 inch. But the correct answer using
more difficult to test, the compressive by cross-sectional area, so the stress is: the actual stress-strain curve is ∆L =
strength is usually assumed to equal the (5 inch)(0.0135) = 0.068 inch. In this
tensile strength, which is a conservative σt = P / A = 250 / [(0.5)(0.125)] case, the error introduced by using
assumption. = 4,000 psi Young’s modulus was about 19%.
Depending on geometry, excessive Note that no modulus values are required Keep in mind that these calculations
compressive stress may cause the part to determine the stress, simply load are assuming short-term loading. If the
to buckle. Long, slender shapes are the and cross-sectional area. (In some cases 4,000-psi stress is not removed after a
most susceptible to this failure mode. however, Poisson’s ratio is required.) short time, the material will creep causing
Consult a strength-of-materials textbook strain to increase. Based on the set
or engineering handbook for analytical To find the elongation of the bar, deter- of isochronous curves shown in figure
buckling formulas. mine the strain (change in length per 3-10, crazing will occur after 6 x 104
unit length) created by the applied hours (about 6.8 years) at a stress level
4,000-psi stress. Using Young’s of 4,000 psi. Extrapolating from this
modulus to calculate strain gives: data, we can see that applying a safety
factor of 2.0 and keeping the stress
ε = σ / E = 4,000 psi / 350,000 psi below 2,000 psi reduces the risk of
= 0.011 in/in = 1.1% strain crazing during the life of most parts in
unharsh environments.
However, reading from the stress-strain
curve at room temperature (23°C) in
figure 3-2 gives a value of 1.35% strain
for a stress of 4,000 psi. Since this
strain value is greater than that calculat-
ed with Young’s modulus, the sample
must be strained beyond the proportion-
al limit. The proper secant modulus for
this case is then:
60
Chapter 3
Tensile and Compressive Stresses in Bending Figure 3-14
σt(+)
Tensile
Stress
c
h
Neutral
Plane
Compressive
σc(–) Stress
Bending and Flexural Stress Mc capital letter I. The moment of inertia

σb =
I indicates resistance to bending and has
Bending or flexing a plastic part units of length to the fourth power
induces both tensile and compressive In this formula, M represents the bending (inches4, millimeters4). Defining sec-
stresses through the cross section, as moment applied to the beam. Bending tion modulus, Z (not to be confused
shown in figure 3-14. Bending creates moment can be defined as applied force with the material modulus, E) as I
tensile stresses on the convex side of the times the distance to the point of interest. divided by c allows the bending-stress
part and compressive stresses on the For the simple cantilever shown in figure formula to be rewritten:
concave side. The neutral plane defines 3-14, the moment at the attachment
the plane of zero stress in which the point is the load times the length of the σb = M / Z
stress magnitude switches from tensile beam, or P times L. The common units
to compressive. The stress distribution of moment are pound-inches or Newton-
through the thickness of the part is meters. The distance from the neutral
defined by the formula: plane to the point of interest is repre-
sented by c, and the moment of inertia
of the cross section (not to be confused
with bending moment) is represented by
61
Table 3-4 Section Properties for Bending
Cross-Sectional Area Moment of Inertia Section Modulus

Shape A c I z = I/c
h
h bh3 bh2
bh
c
2 12 6
b
t
s
h d
c
b h bh3-d3(b-s) bh3-d3(b-s)
bh-d(b-s)
2 12 6h
t
s
h d
c
t d
s
b 2tb3+ds3 2tb3+ds3
b bh-d(b-s)
c 2 12 6b
t d
2tb2+ds2 hb3-d(b-s)3
b bh-d(b-s) -A(b-c)2
c 2A 3
s
Bottom in Top in
h Tension: Tension:
I I
OR
s d c b-c
h h2s+t2(b-s) bh3-d3(b-s)
c ds+bt -A(h-c)2
t 2A 3
b
di do π(do2-di2) do π(do4-di4) π(do4-di4)

c 4 2 64 32do
* For solid round let di = 0
62
Chapter 3
Table 3-5 Beam Bending Formulas For design purposes, the maximum
tensile bending stress is of primary
interest. The maximum tensile bending
Loading and Bending Stress Deflection
Boundary Conditions σb y stress is found when c is set equal to the
distance from the neutral plane to the
P outer surface in tension.
y PL PL3
Z 3EI Table 3-4 shows formulas for the cross-
L
sectional area, A; distance from the
neutral plane to the outer surface in
tension, c; moment of inertia, I; and
w
section modulus, Z, for various cross
y wL2 wL4
sections. The dashed line in the cross-
2Z 8EI
L sectional diagrams denotes the neutral
plane, or in this case, neutral axis. The
formulas assume the bending moment is
L/2 P applied about this axis. The cross sections
y
PL PL3 that are not symmetrical about the neu-
4Z 48EI tral axis require some back-substitution
L
of A and c to calculate I and Z.
a
P
b
For a > b: Bending-stress formulas are highly
y Pb(L2-b2)3/2
Pab dependent on boundary conditions.
9 3EIL
xm LZ Boundary conditions define how the
L2-b2
L At xm =
3 ends of the part are restrained, as well
as the position of the load and whether
it is concentrated or distributed across
w
y the surface of the part. Table 3-5 gives
PL 5wL4
stress and deflection formulas for the
8Z 384EI
L bending of beams with different boundary
conditions. The symbol P denotes con-
centrated loads (pounds, Newtons) and
L/2 P the symbol w denotes loads evenly dis-
y PL wL4 tributed across the beam (pounds/inch,
8Z 192EI
L
Newtons/millimeter). Use the values
from table 3-4 for I and Z. For accurate
results, use the secant modulus or apparent
w modulus for E.
y
PL wL4
12 Z 384EI
L
63
Example 3-2: Beam Bending Figure 3-15 Simply Supported Plate
A load of 250 pounds is placed on a

10-inch-long beam 4 inches from one
end. The I-shaped beam is 1-inch wide
and 1-inch tall with a uniform thickness
of 0.2 inch. The environmental tempera-
ture is 140°F (60°C). The beam was
injection molded from Durethan BKV
A A
130 PA 6 resin through a gate on one
end. Find the maximum deflection of
the beam and at what point the maxi-
mum deflection occurs. 1.5 in
First, calculate the section properties of p = 275 psi

the I-beam. From table 3-4 with b = h = 1, t = 0.20 in
s = t = 0.2 and d = 0.6:
c = h / 2 = 1 / 2 = 0.5 inch δ=?

Section A-A
I= [(1)(1)3
- (0.6)3(1-0.2)] / 12
= 0.0689 inch4
Z = I / c = 0.0689 / 0.5 = 0.1378 inch3

The stress result is needed in this case Pb(L2-b2)3/2
y=
Now find the appropriate stress formula only to calculate the proper secant 15.6EIL
for the given boundary conditions in modulus. Because the resin is 30% glass (250)(4)(102-42)3/2
table 3-5. The fourth condition is correct. reinforced, fiber orientation is considered. =
(15.6)(334,923)(0.0689)(10)
Solving for maximum tensile bending The gate at one end of the beam will
= 0.214 inch
stress with a = 6, b = 4, L = 10, and align most of the fibers along the length
P = 50 gives: of the beam, therefore, the curves in
figure 3-5 apply. Reading from the 60°C For this special case, the maximum
σb = Pab / LZ curve at a stress of 4,354 psi (30 MPa) deflection does not occur at the point
= (250)(6)(4) / [(10)(0.1378)] gives a strain of 1.3%. The secant where the load is applied. It instead
= 4,354 psi (30 MPa) modulus for this case is 4,354 psi / occurs at:
0.013 = 334,923 psi.
xm = [(L2-b2) / 3]1/2 = [(102-42) / 3]1/2
Now solve the deflection equation using = 5.29 inches from the left
the secant modulus. end of the beam
64
Chapter 3
Shear Stress on a Pin Figure 3-16 Using the 40°C isothermal stress-strain
curve in figure 3-2, a 1.75% strain is
found to correspond to a stress of about
4,900 psi. Dividing stress by strain
B B
gives a secant modulus of 280,000 psi.
P Solving the deflection equation using
this modulus value gives:
τ
P
δmax = 3(275)(0.75)4[5-4(0.38)-(0.38)2]
16(280,000)(0.20)3
τ = AP
D = 0.0243 inches
A = πD
Using the room-temperature flexural

Section B-B modulus (330,000 psi) instead of the
secant modulus at 40°C would have
Mold dump well predicted a deflection of 0.0206 inches,
an error of 15%.
Example 3-3: Plate Deflection where:

p = applied pressure load (275 psi) Shear Stress
Assume that the simply supported plate r = plate radius (0.75 inches)
shown in figure 3-15 has a diameter of ν = Poisson’s ratio (0.38) In tensile or compressive loading, the
1.5 inches and a thickness of 0.2 inches. t = plate thickness (0.2 inches) load is applied perpendicular to the
A uniform load of 275 psi is applied in E = modulus of elasticity in psi cross section of interest. Shear stress is
an ambient temperature of 104°F calculated by considering the stress on
(40°C). Using the stress-strain curves This pressure load will cause strain in the cross section that lies in-plane or
for Makrolon polycarbonate resin, the disk to exceed the proportional limit. parallel to the load. The most common
determine the deflection of the plate. In addition, the elevated-temperature example of shear stress is the shearing
condition rules out the use of the room- of a bolt or pin as shown in figure 3-16.
The maximum deflection (δ) and stress temperature Young’s modulus. Therefore, The load in the plates creates a shear
(σ) for this case can be calculated from first calculate the appropriate secant stress on the cross section B-B equal to
the formulas: modulus to use in the deflection formula. the load, P, divided by the cross-sectional
Solving the stress equation yields: area of the pin, A. Shear stress is denoted
by the Greek letter τ. The units of shear
δmax 3pr4(5-4ν−ν2)
= stress (psi) are the same as for tensile or
16Et3 σmax = 3(275)(0.75)2(3+0.38) / 8(0.20)2
bending stress.
3pr2(3+ν) = 4,902 psi
σ=
8t2
65
Torsion The strain produced in torsion is a shear To find the angle of twist, we need G,
strain, γ. It can be related to tensile and therefore E. Combining the relations
Shear stress is the primary type of stress strain using the approximate relation: for G and γ and replacing the moduli
in parts that experience torsional or with their stress/strain definitions gives
twisting loads. The stress formula for γ ≈ (1+ν)ε the relation: σ ≈ 2τ. This allows us to
torsion is analogous to the bending- calculate secant modulus from the tensile
stress formula, σb = Mc / I. The bending This equation is useful for converting stress-strain curve with a stress value of
moment is replaced with a twisting permissible tensile-strain limits to 2 times τ, or 6,370 psi. Using the 23°C
moment, T, and the moment of inertia permissible shear-strain limits. Lastly, curve in figure 3-2 gives a secant
is replaced by a polar moment of inertia, for a circular cross section, the angle of modulus of about 6,370 psi / 0.023 =
J. The distance c now represents the twist in radians can be calculated given 277,000 psi.
distance from the centroid of the section the shear strain and geometry by:
to the outer surface. This yields the G ≈ Es / [2(1+ν)]
following formula: ϕ = 2γL / d, (d = shaft diameter) ≈ 277,000 / [2(1+0.38)]
≈ 100,362 psi
Tc
τ=
J Example 3-4: Torsion of a Round Shaft The calculated angle of twist is then:
For the torsion problem the angle of A 0.2-inch-diameter, 0.5-inch-long, ϕ = TL / JG

twist, ϕ, is analogous to deflection. It is Makrolon polycarbonate shaft is part = (5)(0.5) / [(0.000157)(100,362)]
defined as: of a torsional latch. A torque of 5 inch- = 0.159 radians
pounds is applied to activate the latch. = 9.1 degrees
TL Find the shear stress in the shaft and the
ϕ=
JG resulting angle of twist. Note that the conversion factor between
radians and degrees is 180/π.
In this expression, L is the length of the The polar moment of inertia for the
shaft and G is the shear modulus of the round cross section is:
material. Assuming linear elasticity, the
shear modulus can be approximated J = πd4 / 32 = (3.14)(0.2)4 / 32
from the tensile modulus and Poisson’s = 0.000157 inch
ratio using the relation:
For this case, c = d / 2, or 0.1 inch. The
E maximum shear stress in the shaft is then:
G≈
2(1+ν)
τ = Tc / J = (5)(0.1) / (0.000157)
= 3,185 psi
66
Chapter 3
Crown Height vs. Stiffness Figure 3-17

8
7 t P
0
10
=
h D/t
6
D 75
t=
D/
5
0
=5
4 D/t
STIFFENING FACTOR
3
5
D/t = 2
2
1
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
h/D
DESIGNING FOR STIFFNESS Part Shape Crowns round the surface to form a
slightly domed shape that adds consid-
You can use a variety of options to In many applications, the overall part erable stiffness with little additional
improve part stiffness including overall shape is the predominant design factor material. Figure 3-17 shows the effect
shape, wall thickness, ribs, and material affecting part stiffness and load-carrying of crown height on stiffness in a circular
selection. This section will discuss these capabilities. Taking steps early in the disk rigidly supported at the perimeter.
and other options. design stage to select a good basic shape The graph shows relative stiffness —
can avoid expensive and/or troublesome stiffness domed divided by stiffness flat
measures later in the product develop- — plotted against the ratio of dome
ment to achieve the desired strength and height to disk diameter. The different
stiffness. Selecting inherently stiffer curves represent disk-diameter-to-disk-
shapes seldom adds significantly to the thickness ratios. For the example of a
final part costs. 10-inch-diameter disk with a 0.100-inch
wall thickness, we see that adding a
Take advantage of the design flexibility 0.25-inch dome increases the stiffness
in the molding process to maximize the by about 300%.
stiffness of your design. Consider
crowns or corrugations for large surfaces.
Flat surfaces lack inherent stiffness.
67
Figure 3-18 Corrugation Figure 3-19 Curved Side Walls
Corrugations can add stiffness to noncosmetic parts. Adding curvature to the sidewalls enhances stiffness and appearance.
Noncosmetic parts frequently rely on increases stiffness and reduces the When possible, use other components
corrugations to increase stiffness and hourglass-shaped warpage common in of the assembly to provide additional
distribute loads (see figure 3-18). The box-shaped parts. Design permitting, stiffness. Plastic housings often contain
height and spacing of corrugated features strengthen unsupported edges with a rigid internal components, such as
can be adjusted to achieve the desired stiffening profile (see figure 3-20), cooling fans, metal shields, and heat
stiffness. Cosmetic parts usually must preferably a straight-draw profile that sinks, which could add support to
disguise corrugations as styling features. maintains uniform wall thickness and load-bearing surfaces.
Corrugation features usually avoid the molds without side-action mechanisms.
filling and read-through problems
sometimes encountered with
reinforcing ribs. Stiffening Profiles for Edges Figure 3-20
Flexible Stiffer
Long, unsupported edges, such as those
on the sidewalls of box-shaped parts,
exhibit low stiffness. They also tend to
warp during molding. Adding curvature
to the sidewalls (see figure 3-19)
Stiffening profiles increase the stiffness of sidewalls and edges.
68
Chapter 3
Typically, plastic parts perform better in Figure 3-21 Hollow-Shaped Parts

compression than in flexure or tension.
To maximize part stiffness, design the
nonappearance, bottom half of an
assembly with hollow towers, center
walls, or ribs that add support to the
underside of the upper half.
Generally difficult to mold via conven-

tional methods, hollow profiles can
provide high levels of stiffness. Until
recently, manufacturability and eco-
nomic considerations have made full-
scale production of high-quality plastic
hollow parts difficult. The lost-core
process, used to manufacture the engine
manifold part shown in figure 3-21,
employs a sacrificial, low-melt tempera-
ture core to mold intricate hollow shapes.
The hollowed sections function both as
air ducts and as stiffening members that The hollow shape of this lost-core manifold adds both function and high rigidity.
withstand the loads and vibrations of

the application. Another process for
producing similar hollow parts, the Figure 3-22 Gas-Assist Channels
multi-shell process, forms hollow
shapes from separately molded parts,
which are joined later by welding or
overmolding.
In gas-assist molding, a growing tech-

nology, high-pressure gas is injected
into the melt stream behind the flow
front to produce hollow sections. This
process can create networks of hollow
channels for stiffening (see figure 3-22).
Hollow Channels
The hollow channels can augment stiff-
ness in weak areas such as unsupported
edges or provide major support in areas Gas-assist channels add stiffness to unsupported edges and
subject to high loads. load-bearing areas.
69
Wall Thickness Table 3-6 Equivalent Thickness
Because stiffness is proportional to

Flexural Modulus Equivalent Thickness
thickness cubed, relatively small Material Replacing Steel (106 psi) Factor (ETF)
increases in thickness can reduce
Lustran ABS 0.38 4.2
deflection greatly. A 25% increase in
Makrolon PC 0.33 4.4
thickness nearly doubles the stiffness of
Bayblend PC/ABS 0.36 4.3
a simple plastic surface. While adding
Makroblend PC Blend 0.34 4.4
wall thickness to improve stiffness is a
Durethan PA 6 (30% GF) 0.73 3.4
simple solution, it is not always practical.
Aluminum 10.0 1.4
Although they generally offer excellent
Steel 29.0 1.0
strength-to-weight performance, most
This table shows how many times thicker than steel various materials would need to be to yield
parts made of plastic would have to the same deflection under a given load. The ETF assumes a flat shape and short-term loading
have wall thicknesses several times at room temperature.
greater than other common structural
materials to achieve the same stiffness
without geometry changes.
culties, and cycle times, typically set a flat shape and short-term loading at
In reality, molding and economic factors practical thickness limits well below room temperature. The table shows that,
limit the available wall thickness range 0.25 inches for most solid thermoplastics. to have the same stiffness, a flat shape
for stiffening. Molding-related issues, Because good molding practice calls for would need to be 4.4 times thicker in
such as shrinkage stress, packing diffi- a uniform thickness throughout a part, a polycarbonate than in steel.
local need for additional stiffness often
results in an overall thickness increase, To estimate the equivalent thickness of
adding both part weight and cost. other materials or material combina-
tions, solve the following equation:
Table 3-6 shows the wall-thickness rela-
tionships between various materials and tequivalent = tcurrent(Ecurrent / Eproposed)1/3
steel to give the same deflection for a
given load. The equivalent-thickness where t is thickness and E is the appro-
factor (ETF) listed in this table assumes priate flexural or tensile modulus.
70
Chapter 3
Example 3-5: Equivalent Thickness Figure 3-23 Doubling Stiffness
If an existing aluminum part is 0.030-

inch thick (tcurrent), what thickness
(tproposed) does an identical part made 2 in
t
of a 50% glass-filled polyamide 6 need
to be for equivalent flexural rigidity?
The flexural modulus of aluminum is t = 0.100 in
Volume = 0.200 in3
10,000,000 psi (Ecurrent). The flexural Stiffness = x
1 in
modulus of a 50% glass-filled
polyamide 6 is 1,116,000 psi after
conditioning (Eproposed).
Increase
Thickness
tequiv = 0.030(10,000,000 / 1,116,000)1/3
= 0.062 inch
t = 0.126 in
The equivalent thickness (tequiv) Volume = 0.252 in3
Stiffness = 2x
equals 0.062 inch. Depending upon
your application, you should apply a
0.050 in
suitable safety factor. 0.116 in
Calculations of equivalent thickness for Add Rib

long-term loads or loads at temperatures
other than room temperature should
substitute the appropriate creep-modulus t = 0.100 in
Volume = 0.214 in3
or secant-modulus values for the current Stiffness = 2x
and proposed materials.
In this example, adding a rib to double stiffness increases part volume

Ribs by only 7% as compared to 25% when the part thickness is increased.
Ribs provide a means to increase stiffness

without increasing wall thickness.
Figure 3-23 shows the relative amount doubles the part stiffness with much specific areas and directions. Plastic
of material needed to double the stiffness less material than simply increasing the part designs often require ribs to
of a flat part, both by increasing thick- part thickness. Because they are usually strengthen and stiffen structural elements
ness and by adding ribs. Adding a rib thinner than the main-wall sections, ribs such as hinges, attachment features, and
seldom add to the molding-cycle time. load points.
Ribs also add stiffness selectively in
71
Bidirectional ribs stiffen surfaces sub- Chair-Base Ribs Figure 3-24
jected to pure deflection or sagging-type
loading. Parts subjected to both bending
and twisting loads, such as chair star
bases, need diagonal-rib patterns (see
figure 3-24). Figure 3-25 shows a com-
mon diagonal-rib design for chair base
members. The deep U-shape provides
primary strength and stiffness. The deep
diagonal ribs add torsional support and
resist buckling in the U-channel. The rib
thickness is a compromise between
what is needed for mold filling and
strength, and the maximum thickness
that will produce a cosmetically accept-
able part. Overly thick ribs can lead to
read-through on the cosmetic upper sur- The U-shaped sections with deep diagonal ribs provide the strength
face. For this reason, limit rib thickness and stiffness required for chair bases.
to about 1/2 the nominal part thickness.
Two factors determine the performance normalized resistance to bending. Ribs The rib’s moment of inertia is propor-
of ribbed structures: the moment of increase the moment of inertia of plate tional to its height cubed, and linear to
inertia (I), which indicates resistance structures subjected to bending loads the width (for a rectangular section,
to bending; and the section modulus thereby increasing stiffness. I = bh3 / 12). Because of this property,
(Z = I / c), which reflects centroid- tall ribs add greater stiffness and rigidity
than short ribs. Ribs that are too tall can
cause difficulties: when the edge of ribs
lies too far from the section’s center of
Figure 3-25 Diagonal Ribs gravity, the resulting outer-fiber stress
can exceed material limits, reducing
strength in spite of an increase in stiffness.
Section A-A
A
7 3–4 2.5 – 3.5
4
1.5
A Dimensions in mm
Typical rib design for chair-base applications.
72
Chapter 3
Replace tall ribs with multiple, shorter LONG-TERM LOADING

ribs to reduce stress to acceptable levels
while maintaining required stiffness. Generally, long-term loading is either a
The three rib options in figure 3-26 constant applied load or a constant
provide roughly the same rigidity. induced strain. Plastic parts subjected to
Option A is too thick and will lead to a constant load, such as pressure vessels
sink on the opposite surface. Option B or structures supporting weight, tend to
is too tall and may see excessive stress creep and show increased deformation
along the rib edge. The pair of ribs in over time. Other design elements, such
option C represents a good compromise as a press-fit boss or spring finger,
between strength, stiffness, and mold- undergo continuous, fixed deformation
ability. When designing ribbed structures, or strain. These features stress relax
consider the moldability guidelines for over time and show a loss in retention
ribs outlined in Chapter 2. force. See the Long-Term Mechanical
Properties section in this chapter
for an explanation of creep and
stress relaxation.
Creep data, such as isochronous

stress-strain curves, provide a means
for predicting a material’s behavior.
Equivalent Ribs Figure 3-26
Too Thick Too Tall Better
These three rib

H options provide
1.26 H
H t t t t roughly the same
2 2 2 rigidity for a vertical
load. Multiple ribs
often provide better
t performance than
single ribs that are
A B C either too thick or
too tall.
73
Isochronous Stress-Strain Figure 3-27 Figure 3-27 shows a typical set of time-
70
dependent curves at 40°C for Makrolon
No. Hours 2800-series polycarbonate resins. Each
60 1 1
2 10 curve represents the material behavior
3 100 40°C
4 1,000 for different loading durations. To predict
50 5 10,000
6 100,000 creep, substitute an apparent modulus
for the instantaneous elastic or Young’s
40
1 2 3 4 5 6 modulus in structural calculations.
30
Many people confuse actual modulus
STRESS (σ) (MPa)
and creep modulus. Except for environ-

20
mental effects the material’s elasticity
10
does not decrease over time; nor does
its strength. Because of viscoelasticity,
0 deformation occurs over time in
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 response to a constant load. While the
instantaneous tensile modulus of the
STRAIN ( ε ) (%) material remains constant, the apparent
modulus decreases over time (see figure
Isochronous stress-strain curve for Makrolon PC at 40°C.
3-28). We use this hypothetical, time-
dependent creep modulus to predict the
amount of sag or deformation that occurs
Creep Modulus vs. Time Figure 3-28 over time.
2,250
2,000 Stress relaxation is the decrease in

stress that occurs in a material that is
1,750 subjected to constant, prolonged strain
at a constant temperature. Measuring
1,500
stress relaxation involves varying the
1,000 load over a period of time to maintain
CREEP MODULUS (MPa)
a constant strain rate. This test is more

750 difficult than the test for creep that mea-
sures the change in deflection over time
500
in a specimen under constant stress. For
250 this reason, creep curves are often used
to calculate stress relaxation, generally
0
resulting in a ±10% margin of error.
10-1 100 101 10 2 10 3 10 4 105
TIME (hours)
Creep modulus for Makrolon PC at 40°C. Creep (apparent) modulus decreases over time,
but the actual modulus remains constant.
74
Chapter 3
To find the apparent modulus from Example 3-6: Plate Deflection 3pr4(5-4ν-ν2)
isochronous strain-strain data, divide Considering Creep δmax =
16Ecreept3
the calculated stress by the corresponding
3(275)(0.75)4[5-4(0.38)-(0.38)2]
strain on the curve for the selected load Find the deflection in the circular plate =
16(98,000)(0.20)3
duration. For example, if a flat part made of example 3-3 after 10,000 hours. The
of polycarbonate at 40°C (see figure geometry and loading are shown in = 0.0694 inches
3-27), has a tensile stress of 2,900 psi figure 3-15.
(20 MPa) and a load duration of 1,000 The deflection at 10,000 hours is nearly
hours, you can calculate an apparent As in the short-term case, the first step triple the instantaneous value of 0.0243
modulus of 166,000 psi from the is to calculate the stress. Because the inches!
isochronous stress-strain curve. stress calculation does not depend on
Significantly lower than the instanta- modulus, the result is the same as in
neous value of 350,000 psi, this lower example 3-3: Example 3-7: Stress Relaxation
apparent modulus will account for the
added deflection that occurs because σmax = 4,902 psi A permanently deflected polycarbonate
of creep when it is substituted into cantilever snap arm is used to hold a
deflection calculations. To find the appropriate modulus value metal part in position. The arm is 1-inch
requires a set of isochronous stress-strain long, 0.080-inch thick and 0.25-inch
For a given strain, read vertically curves at 40°C as shown in figure 3-27. wide. The deflection of the arm is 0.1
through the isochronous stress-strain On the 10,000 hour curve, a stress of inch. What is the instantaneous retention
curves to predict the effects of stress 4,900 psi corresponds to roughly 5% force of the arm? After one month
relaxation. Again, using the curves in strain. Calculate the apparent (creep) (~103 hours)? After one year (~104
figure 3-27, you can see that for an modulus by dividing stress by strain. hours)? After six years (~6 x 104 hours)?
applied strain of 2%, the tensile stress Use the result of 98,000 psi to calculate
drops from an instantaneous value of the actual deflection after 10,000 hours.
5,072 psi (35 MPa) to approximately
2,900 psi (20 MPa) after 10,000 hours.
Table 3-7
σ (psi) Retention
Time at 1.2% Er Force
(Hours) Strain (psi) (Pounds)
10-1 (6 Min) 3,750 312,500 1.00
3
10 (1 Month) 2,800 233,333 0.75
104 (1 Year) 2,500 208,333 0.67
4
6 x 10 (6 Years) 2,200 183,333 0.59
75
First, find the strain level in the arm Brittle and Ductile Behavior Figure 3-29
from the formula shown below. This
H
can be derived from y = PL3 / 3EI
Brittle Lo ighe
we r S
r T tra
(Table 3-5) and letting E = σb / ε. em in
pe Ra
rat te
ur
e H
3yh = 3(0.1)(0.08) Lo ighe
ε = ___ _________ = 1.2% strain we r T
r S em
2L2 2(1.0)2 tra per
in atu
Ra re
te
Now, using figure 3-10, find the stress
corresponding to 1.2% strain on the
desired time curves. Then calculate
STRESS ( σ )
the relaxation modulus (Er = σ / 0.012) Ductile
and find the retention force using

P = 3ErIy / L3. The results are shown
in Table 3-7.
STRAIN ( ε )
Note that the drop off in retention force
is proportional to the drop in stress. For Effects of strain rate and temperature on material behavior.
a given strain, the stress drops a similar

amount during each logarithmic increase
in time period. The initial retention DESIGNING FOR IMPACT As ambient temperature increases,
force drops by 25% in the first month, materials become more ductile. The
then by an additional 16% over the next As discussed earlier in this chapter, load yield strength decreases, but the strain-
six years. For this reason, designs that duration and ambient temperature affect at-break value increases. Although
rely on such retention forces are not the mechanical performance of plastic a part will be less rigid at elevated
recommended in thermoplastics. parts and must be addressed in part temperatures, it may have better impact
design. Plastic parts designed for impact properties, because it can absorb more
must also consider the effect of strain energy before failing.
rate or rate of loading on mechanical
behavior. As figure 3-29 shows, plastics Avoid stress concentrations. While this
become stiffer and more brittle at high is an important goal in good design
strain rates and low temperatures. If practice, it becomes of paramount
your part will be exposed to impact importance in impact applications. An
strains, address energy management impact causes a high energy wave that
issues early in the design process, passes through the part and interacts with
including: its geometry. Design features such as
sharp corners, notches, holes, and steps
• Stress concentration; in thickness can focus this energy, initi-
ating fracture. As corners or notches
• Energy dissipation; and become sharper, the part’s impact
• Material impact properties.
76
Chapter 3
performance will diminish. Figure 3-30 lines typically exhibit lower strength • If using multiple ribs, space them
shows the effect of notch radius on the than other areas and can concentrate unevenly or orient them to prevent
Izod impact performance of unfilled stresses along the fine V-notch that resonance amplification from the
polycarbonate resin. Increasing the notch forms the visible knit lines. impact energy;
radius from 0.005 to 0.010 inch increases
the Izod impact strength by about Designers often attempt to enhance • Avoid boxy shapes that concentrate
400%. Therefore, impact performance by adding ribs or impact forces on rigid edges and
increasing wall thickness. While this corners; and
• Round inside corners and notches to can sometimes work, stiffening the part
reduce stress concentrations. in this way can often have the opposite • Use rounded shapes to spread impact
effect. For example, increasing the part forces over larger areas.
Look for potential problems from thickness beyond the critical thickness
sources other than part design, such as can lead to brittle failure, and adding When selecting a plastic material
post-molding operations. Machining, ribs can introduce stress-concentration for impact applications, consider the
for instance, can leave deep scratches, points that initiate cracks and part failure. following design tips:
microcracks and internal stresses leading
to stress concentrations. Often a better strategy is to design the • Select a material with good impact
part to flex, so it can absorb and distribute performance throughout the part’s
Position gates and knit lines in areas the impact energy. In some instances, working-temperature range;
that will not be subjected to high impact this can involve reducing thickness and
forces. The area around gates generally removing or redistributing ribs to • Address all temperatures and impact
has higher levels of molded-in stress. accommodate controlled flexure. loads including those found in the
In addition, improper gate removal can Consider the following rules of thumb manufacturing process and shipping;
leave rough edges and notches. Knit to improve impact performance:
• Consider notch sensitivity of the
material in applications with
unavoidable notches and stress
Stress Concentration Figure 3-30 concentrators; and
R = 0.010 in R = 0.005 in • Check flow orientation — especially

in fiber-filled materials — and the
difference between flow and cross-
flow mechanical properties.
16 to 18 2 to 4
ft-lb/in ft-lb/in
Effect of notch radius on the Izod impact strength of polycarbonate.
77
The complex nature of plastic performance FATIGUE APPLICATIONS snap-latch arm subjected to few deflec-
in impact has led to the development of tions over the product life. Calculations
a variety of impact tests in an attempt to Fatigue can cause rigid plastic parts for parts subjected to many deflections
predict material performance in different exposed to cyclic loading to fail at sub- and temperature extremes may require
impact modes. Despite the many stantially lower stress or strain levels data of the type shown in figure 3-13 in
specialized tests, material impact data than parts made of the same material the fatigue properties section of this
are difficult to relate to actual part under static loading. Consider fatigue chapter. These curves show the stress
performance, and nearly impossible to endurance in applications or features and strain limits at various temperatures
apply quantitatively with good accuracy. subjected to heavy vibrations or repeated for parts subjected to dynamic loading.
Use test data only for general compar- deflections such as snowplow headlight Reversing loads place more severe
isons of material impact performance or assemblies, one-piece salad tongs, and demands on plastic parts. Fatigue data
to screen potential materials. Always high-use snap-latch closures. In areas in the form of S-N curves (see figure
prototype test your final material in subjected to fatigue, avoid stress concen- 3-12) show the number of cycles until
actual, in-use environments. See the trators, such as holes, sharp corners, failure for different cyclic, reversing-
Bayer publication Material Selection for notches, gates, knit lines, and thickness load modes.
more information on impact properties. variations. Optimize the design to
distribute deflection over large areas. Many factors affect fatigue performance
including notch effects, temperature,
The type and severity of fatigue loading loading frequency, fatigue mode, and
determines which material fatigue data part geometry. Generally scarce, fatigue
applies. A reduced, single-point, allow- data is seldom available for the precise
able strain limit may suffice in a simple, conditions of your application. For this
Cycles to Failure Figure 3-31

8
PC/PET
4
PC
STRESS (103 psi)
ABS
Fatigue
2
performance for
representative
grades of ABS and
0
PC plotted with data
1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 1,000,000
for Makroblend UT-
1018 PC/PET resin.
CYCLES TO FAILURE
78
Chapter 3
reason, it is difficult to predict fatigue Fillet Radius and Stress Concentration Figure 3-32
performance quantitatively. Design
efforts in fatigue applications generally 3.0
P
focus on the following:
Stress Concentration Factor

R
2.5
• Using available data to select a suit-
able, fatigue-resistant resin; and 2.0
h
• Reducing stress and strain levels as 1.5
much as possible.
1.0
Often you must screen your material 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
R/h
choices based on general fatigue data of
the type shown in figure 3-31. Effects of a fillet radius on stress concentration.
Sharp inside corners act as stress

concentrators, and can lead to much
higher stress levels than those indicated
by standard formulas. Figure 3-32
shows the effects of a fillet radius on
stress concentration in a snap-arm
member. As the ratio of root radius to
beam thickness becomes less than about
0.2, the stress concentration factor climbs
quickly to much higher values. To avoid
fatigue failures at inside corners, select
the largest fillet radius the design can
tolerate without excessive sink and
packing problems. Typically fillet radii
of 0.015 to 0.030 inch provide a good
compromise between fatigue performance
and part moldability.
79
Coefficients of Linear
Thermal Expansion
(CLTE) for Common
THERMAL LOADING This expansion variation causes the Table 3-8 Materials
polycarbonate shield to compress, making
Coefficient-of-linear-thermal-expansion the part bow. Cooling the assembly by
in/in/°Fx10-5
(CLTE) values for plastics vary widely 50°F to its lower limit would cause the Material (mm/mm/°Cx10-5)
and are generally much higher than polycarbonate shield to shrink 0.013
Glass 0.5 (0.9)
those for metals (see table 3-8). When inches if the ends were not fixed.
Steel 0.8 (1.4)
designing parts that will be exposed to a Because they are fixed, the shield effec-
Composite RIM 0.8 (1.4)
range of temperatures, you must account tively stretches 0.013 inches, resulting
Brass 1.0 (1.8)
for the expansion differences between in an overall applied strain equal to the
Aluminum 1.3 (2.3)
materials. deflection divided by the length between
Nylon GF* 1.3 (2.3)
the screws, expressed as a percentage:
Polyester GF* 1.4 (2.5)
Figure 3-33 gives an example of a long
PPS GF* 1.5 (2.7)
gauge housing made of aluminum with applied strain = (0.013 / 10.00) / 100
Polycarbonate
a polycarbonate impact shield rigidly = 0.0013 = 0.13% GF* 1.7 (3.0)
attached at both ends, with screws ABS GF* 1.7 (3.0)
placed ten inches apart. This gauge The difference in thermal expansion Polypropylene
has an in-use temperature range from induces strain in the polycarbonate GF* 1.8 (3.2)
20° to 120°F. When assembled at room shield. This induced stress is amplified Acetal GF* 2.5 (4.5)
temperature and then heated to the at the mounting holes, which act as Acrylic 3.8 (6.8)
upper temperature limit, the polycar- stress concentrators. Polycarbonate 3.9 (7.0)
bonate shield will expand much more PC/ABS Blend 4.0 (7.2)
than the aluminum housing. This Elastomeric

RIM GF* 4.0 (7.2)
expansion equals the difference in the
Nylon 4.5 (8.1)
CLTE for the two materials, multiplied
ABS 5.0 (9.0)
by the temperature difference and the
Polypropylene 5.0 (9.0)
part length.
Acetal 5.8 (10.4)
Polyester 6.0 (10.8)
∆L = (αplastic-αmetal) • ∆T • L
Polyethylene 7.0 (12.6)
= (3.9-1.3) x 10-5 • (120-70) • 10
Elastomeric
= 0.013 inch RIM Unfilled 7.8 (14.0)
*glass-filled resins
80
Chapter 3
Thermal Expansion Figure 3-33 To avoid the problem, choose an attach-

ment method that allows the plastic
component to slide relative to the other
material. In the aforementioned example,
affix a screw to one end of the shield
and design a slotted screw hole on the
other end to accommodate expansion
and contraction. Refer to the Joining
Dissimilar Materials section of Bayer’s
Joining Techniques, A Design Guide for
more information.
The slotted hole and sliding attachment at one end of the plastic cover in the lower assembly
enable it to accommodate the thermal expansion difference with the metal base.
81
82
Chapter 4
DESIGN FOR ASSEMBLY
Virtually every finished part requires Gear-to-Shaft Attachment Options Figure 4-1
some assembly: mechanical fasteners,
welding, bonding, snap-fit joints, or
other joining techniques. These methods
and their design implications are
discussed in this chapter.
Optimizing part assembly should begin

with the concept stage and continue
through product development and Three-Piece Assembly with Roll Pin
production. At each stage look for
opportunities to simplify and improve
the assembly. Consider consolidating
parts, reducing fastener and assembly
steps, improving automation, and
selecting other assembly methods. Well-
designed parts include features to ease
assembly and assure correct positioning
and orientation. In addition to cost and
quality concerns, the optimization Two-Piece with Snap-On Gear
process should address disassembly for

repair and recycling. Good communica-
tion and cooperation between the vari-
ous design and engineering disciplines
is essential. This chapter addresses
assembly primarily as it relates to
thermoplastic part design. For more
specific information about various
joining techniques and guidelines for
One-Piece Molded Gear and Shaft
their use with Bayer resins, please
request a copy of Joining Techniques
and/or Snap-Fit Joints for Plastics from
your Bayer representative.
PART CONSOLIDATION shows several options for attaching a gear
to a shaft: a three-piece design, featuring
To lessen the need for fastening hardware a shaft, gear, and roll pin; a two-piece,
and reduce the number of assembly oper- snap-on gear design; and a one-piece
ations, consider consolidating the number shaft and gear design that needs no
of parts in a given design. Closely scruti- assembly. A variety of factors — includ-
nize your total design for opportunities to ing required strength, wear properties,
combine function and reduce final assem- and moldability — determine which of
bly count. By way of example, figure 4-1 these design options is most feasible.
83
Cable Guides Figure 4-2 Consider design options that eliminate
or reduce the need for hardware. As
Hardware Molded In
an example, figure 4-2 shows several
examples of molded-in alternatives
to cable-guide hardware. Usually, the
cost savings in hardware and assembly
C-Hole far exceed the added costs of mold
Cable-Tie Retainer modification and materials.
MECHANICAL FASTENERS
Mechanical fasteners — screws, bolts,

Full Surround, Pegs and rivets, and others — and their installation
Screw Retainer Wall Tab
often represent a large portion of total
assembly costs. They also add to the
cost of dismantling products for repair
or recycling. To reduce costs, consider
replacing mechanical fasteners with
Double Snap Projection snap-fit joints, molded-in hinges, latches,
Snap-In and other similar design features. Use
interlocking and/or nesting features to
reduce the number of screws needed.
When you must use fasteners, choose

Alternating from the multitude of inexpensive,
Brackets
off-the-shelf varieties to lower costs.
Slot and
Retainer Clip Additionally, many specialty fasteners
for almost any type of application are
available such as the spring-clip fasteners
in figure 4-3. Avoid expensive, custom,
or low-production fasteners, unless
Pegs and the performance advantage justifies the
Adhesive-Backed Floor Tab additional costs. Whenever possible,
standardize fasteners to simplify inven-
Molded-in features can replace cable-guide hardware. tory control and automation processes,
as well as reduce unit cost.
84
Chapter 4
DESIGN FOR ASSEMBLY continued
Spring Clips Figure 4-3 Consider simplifying installation. For

example, use hex holes to captivate nuts
Thread-Engaging Thread-Engaging during assembly (see figure 4-4). Other
Round Clip
ideas to consider include:
• Select good-quality screws with

shaft-to-head-diameter ratios and
head styles suited to automatic feed
in assembly equipment;
Dart Clip
• Avoid handling loose washers — use
screws with washers affixed under
the head;
Cap-Type • Use self-tapping screws to avoid a

Stud Receiver Push On
secondary tapping step;
Inexpensive spring-
clip fasteners are
• Use metal threaded inserts for screw
available for many connections subjected to frequent
applications. disassembly; and
• Consult Bayer’s Joining Techniques

for more information on mechanical
Hex Hole Figure 4-4 fastening.
SNAP-FIT JOINTS
Both economical and versatile, snap

joints can eliminate fastening hardware,
as well as reduce assembly and disas-
sembly costs in a wide range of applica-
tions. Although they vary in appearance,
all snap-fit joints rely upon the brief
deflection of a flexible member to
interlock a depression or undercut with
a protrusion on a mating part. Varieties
include cantilever snap-arms, and
Hex holes captivate nuts during assembly.
85
torsional or annular snap-joint styles If designed properly, snap-fit joints • Avoid sharp corners in high-stress
(see figure 4-5). The shape of the can secure parts of assemblies, such as areas, such as at the base of a
undercut determines if the joint can be solenoids and switches, replacing more- cantilever arm;
separated later. Snap-fit designs with expensive screws (see figure 4-6).
an angled undercut contact can be disas- Special snap-joint designs can also act
Permissible
sembled without first deflecting the snap as latches for access doors and panels.
Short-Term Strain
feature to disengage the connection. Multiple snap arms or a combination of Table 4-1 Limits at 23°C (73°F)
snap arms and rigid undercuts can often
secure covers and panels (see figure 4-7).
Rounded lids — such as on film canis-
Snap-Fit Joints Figure 4-5 ters or food-storage containers — use
Unreinforced
annular snap-fit designs for continuous
Apec High Heat PC 4.0%
h attachment and a good seal.
2 Bayblend PC/ABS 2.5%
h Centrex ASA 1.9%
Snap-fit joints provide both secure
Durethan PA cond. 6.0%
attachment and easy disconnection of dry 4.0%
electrical connectors. They also facilitate Lustran ABS 1.8%
quick and easy detachment of electrical Makroblend Polycarb. Blends 3.5%
components for repair and recycling. Makrolon PC 4.0%
Module for Control Panels with Some rules of thumb for designing Triax PA/ABS 3.4%
Four Cantilever Lugs snap-fit joints include:
Glass-Fiber-Reinforced (% Glass)
• Design parts so that the flexure Makrolon (10%) PC 2.2%
30 – 45° during snapping does not exceed the Triax (15%) PA/ABS 2.2%
allowable strain limit of the material; Makrolon (20%) PC 2.0%
Durethan (30%) PA cond. 2.0%
• Design parts so that the flexing dry 1.5%
member of the snap-fit joint returns General guide data for the allowable short-
a) b) term strain for snap joints (single joining
Separable Inseparable to a relaxed, undeflected position
operation); for frequent separation and
Annular Snap Joint after assembly;
rejoining, use about 60% of these values.
Torsion Bar
Snap-Fitting Arm with Torsion Bar
Varieties of snap-joint types.
86
Chapter 4
• Round corners to a minimum radius In addition to meeting functional

of 0.015 inch to reduce stress requirements, snap-fit joints must
concentrations; and conform to standard, part-design
guidelines, including:
• Avoid excessively large radii that
could lead to sinks or voids. • Avoid thin-wall sections that could
lead to filling problems;
Table 4-1 shows the permissible strain
limits for various Bayer materials. The • As with ribs, make snap arms that
Bayer publication Snap-Fit Joints for project perpendicular to the part
Plastics explains how to calculate strain, surface no more than 1/2 to 2/3
permissible deflection, and assembly of the thickness of the part wall; and
forces for various types of snap-fit joints.
Consult this publication for additional • Draft snap-arms as you would ribs to
information on snap-fit joint design. ease release from the mold.
Snap Arms Figure 4-6 Snap-Fit Assembly Figure 4-7
Positioning posts and snap arms eliminate screws and speed assembly. Multiple snap arms secure cover in this assembly.
87
Snap Arm Figure 4-8 Consider molding issues early in part Snap-fit features intended for automated
design. To lower mold-construction assembly should join with a simple,
and -maintenance costs, design simple, one-direction motion, rather than a tilt-
straight-draw, snap-fit joints (see figure and-push or slide-and-push motion. The
Snap Fit Draw
4-8), rather than ones that need slides in opposite may be true for hand-assembled
the mold. In some designs, the proximity components. Avoid designs that require
of the snap-fit joint to other part or more than two hands to engage or
mold features does not leave enough release a snap-fit joint.
room for a slide mechanism. Annular
designs can be particularly difficult to
mold. Some need collapsible cores or WELDING AND BONDING
ejector sleeves, which can be problematic
Snap-fit hook molded through hole to form
and difficult to maintain. Consult an Welding and bonding techniques offer
undercut.
experienced mold engineer before a wide variety of excellent joining and
specifying any design that uses slides assembly options. In many applications,
or other mechanisms to clear or eject they provide the only viable methods of
Thumb Tab Figure 4-9 undercuts. assembly. Both of these methods provide
permanent bonds. Avoid welding and
The molding process offers the versatility bonding when using materials that will
to customize snap-fit designs for each have to be separated for recycling or
application. For example, snap arms on repair, or when less-expensive joining
frequently used doors or access panels methods suffice. When you must weld
could have finger tabs added for easier or bond, minimize the mix of techniques
opening (see figure 4-9). Limited-access and equipment used.
doors could have hidden snap-fit joints
or require special tools. Some applications
may require modifications in the snap
arm to prevent excessive material strain
during deflection. Consider lengthening
the snap arm, reducing the undercut,
or tapering the arm thickness in these
Special “U”-shaped snap latch with thumb tab. situations (see figure 4-10).
88
Chapter 4
This section deals with the broader Ultrasonic Welding joint area where frictional heating melts
aspects of welding and bonding and the plastic and forms the weld. When
their effects on part and assembly Ultrasonic welding, one of the designing parts that will be ultrasonically
design. For more specific information most widely used joining techniques, welded, consider the following:
on welding and bonding, request a is an excellent bonding method for
copy of Joining Techniques from your thermoplastics. It makes permanent, • For strong, consistent welds, ultra-
Bayer representative. aesthetically pleasing joints, at relatively sonic joints need properly designed
high rates of speed. In this welding energy directors (see figure 4-11) or
Common welding methods, including technique, an ultrasonic assembly unit shear weld features;
ultrasonic, vibration, hot plate, spin, and generates mechanical vibratory energy
induction, each have specific advantages, at ultrasonic frequencies. The ultrasonic • The equipment size and welding-horn
as well as design and equipment require- vibrational energy is transmitted design limitations determine the size
ments. These are discussed below. through one of the mating parts to the and number of ultrasonic welds per
operation;
Snap Arms Figure 4-10 Energy Director Figure 4-11
Excessive Strain
60 – 90°
0.25W
Alternatives to Reduce Strain
Longer Thinner Reduced Tapered

Arm Arm Undercut Arm
Short, thick snap arms with large undercuts can experience Typical energy-director design for Bayer thermoplastics.
excessive strain during deflection. Consider lengthening or thinning
the arm, reducing the undercut or tapering the arm to reduce strain.
89
• Mating materials must be compatible Vibration and Hot-Plate Welding For permanent, non-cosmetic welds
and rigid enough to transmit the along a single plane, hot-plate welding
ultrasonic energy to the joint area; and To form continuous welds over large offers an economical joining method.
areas — particularly those too large for In this joining method, a heated platen
• Stray welding energy can damage conventional ultrasonic welding — contacts two plastic parts until the joint
free-standing features and delicate consider vibration or hot-plate welding. area melts slightly. The platen retracts,
components. Consult your welding A friction-welding technique, vibration and the parts are then pressed together
experts for help in resolving this welding requires wide joint surfaces to until the bond sets.
problem. accommodate the sliding vibration.
To avoid dampening the vibration, part Both techniques can produce flash or
For more specific information on geometry must rigidly support the a bead along the joint when applied to
ultrasonic welding, request a copy of mating joint surfaces. In this process, simple butt-weld configurations (see
Joining Techniques from your Bayer one part remains stationary, while the figure 4-12). Consider joint designs
representative. second vibrates on the joint plane, with flash traps (see figure 4-13) for
generating heat. When the joint applications requiring flash-free joints.
interface reaches a melted state, the
parts are aligned and clamped until the
bond has set.
Figure 4-12 Welding Flash Figure 4-13 Flash Traps
Before After
Butt-joint welds result in flash along the joint.
Before After
Variations with flash traps.
90
Chapter 4
Spin Welding
Spin welding is used extensively to

weld circular parts with continuous
joints. Spin welding relies on frictional
heat generated between mating parts,
one spinning and one stationary, to melt
plastic in a circular joint. After the friction
melts a sufficient amount of plastic in
the joint, the rotating stops and pressure
increases to distribute melted material
and complete the bonding process.
Parts designed for spin welding often

have an alignment feature, such as a
tongue and groove, to index the parts
and make a uniform bearing surface.
Joints for spin welding can also
include flash traps to avoid visible
welding flash.
Solvent and Adhesive Bonding
Probably the most versatile joining

methods, solvent and adhesive bonding
produce permanent bonds. These tech-
niques place few restrictions on the part must work on both materials. If your When selecting an adhesive, consider
design. Solvent bonding joins one plastic part will be made of polycarbonate curing time and cost as well as special
to itself or another plastic by softening resin, allow for vapor dispersion after adhesive system requirements. UV-
small areas on the joining surfaces with bonding. Trapped solvent vapors can cured adhesives, for instance, work best
a volatile solvent. Adhesives are one-part attack and damage polycarbonate resins. with transparent plastic parts. The part
or two-part “glues” that adhere to mat- design must accommodate direct-line-
ing surfaces and cure to form the bond. Adhesive bonding offers more versatility of-sight access from the UV source to
for bonding different types of plastics the bond area or the bond edge.
Solvent bonding limits your choice of together and also dissimilar materials,
materials to plastics for which there such as plastics to metal, plastics to
is a suitable solvent. When bonding glass, fabric to plastic, etc. The Bayer
dissimilar materials, the same solvent brochure Joining Techniques lists various
adhesives and their suitability for use
with different Bayer resin families.
91
Retention Features Figure 4-14 Assembly Features Figure 4-15
Snap Parts can be captivated between halves of an assembly as in this

Latch
illustration of a gear held in place between axle posts.
Molded-in assembly features can captivate and retain components

without hardware.
RETENTION FEATURES ALIGNMENT FEATURES
The molding process offers the freedom To help in assembly, consider designing
to custom-design features to locate and your part with alignment features. Parts
retain components during assembly. must assemble easily and efficiently,
Components can nest between ribs or despite minor misalignments. Parts with
slide into molded-in retainers for assem- sharp leading edges can snag or catch
bly without hardware (see figure 4-14). during assembly, requiring more time
In some products, halves of the assembly and effort. Chamfers added to either or
can captivate components without both leading edges quickly align mating
additional attachment (see figure 4-15). features, reducing the positioning
This joining method permits efficient accuracy needed for assembly (see
assembly and simplifies dismantling figure 4-16).
for repairs or recycling.
92
Chapter 4
Lead-In Angles Figure 4-16 Edge Alignment Figure 4-17 Housing or enclosure sidewalls can bow
Difficult
during molding or deflect under loading,
resulting in poor alignment along mating
edges. When appearance is important,
consider designing an interlocking edge
to correct for this bowing (see figure
4-17). On thin sidewalls, full tongue-
Easy and-groove designs split the sidewall
thickness into two thin sections. This
design may lead to molding problems
Stepped Tongue and lack the required strength. A some-
Edge and Groove
what better design, the stepped edge,
can have high molding stresses and a
Lead-in angles on the lid in the lower Tongue-and-groove or stepped features
gloss difference at the thickness transition.
assembly help to align the lid with the ensure proper edge alignment. Rounding or chamfering the transition
base and ease assembly. corner often improves this condition.
The stepped-edge design supports the
wall in just one direction. Adding a
protruding rib to support the inside
Alignment Fingers Figure 4-18 Boss Alignment Figure 4-19
surface locks the walls in two directions
and provides better alignment.
When aesthetics are less important,

choose a more-robust, interlocking
design for aligning sidewalls. A variety
of easily molded design options using
interlocking alignment fingers can align
and secure the sidewalls while main-
taining uniform wall thickness (see
figure 4-18). Other simple options for
aligning mating parts include post-in-
hole and boss-alignment features (see
figure 4-19). The astute designer often
can modify existing part-design features
for positioning and alignment with little
added part or mold cost.
Existing design elements can often be
modified to provide positive part alignment
as in the angled lead-ins added to these
mating screw bosses.
Bypass fingers ensure proper alignment

of sidewalls while maintaining uniform
wall thickness.
93
ORIENTATION EXPANSION DIFFERENCES TOLERANCES
Adding orienting features to molded Plastic parts are often attached to If all components of an assembly could
parts can simplify assembly, reduce components made of materials with be produced and joined with perfect
costs, and prevent assembly errors. much different coefficients of linear repeatability and accuracy, the task of
When possible, incorporate features that thermal expansion (CLTE). If your part assigning tolerances would be simple.
prevent assembly unless components will contain different materials, design However, each manufacturing step
are oriented correctly. Otherwise, clearly for CLTE differences. For instance, a introduces its own variability and with
indicate correct orientation on the mat- plastic part tightly attached to a metal it, potential tolerance problems. For
ing parts (see figure 4-20). Symmetry component can bow between attach- instance, molded-plastic part dimensions
simplifies assembly. Often parts need ment points when exposed to elevated vary with processing fluctuations.
only minor modifications to increase temperatures (see figure 4-22). Designing Stamping and machining create part-to-
symmetry and allow orientation in more the plastic section with slotted holes part differences in metal components.
than one direction (see figure 4-21). provides a sliding fit to accommodate Assembly steps such as positioning,
dissimilar levels of expansion. You may guiding, indexing, fixturing, and welding
need to make similar design adjustments present additional sources of variability.
when joining plastic parts to parts made When developing part tolerances,
of certain polyamides and other plastics consider the following:
that swell significantly as they absorb
moisture.
Figure 4-20 Orientation Features
To ensure proper orientation during assembly, add features that either mark the correct
position or prevent assembly of misaligned components.
94
Chapter 4
Orientation Symmetry Figure 4-21 Thermal Expansion Figure 4-22
One-Way Assembly Four-Way Assembly
Simple modifications can often increase symmetry and The slotted hole and sliding attachment at one end of the plastic
simplify assembly. cover in the lower assembly enable it to accommodate the thermal
expansion difference with the metal base.
• Avoid specifying arbitrarily tight • Take advantage of the ability of the Exercise discretion when assigning
tolerances to components and the injection-molding process to mold available tolerances between the
assembly process, as it can add small features with excellent components and assembly processes.
needlessly to costs; repeatability; and Give the tightest tolerances to the part,
feature, or process that adds the least
• Accommodate part and process • Avoid tight tolerances on long cost to the entire process. It may be
variability in your design; dimensions and on features prone to more economical to loosen the tolerance
warpage or distortion. on the plastic component and tighten
• Include design features such as the tolerance on the assembly procedure
slotted holes, alignment features, and or mating components. Consider all
angled lead-ins to lessen the need for the sources of variability and optimize
tight tolerances; tolerances for the lowest overall cost.
See the mold design chapter for more
information on tolerances.
95
96
Chapter 5
MACHINING AND FINISHING
Injection-molded parts seldom need to be DRILLING AND REAMING alleviate most difficulties. Table 5-1
machined or finished. The machining lists common problems and remedies.
operations described in this section — While most frequently used to form
drilling, reaming, sawing, punching, die holes in thermoformed or prototype Drills for plastics generally have wide,
cutting, and others — are used more parts, drilling and reaming can also polished flutes to reduce friction, as
commonly for fabricating prototypes make holes in injection-molded parts well as spiral or helix designs to remove
and for trimming or modifying parts when forming the hole would require chips quickly. Drill-point angles for
produced by other processes such as complicated side actions or inserts. plastics typically range between 60 and
thermoforming or extrusion. 90 degrees, with smaller angles for
Although standard drills and bits work smaller holes and larger angles for larger
with Bayer thermoplastics, specially holes. The suggested drilling speeds for
designed drills and bits perform much most Bayer plastics are between 100 and
better. Overheating, gumming, and 200 feet per minute. Table 5-2 lists
induced machining stresses pose the common feed rates in inches per revolu-
greatest difficulties, particularly when tion for a range of hole sizes. Under
drilling parts made of polycarbonate. ideal conditions — good cooling, sharp
Sharp drills and bits designed for drills, and efficient chip removal —
plastics and proper drilling speeds considerably faster feed rates are
usually possible.
Table 5-1 Common Drilling Troubles and Remedies
Fault Probable Cause Remedy

Hole Too Large 1. Unequal Angle on Length 1. Properly Regrind Drill
of Cutting Edge
2. Burr on Drill 2. Properly Regrind Drill
Rough or Burred Hole 1. Dull Drill 1. Regrind Properly
2. Improperly Ground Drill 2. Regrind Properly
3. Too Coarse Feed 3. Reduce Feed
4. Inadequate Lubrication 4. Correct to Remove Heat
Breaking of Drill 1. Feed Too Heavy in 1. Reduce Feed or
Relation to Spindle Speed Increase Speed
2. Dull Drill-Grabs in Work 2. Regrind Drill
3. Inadequate Chip Clearing 3. Check Application Setup
Chipping of High-Speed Drill 1. Improper Heat Treatment 1. Follow Manufacturers
After Regrinding Recommendations
2. Too Coarse Feed 2. Reduce Feed
97
Table 5-2 Feed Rate For smoothly drilled holes, remove • Avoid cutting oils and cooling liquids,
most of the plastic with a roughing drill. because they may create chemical-
Then finish and size the hole with a compatibility problems and will have
Drilling Conditions second drill. Or, as an alternative method, to be removed after drilling; and
Drill (in) Feed (in/rev) use a two-step drill as illustrated in
Up to 1/8 0.001 – 0.002 figure 5-1. For accurate work and to • Use a forced-air stream for cooling.
1/8 to 1/4 0.002 – 0.004 minimize drill breakage, consider
1/4 to 1/2 0.004 – 0.006 using jigs with guide bushings (see Consider a water spray mist or water-
1/2 to 1 0.006 – 0.008 figure 5-2). soluble coolant when a forced-air
stream cannot provide sufficient cooling.
Some rules of thumb for drilling
thermoplastics include: Reaming creates smooth finishes and
precise hole dimensions, making it ideal
• Use carbide-tipped drills, because for determining final tolerances in
they resist gumming and maintain edge prototype parts. Additionally, reaming
sharpness longer than standard drills; removes gate vestige or flash from
Two-Step Drill Figure 5-1 Drilling Jig Figure 5-2
Fine Cut
Plastic
Part
Drill
Bushing
Rough Cut
Jig
The first step removes most of the material. The second step makes
a fine cut to size.
For accurate work, use a drilling jig with a hardened drill bushing.
98
Chapter 5
MACHINING AND FINISHING continued
holes, as well as enlarges drilled or For a given tap size, the hole size needs Band sawing, the preferred method for
thermoformed holes. As in drilling, to be slightly larger for plastics than for plastics, can cut contoured or irregular
reaming requires sharp cutting edges metals. The hole size for tapped plastic shapes in addition to straight lines. As
and relatively slow cutting speeds to threads should yield about 75% of the rules of thumb:
prevent heat buildup and gumming. full thread. This helps to prevent break-
age and peeling of the threads. For blind • Use precision or standard blades for
holes, use a tapered tap before a bottom thin parts;
TAPPING tap or employ the three-tap system as
used with metals. Low spindle speeds, • Use buttress or skip-tooth blades for
Tapping adds screw threads to drilled about 50 feet per minute, and use of a wall sections greater than 1/8 inch;
or molded holes in plastic parts. Coarse coolant will minimize frictional heating
threads, such as National Coarse (NC), and thread distortion. All rigid Bayer • Choose band-saw blades with a
tend to work better in plastics because plastics can be tapped, but because of generous set to reduce friction and
they provide greater thread depth relative its brittle nature, tapping is not recom- heat buildup;
to the overall diameter. This improves mended for Lustran SAN.
the thread strength. Coarse threads also • Cool the cut junction area with air or
make chip removal easier because there a water mist;
are fewer threads per inch. SAWING
• Control the feed speed carefully to
The tap flutes should be finish ground While molded parts seldom require prevent binding or gumming; and
and highly polished to reduce friction sawing, thermoformed plastic parts are
and heat. The cutting flutes might need sawed regularly to trim edges and form • Use saw guides whenever possible.
to be somewhat oversize to compensate openings. Some fabricated prototype
for plastic recovery and subsequent parts or molded designs using extruded-
reduction in the diameter of the tapped sheet components may also need to be
hole. The amount of recovery will sawed. Bayer plastics are best cut on
depend on the size of the tap and the band saws or circular saws. The recipro-
properties of the material. cating action of a jigsaw makes it
difficult to control cooling, feeding,
and pressure. If you must use a jig saw,
keep the feed rate slow and the pressure
light with the part held firmly. Choose
blades with generous set to minimize
friction. Most Bayer plastics have been
successfully cut with standard jig saw
blades operating at 875 cycles per
minute.
99
Table 5-3 lists suggested band saw Table 5-3 Band Saw Conditions
speeds and configurations for most
Bayer plastics including Lustran ABS,
Part Band
Bayblend PC/ABS, Cadon SMA, Thickness Tooth Pitch Speed
Centrex ASA, and Triax PA/ABS. Fine (in) Type (teeth/in) (ft/min)
cuts in Makrolon PC generally require < 1/8 Precision or 8 – 12 2,000
about 50% more teeth per inch than listed Standard
in the table and about 2/3 of the listed 1/8 - 1/4 Buttress or 5–6 1,500
Skip Tooth
cutting speed. Durethan PA6 resins
> 1/4 Buttress or 3–4 1,000
cut well with 25% more teeth per inch Skip Tooth
and cutting speeds about 50% faster
than listed.
Circular sawing is usually used only PUNCHING, BLANKING, “clicker” or dinking machine, or a
for straight cuts. Circular saw blades for AND DIE CUTTING punch press. System selection will
plastics should be hollow ground with depend on the thickness and quality
slots provided for blade expansion and Although common in thermoforming of the cut desired and on the type of
cooling. The required blade pitch for edge trimming and hole forming, process: continuous or intermittent.
depends on the diameter of the blade. punching and die cutting are used rarely
Larger blade size and greater plastic on finished molded parts. Possible When planning to punch, die cut,
thickness reduce the optimum pitch applications for molded parts include or blank thermoplastics, consider the
value. A four-inch blade for thin sheet removing ring or diaphragm gates, and following:
should have eight to ten teeth per inch trimming lengths to custom sizes.
for most plastics. The pitch can increase Additionally, if your part has varying • For best results, consider warming
to about six to eight teeth per inch for hole positions that require many differ- the plastic part to soften it when
eight to ten inch blades used on sheet ent mold configurations, punching may using any of these techniques;
thicker than 1/4 inch. As a general rule, be an economical alternative. Blanking
use the highest pitch value that gives the dies are used on occasion to trim parting • Maintain sharp cutting edges for
desired results. Cutting speeds can vary lines and remove flash from parts. clean cut and to avoid notches and
from about 5,000 peripheral feet per scratches that could act as stress
minute for polycarbonate to about The types of dies used with plastics concentrators;
double that rate for most other Bayer include punch, steel-rule, and clicker.
thermoplastics. Steel-rule dies trim lighter-gauge • Avoid sharp radii in the corners of
parts. Clicker dies perform heavier- non-circular cut-outs; and
gauge cuts and continuous cuts in sheet.
For a clean cut, maintain a clearance • Avoid punching, die cutting, or blank-
between the punch and die of about ing parts made of filled materials.
0.005 inch for most applications. Dies
usually have a backup surface made
of end-grain wood or hard rubber. The
dies are mounted on either a kick press,
100
Chapter 5
Punching, blanking, and die cutting Carbide cutters generally provide ate, which can stress crack and craze
work best on ductile materials with smoother finishes and higher feed rates long after milling. Consider annealing
limited toughness. Because of its lack of for all types of rigid plastics, especially milled polycarbonate parts to relieve the
ductility, these techniques should not be glass-filled materials. Special cutters machining stresses. Do this by heating
used with Lustran SAN. Makrolon PC designed specifically for plastics the supported work to 260 – 270°F for
and Bayblend PC/ABS resins exhibit produce the smoothest finishes at 1/2 hour for each 0.2 inch of part
high levels of toughness and should the fastest feed rates. Check with your thickness.
only be considered for these processes cutter supplier for the latest designs
in thin sections such as gates, films, for plastics. Consider the following
or thin sheet. when milling plastics: TURNING AND BORING
• Excessive feed rates can cause Turning is often used to manufacture

MILLING rough surfaces; round shapes from bar stock. Exercise
care when turning thermoplastics to pre-
Used to remove large volumes of • Insufficient feed rates can generate vent vibration or chatter. When turning
plastic with relatively high accuracy and too much heat and cause part melting, plastics, consider the following:
precision, milling finds applications in distortion, or poor surface quality;
prototype fabrication or as a secondary • Support the material rigidly either
operation for trimming parting lines, • Water mists help to remove heat by chucking closely on short parts
glue joints, or gate excess. Additionally, and prevent buildup. Use them on or by using supporting tools for
molders often use end mills to trim all but the very shortest of milling longer parts;
sprue gates. operations; and
• Use air, water mist, or water-soluble
Mounted in a drill press, an end mill • Improper milling can induce high coolants to remove heat and prevent
can plunge repeatedly to a preset depth stress levels, causing later problems. vibration and crazing; and
to produce flush, smooth final trims of
fixtured parts. High-speed end mills Proper milling techniques are particularly • Keep the cutting edge sharp to
with four cutting flutes and a 15-degree important for parts made of polycarbon- prevent friction and overheating.
rake angle give good results for most
plastics. Additionally, parts can follow
guides to side mills or reamers for
accurate trimming of thick edge gates or Table 5-4 Milling Conditions
tab gates. Always keep mills extremely
sharp and well polished to reduce friction.
Depth of Feed Speed
Milling in Makrolon PC typically Cut (in) (in/tooth) (ft/min)
works best at feed speeds of 5 – 10 Face Milling 1/8 0.015 600 – 800
inches/min and cutting speeds of 1/16 0.005 800 – 1,000
between 100 and 200 sfm. Table 5-4 End Milling 1/4 0.003 250 – 500
lists a generic range of conditions when 1/16 0.002 300 – 600
using a steel tool to mill most other
types of Bayer plastics.
101
Proper, low-stress turning removes LASER MACHINING slightly cone-shaped, lasers tend to
material in a continuous ribbon. To produce cone-shaped holes unless
achieve this the cutting tool should The laser machining process provides a corrective lenses are used. Larger holes
have the following: non-contact method for drilling, cutting, are “cut” by moving the part in a circular
or sealing most thermoplastics. In this pattern through a continuous beam. The
• 0 to 5 degree positive rake angle for process, a laser — usually a carbon- cutting rate depends on the thickness
most Bayer plastics to reduce friction; dioxide type operating in the infrared and type of material. Holes formed this
region — directs a finely focused, highway are clean but with a slight taper
• 5 to 25 degree rake angle for energy beam at the plastic surface. The along the edge, typically about 3 degrees.
Makrolon PC (see figure 5-3); high intensity beam, either pulsed or Cut features can also have a slight bead
continuous, quickly vaporizes the along the edge.
• Front clearance angle of 10 to 15 plastic leaving a smooth cut with little
degrees to prevent contact of the part heat buildup in the adjacent surfaces. Laser machining can cut or drill areas
and tool heel; that are inaccessible by traditional
Pulsed beams can quickly bore holes methods. In addition, the process pro-
• Side clearance angle of 10 to 15 from 0.002-inch to 0.050-inch diameter. duces holes and cuts that are essentially
degrees to reduce friction; and Dwell time and beam intensity determine free of the notches and residual stresses
the depth of penetration into the hole. associated with most machining methods.
• Nose radius of 1/16 – 3/16 inch. Because the focused laser beam is
To minimize the tendency of the work

to climb, set the cutting edge 1 to 2
degrees above the center of the work PC Cutting Tool Figure 5-3
rather than in the direct center. When
turning Makrolon PC, stress-relieve the Cutting
Tool
part prior to use. Do this by heating the
Rake Angle
supported work to 260 – 270°F for 1/2 5 – 25°
hour for each 0.2 inch of part thickness.
Table 5-5 shows the standard turning
conditions for a variety of Bayer materials.
Chip
Makrolon Part
Cutting tools for
0.003 – 0.012-in
Depth of Cut Makrolon PC
usually have a
5 – 25° rake angle.
102
Chapter 5
Table 5-5 Turning Conditions In wet sanding, a liquid — usually

water — alleviates frictional heat and
removes sanding debris, reducing the
Depth of Feed Speed
Material Cut (in) (in/rev) (ft/min) chance of gumming. When wet sanding,
you can use a wider range of grit sizes,
1/8 0.005 75 – 100
from coarse to very fine, depending
Lustran SAN 1/16 0.003 100 – 150
upon the requirements. Although wet
1/32 0.001 150 – 200
sanding can produce very smooth sur-
Lustran ABS 1/8 0.015 200 – 250
faces, plastic parts will generally need
Cadon
1/16 0.010 250 – 300
Triax an additional buffing step to achieve a
Centrex 1/32 0.005 300 – 350
glossy finish.
Apec 1/8 0.012 300 – 350
Makrolon
1/16 0.006 350 – 400
Bayblend
Durethan 1/32 0.003 400 – 500 POLISHING AND BUFFING
Use polishing and buffing to create

uniform high-gloss or satin finishes, as
well as to remove surface imperfections,
FILING SANDING sanding marks, scratches, and gate
marks. Buffing can involve different
A relatively quick and controllable Use a conventional belt or disc sander types of finishing operations including:
method for removing significant to remove gate excess, flash, mold
amounts of unwanted plastic, filing is marks, and imperfections in most • Satin Finishing — for a satin or
used frequently to smooth edges on parts made of rigid plastics. To inspect brushed finish;
thermoformed parts, trim gate excess, internal features and assemblies, you
and remove flash. If your part design can sand parts for cross-sectional views, • Cut-Down Buffing — for a smooth
calls for filing, address the following: although sanding will destroy the part finish;
or assembly.
• Use files with relatively coarse teeth • Cut-and-Color Buffing — for a
and a suitable rake for efficient chip Frictional heating, the primary source of lustrous finish;
removal on parts made of ABS and difficulties when sanding thermoplas-
other medium-hard plastics; tics, can melt plastic surfaces and clog • Final Color Buffing — for a high
sanding media. Heat dissipates slowly gloss, mirror-like finish.
• Use single-hatched files that resist in most plastics, so dry sanding must
clogging under high pressure for usually be done at slow speeds with
parts made of polycarbonate; and coarse-grit paper. Dry sanding produces
quick results and rough finishes, and
• Do not file parts made of unfilled requires provisions for dust collection
nylon and/or elastomeric TPU. and/or removal.
103
Satin finishing, or ashing, removes TRIMMING, FINISHING, plastic parts. Another more common
major irregularities on the surface and AND FLASH REMOVAL method, scraping or trimming uses
leaves a satin finish. Cut-down buffing, specially designed, knife-edged scrapers
with a cotton or muslin wheel and buff- In addition to the machining and finish- that remove flash as a continuous filament
ing compound, brings the luster to an ing methods discussed earlier in this without digging into the part. A variety
intermediate, smooth finish ready for chapter, molders have a wide variety of of scraper shapes and sizes are available
final color buffing. Cut-and-color buff- hand- and pneumatically operated nip- commercially.
ing produces a high-gloss finish in most pers, cutters, and scrapers, as well as
Bayer materials. some remelting and honing techniques Another method, tumbling, removes
to remove gate excess and flash. These flash by tumbling parts together in a
Wheels for cut-and-color buffing often techniques and equipment are discussed special rotating drum with a mild abra-
consist of unbleached cotton discs laid in this section. sive media such as crushed cocoa bean
alternately with two layers of 5-inch shells. Commonly used to remove flash
discs and two layers of 12-inch discs. For aesthetic reasons, gate marks and from rigid thermosets, tumbling usually
Final wheels have two layers of 12-inch flash on some parts must be totally does not work well with Bayer thermo-
and four layers of 5-inch unbleached removed. Two common techniques plastic materials. Tumbling in these
cotton discs laid alternately. The buffing to remove these blemishes are hot- materials tends to bend or flatten flash
wheels mount to conventional buffing air remelting and vapor honing. The rather than remove it by breaking or
equipment and spin at 1,500 to 3,000 rpm. hot-air method uses a heat stream from abrasion.
a hot-air gun to remelt and smooth the
Buffing to a high gloss requires a area. Vapor honing uses a chemical In one new and novel approach, parts
sequence of steps that may vary from vapor to dissolve the surface, resulting placed in a specially designed chamber
material to material. For ABS, the in a similar effect. are exposed to a flash detonation that
process usually starts with unbleached instantaneously melts flash, without
cotton buffing discs for cleaning and Because both of these processes add to damaging the part. While expensive, if
preparation. A cutting or polishing step, your overall costs, try to position gates your part has difficult-to-remove flash,
followed by a wiping or coloring step, so they are not visible in the final this method may prove economical.
increases gloss. After buffing with an assembly or choose a less-noticeable
appropriate polishing compound — gate, such as a valve gate. Do not rely Always compare the cost of reworking
such as rouge or greasy tripoli — the on unrealistically small gates to hide or the mold to the cost of secondary flash-
part receives a final polishing on a clean lessen the appearance of the gate mark. removal operations. Many times, repair-
finishing wheel made of a soft material, Part geometry, molding resin, and pro- ing the mold could result in long-term
such as muslin, flannel, or felt. Light cessing requirements dictate appropriate cost savings.
application pressure and cooling liquids gate size. Please refer to the mold
help prevent heat buildup and resulting design chapter in this manual for infor-
surface damage. mation on gate size and placement.
Most of the machining and finishing

methods described in this chapter are
used to remove flash from molded
104
Chapter 6
PAINTING, PLATING, AND DECORATING
While some plastic parts require painting, PAINTING Types of Paints

plating, and/or decorating for aesthetic
or functional concerns, most do not for The most common reason for painting Paints are generally made up of four
two reasons: first, the injection-molding or coating thermoplastic parts is to components: a polymeric resin or resin
process accommodates a diversity of enhance aesthetics and provide uniform components that form the coating;
high-quality surface finishes and textures; color and texture to assemblies made pigments or dyes for color; a solvent
second, thermoplastic resins can be of different materials or by different or carrier for thinning, delivery, and
produced in a rainbow of colors. Some processes. Paints and coatings can hide uniform coverage; and additives to
specific instances where painting or some molding defects, such as gate blush enhance or modify application,
plating may be needed include: protecting or foam swirl. They also offer colors or adhesion, and appearance. A variety
final assemblies from harsh chemicals surface effects that resins cannot, such of paints have been developed based on
or UV degradation, shielding electronic as certain metallic or stippled effects. In different chemistries and polymer types.
devices from EMI radiation, or adding addition, some paints perform a function,
graphics or labeling in contrasting colors. such as electrically conductive paints The common types of paints used on
Painting, plating, and decorating, as for EMI/RFI shielding. plastics include polyurethane, acrylic,
well as their design considerations, are alkyd, epoxy, and vinyl.
discussed in this chapter. Paints and coatings can also protect
the plastic substrate from chemicals, • Polyurethane paints provide a
abrasion, or environmental attack. For flexible, durable finish, cure without
instance, paint prevents many colored heat, and are compatible with most
plastics from fading and becoming brittle plastics, including many chemically
when exposed to the elements and/or sensitive, amorphous plastics, such
UV radiation from sunlight or artificial as polycarbonate and polycarbonate
lighting. Coatings can also prevent blends.
attack from cleaning solvents, lubricants,
and other substances encountered in-use • Epoxies typically produce hard,
or during manufacture. Commercial tough, glossy finishes.
scratch-resistant coatings commonly
provide abrasion resistance for lenses • Vinyls tend to produce soft, rubbery
made of Makrolon polycarbonate. finishes.
Contact your Bayer sales representative
for the latest information on scratch • Acrylic paints give brittle, scratch-
coatings and treatments for Bayer resistant finishes that resist most
thermoplastic resins. common oils.
105
Several factors determine the type of Paint Curing have waxy surfaces, are chemically
paint systems you choose, including the resistant to most solvent systems as
specific plastic substrate, the type of There are a variety of methods to cure well. Amorphous plastics, such as
finish required, available painting facili- paints: polycarbonate or ABS, because they
ties, and local regulatory restrictions. To are less chemically resistant, achieve
some degree, the paint system should • Air-curing paints solidify as the good adhesion with many more paint
chemically react with the plastic surface solvent evaporates, leaving the resin systems.
for good adhesion, but it should not to polymerize on the part surface.
damage the plastic substrate. Look for a system that is not too chemi-
• Heat-curing systems bake parts for cally aggressive: especially for polycar-
Paint systems also differ in the types of rapid and complete curing. The curing bonate and polycarbonate blends. To
solvent system used. Solvent systems temperature for these paints may achieve the optimum match of substrate
generally fall into two types: organic- limit your choice of plastics on which and paint system, consult both your
solvent systems or water-based systems. these paints can be used. Parts must resin and paint suppliers before making
withstand the required curing temper- your final selection. The cost of the
Organic solvents penetrate the plastic ature. Polycarbonate parts can usually paint is usually insignificant compared
substrate to form strong chemical bonds withstand paint bake temperatures of to the labor and overhead costs, and the
for superior adhesion. Excessively about 120°C (250°F). cost of complying with environmental
aggressive solvents may damage the protection regulations. Be sure to
substrate. For example, many solvent • Two-component paint systems use consider the cost of the entire process
systems severely damage parts made of a chemical reaction to drive the curing when making your selection.
polycarbonate resins. Damage and process. These systems generally
chemical attack tend to be worse in give off very few volatiles, but have Government regulatory agencies,
areas of high molding or assembly a short pot life after mixing: often especially OSHA and EPA, limit the
stresses. Always test your solvent only minutes. emission of volatile organic compounds
system on an actual, finished part to (VOCs) into the air. Many organic-
determine its suitability. • Other paints rely upon exposure solvent-based paint systems and
to oxygen or UV radiation to application systems cannot meet current
Water-based systems are generally completely cure. emission limits without elaborate and
less aggressive to plastic parts but tend expensive environmental-protection
to form slightly weaker bonds. An equipment. Generally, waterborne coat-
increasingly important advantage, Paint-Selection Considerations ings and high-solid polyurethane systems
water-based systems avoid most of the comply with most government regula-
environmental, health, and safety issues Semicrystalline plastics, such as nylons, tions. Check the current and near-future
associated with organic-solvent systems. tend to be chemically resistant to most regulations in your area, because these
solvent systems and often require regulations vary.
special pretreatments or primers. Acetal,
polypropylene, and polyethylene, which
106
Chapter 6
PAINTING, PLATING, AND DECORATING continued
Spray Painting Electrostatic Spraying Figure 6-1
Spraying, the most common painting Conventional Electrostatic

method for plastics, can be conventional,
airless, or in some instances, electrostatic.
Part Part (+)
Robotics can automate the spraying
process and improve painting consistency.
• In conventional spray painting,

compressed air atomizes and delivers
tiny droplets of paint onto the part
surface.
Gun Gun (–)
• In airless systems, paint is forced
through a spray nozzle at high
velocity. Electrostatic spraying improves coverage and reduces overspray by
attracting paint droplets to the part surface.
• In electrostatic systems, opposite
electrical charges applied to the paint
and part attract paint droplets to the Crazing and paint soak, two painting To minimize these problems, the parts
part surface. Electrostatic systems defects unique to molded plastic parts, must be designed and processed to
improve coverage and reduce are both affected by: minimize surface stresses. To reduce
overspray (see figure 6-1). the high degree of surface orientation at
• High molded-in surface stresses on gates and abrupt geometry changes that
The spraying process breaks the paint the molded part; can lead to paint soak, consider adding
or coating into tiny droplets that must 0.008-inch deep grooves in the mold
coalesce on the surface of the part and • The composition and morphology of steel on the back surface. Orient the
blend together to form a smooth surface the polymer; and grooves perpendicular to the advancing
in an action called leveling. For leveling flow front in the problem areas. The
to occur properly, the solvent and paint • The particular paint solvent system groove-to-groove (or ridge-to-ridge in
formula may need to be adjusted to used in the formulation. the part) spacing should be no greater
compensate for daily variations in than the part wall thickness.
weather. Changes in temperature or High surface stresses tend to occur near
humidity can change the volatility of gates, at knit lines, and in areas of non- High mold and melt temperatures, good
the paint system and affect the time for uniform wall thickness. An aggressive venting, and proper gate design and
leveling. Hot, dry days tend to cause the solvent can cause small cracks in these placement also tend to reduce surface
solvent to evaporate before the paint areas that can lead to dullness known as stresses and paint soak problems. In
can adequately level, leading to a defect crazing. In severe cases, large areas of addition, paint manufacturers can tailor
known as dry spray. the surface can become rough and solvents and paint systems for a given
appear as if the paint has soaked into polymer to reduce the surface attack
the plastic. This condition is called problem.
paint soak.
107
Other Painting Methods Figure 6-2 Roller Painting
In addition to spraying, other common

methods of paint application include
brushing, pad painting, rolling, wiping,
and dipping. Each has advantages in
specific kinds of applications.
Brushing is most commonly used in

automated stripe-painting applications.
Programmable machines manipulate the
brush position and vary the application
pressure to adjust the stripe pattern
and width.
Pad painting uses a patterned resilient

The roller transfers paint to the raised features on the molded part.
pad to transfer paint to the plastic
substrate much like a rubber ink stamp
applies ink to paper. In an automated
process, a roller applies a film of paint Wiping applies paint to molded inlays Masking
to a transfer plate. The patterned pad such as dial numerals and indented let-
with raised figures is first pressed onto ters. In this method, high viscosity paint Part drawings should clearly specify
the film of paint and then onto the plastic is first applied to coat the inlay features areas to receive paint, areas which must
part being decorated. and surrounding area. After a period be free from paints, and areas that can
of time, usually ten to thirty minutes, receive overspray. Paint-free areas will
Rolling applies paint to raised surfaces the excess paint is wiped from the probably require masking: a procedure
on a plastic part by means of a rubber or surrounding areas with a solvent- often more complicated and labor-inten-
felt roller (see figure 6-2). A transfer impregnated rag or brush, leaving sive than the actual painting. Some con-
roller is commonly used in production paint in the inlays. siderations to address with masking
to maintain a uniform film thickness on include:
the paint roller. The paint viscosity must Dipping, a simple and inexpensive
be high enough to prevent running. painting method, uses a conveying sys- • Take steps in the part design stage to
tem to first submerse parts in a tank of avoid masking or at least simplify the
paint and thinner, and then move the masking process;
parts through subsequent stages for
dripping, draining, and drying. Because • Avoid vaguely defined transitions
few applications require complete paint between masked and painted features
coverage on all surfaces, dipping is used such as fillet radii and rounded or
less often than spraying. Dipping is irregular surfaces;
commonly used to apply base coats to
parts prior to vacuum metallizing or
sputtering.
108
Chapter 6
• Allow at least 1/8 inch between Part design can have a direct impact In the powdered-paint method, powder
masked areas and the part edge; on the ease and cost of painting. For is sprayed onto the mold surface before
instance, spray painting, a line-of-sight the thermoplastic resin is injected. The
• Avoid thin or intricate masking; and process, works within a short nozzle-to- paint then melts and bonds to the plastic-
part distance range. To achieve uniform part surface as the part solidifies.
• Work closely with your painting and coverage, avoid undercuts and deep, Because painting takes place in the
masking experts to avoid unnecessary narrow recesses, which may not coat mold, there is no need for an expensive
work and expense. completely. Sharp corners can be diffi- paint line. However, this process does
cult to coat sufficiently and may chip or add cost and complexity to automate the
To prevent leakage between the stencil or wear through. Consider painting trans- painting process at the mold. It also can
mask and the plastic part, the mask and parent parts on the back surface (or sec- generate considerable housekeeping
stencils must fit tightly against the mold- ond surface) to protect the paint from problems at the molding press.
ed part. For this to happen, the parts must scratches and abrasion.
be molded to tolerance without shot-to- In-mold transfer decoration involves
shot variations in size or shape. The Brittle coatings and paints can greatly transferring graphics from a preprinted
masks and stencils must also be held to reduce the impact performance of paint- carrier, typically polyester film, to the
tight tolerances. Buildup on the masks ed plastic parts. Cracks in the paint or plastic surface during molding. The
and stencils must be periodically cleaned coating act as stress concentrators to decorated film is placed into the mold
to maintain a good fit. To avoid interrupt- initiate fracture in the plastic substrate. either as a separate sheet held by
ing production to clean masks, try to have Exercise extra care in the design and electrostatic charge or as part of an
several masks for each masking job. paint selection for painted parts subjected indexed roll that positions the graphics
to impact loads. Flexible paint systems, over the cavity surface. Under the heat
such as two-part urethanes, tend to and pressure of molding, the decoration
Other Design perform better in impact applications. transfers from the film to the molded
Considerations for Painting part. The transfer film is then removed
and discarded.
In all application methods, parts should IN-MOLD DECORATING
be clean and free of surface contamination In-mold transfer decoration offers
for good paint adhesion. When possible, Applying decorations during molding, multiple colors in a single operation as
design parts to release from the mold instead of as a secondary post-mold well as greater design freedom than
easily, so they can be ejected without process, can lower your decorating most traditional decorating methods.
using external mold release sprays. costs. In-mold decorating methods tend
Oils from hands can also contaminate to reduce or eliminate VOC emissions,
the part surface. Consider designing and eliminate many of the problems
designated handling areas or features associated with other decorating methods
to reduce contamination in critical such as solvent/substrate compatibility
painting areas. problems, heat-curing restrictions, and
painting line costs. Some methods also
offer options not feasible in conventional
painting, such as applying multicolor
graphics and patterns. This section
discusses two common in-mold
decorating methods.
109
Manufacturers can also quickly change Figure 6-3 Film-Insert Molding
designs by simply switching the printed
films. This process has been used with
many Bayer resin types including ABS,
SAN, and certain PC grades.
The process has several notable limita-

tions. Wrinkles and indexing problems
can arise on large parts or in parts with
complex or deeply contoured geometries.
Also, because the decoration is on the
part outer surface (first surface), it is
vulnerable to abrasion, chemical attack,
and UV degradation. For these reasons,
in-mold transfer decoration may not be
suitable for many applications.
The decorated, formed film is positioned in the mold and then backfilled with transparent
polycarbonate.
Figure 6-4 Film-Insert Molding FILM-INSERT MOLDING
Film-insert molding differs from

conventional in-mold decoration in that
the decorated film, either flat or formed,
becomes an integral part of the molded
product during the molding process.
Typically the process begins by forming
a pre-heated, printed film, by means of
vacuum or high-pressure forming, into
the exact shape required to fit tightly
into the mold. The formed film is then
cut and placed into the mold. During
molding, plastic injects behind the film
forming a molded part with an integral
film layer. Figures 6-3 and 6-4 show a
decorated film in place in the mold in
preparation for molding and the final
This film-insert-molded control panel has a decorative matte finish with backlit figures mold part.
and symbols.
110
Chapter 6
The process incorporates a variety opment and refinement of this important troplating, electroless plating, vacuum
of film options. In first-surface film decorating technology. Contact your metallizing, and sputter coating. These
decorating, the print design is printed Bayer sales representative for more infor- are discussed in the following sections.
on the outer surface. This places the mation and assistance regarding potential
film substrate between the printing and film insert molding applications.
the part, and protects the printed graphic Electroplating
from the direct contact with the molten
plastic. Protective graphic hard coats METALLIC COATINGS Electroplating can provide a durable,
provide various levels of protection high-quality finish for a variety of
against chemicals and wear. Metallic coatings are applied to plastic applications. Although many polymers
parts for decoration or for a variety of can be electroplated, only a few polymer
Single-layer, second-surface film functional reasons. Decorative metallic families obtain the adhesion and appear-
decorating places the printed graphic coatings enable plastic parts to function ance required by high-performance
on the inner surface of a transparent as economical, lightweight alternatives applications. Special plating grades of
film substrate. This configuration protects to metals in applications such as Lustran ABS meet the performance
the graphic from the environment but automotive grilles and trim hardware requirements of many tough automotive
places it toward the molten plastic during (see figure 6-5). Functional coatings and appliance applications. Certain
molding. This can lead to distortion of can provide electromagnetic shielding, Triax and Bayblend blends containing
the printed graphic at hot spots such as circuit paths, or reflective surfaces for ABS also plate well and can provide
the gate area. To protect the graphics, a lighting applications. The processes for reasonably tough finishes.
second film can be bonded to the printed applying metallic coatings include elec-
surface using a heat-activated adhesive.
This process works particularly well
with backlit parts. Figure 6-5 Metallic Coatings
Film insert decorating advantages

include:
• Design freedom to decorate

compound curves and complex
geometries;
• Multi-color graphics in a single step;
• Options for both opaque and

transparent graphics;
• Long-lasting finishes; and
• Reduced decorating costs.
Bayer developed insert mold decoration Decorative metallic coatings enable plastic parts to function as economical, lightweight
alternatives to metal.
in the 1980s and is a leader in the devel-
111
Prior to electroplating, the non-conductive Figure 6-6 Electroless Plating
plastic surface of most plastics must
first undergo an electroless chemical
process to deposit a conductive metallic
film layer. The electroless process usually
involves immersing the parts in a series
of specially formulated, aqueous baths
and rinses to clean, etch, and activate the
part surface. Then, a metallic film layer,
such as copper, is chemically deposited
on the part. After this treatment, more
conventional metal-plating methods
apply additional metal layers to the now-
conductive surface. A common plating
combination is nickel over copper.
Many electrical-shielding applications
skip the electroless step and apply only
an electroless plating layer to the
inside surface of the housing or device
(see figure 6-6).
Electroless plating provides EMI shielding for electrical housings.
Figure 6-7 Plating Buildup

Design Considerations for Electroplating
Better
The electroplating process places spe-
cial requirements on the plastic part
design. Because electric current density
distribution over the part surfaces deter-
mines plating thickness, high current
Better density at edges, notches, and outside
corners can lead to excessive plating
buildup (see figure 6-7). Recessed areas
plate at lower current densities and tend
to plate much thinner than other areas.
To minimize these problems consider
Round corners and edges to prevent excessive plating buildup. the following:
112
Chapter 6
• Add a radius of at least 0.010 inch to Edge Stiffening Figure 6-8

all plated edges.
• Include a 1/16-inch minimum radius

on all outside corners.
• Avoid extreme recesses that could

lead to inadequate plating thickness.
During plating, molded parts mounted

Not Stiff Better Better
on specially designed plating racks pass
on conveyors through the various baths Stiffen edges to prevent damage to plating during racking and handling.
and rinses. These racks both secure and
orient the parts for total immersion and
complete draining at each step. Your
Surface Crowning Figure 6-9
part must be stiff enough to resist flexure
and distortion when clamped onto the Flat Crowned
rack. Otherwise, the thin-plated layer
could crack as the parts are removed
and handled. Consider edge-stiffening
0.015 in/in
and surface-crowning to reduce flexure Better crown
and cracking (see figures 6-8 and 6-9).
The points where the rack clamps con- Surface crowning stiffens the surface and promotes uniform plating thickness.
tact the part will not plate. Plan for

these contact points and work with your
plater to find suitable clamp locations.
Other design considerations include: lead to cracking, blistering, and warping • Using self-lubricating ejector pins to
in the plated part. To minimize surface prevent oil contamination;
• Avoid features that may trap air stresses, molding resins for plating are
during immersion in the baths, or normally processed at high mold and • Designing and maintaining mold and
hinder rinsing afterwards. melt temperatures and slow filling parting lines carefully to prevent
speeds. Proper drying also prevents sharp or ragged edges that could be
• Design clamping points that secure moisture-related surface defects that exaggerated by the plating process;
the part on the rack without flexing it. could appear worse after plating. Other
molding considerations include: • Positioning gates out-of-sight and
trimming gates cleanly; and
Molding Considerations for Electroplating • Assuring that molded part surfaces
are free of oils and contaminates; • Applying a light satin-finish to the
The molding process directly affects mold cavity surfaces to enhance
plating adhesion and end-use perfor- • Designing parts and molds to facilitate plating adhesion on the molded part.
mance. High molded-in stresses on the part ejection without mold-release
part surface can reduce adhesion and agents, especially silicone;
113
Vacuum Metallization Figure 6-10
Vacuum
metallization
applies the
reflective coating
in many lighting
applications.
Molding imperfections such as sink and parts in a vacuum chamber. The process thin metal film from abrasion. Metallized
flow marks tend to become exaggerated usually begins with the application of a surfaces in protected environments, such
after plating. All phases of molding specially formulated base coat to as reflectors in sealed lighting applica-
must be executed correctly to avoid smooth out surface irregularities and tions, can often skip the topcoat step
problems in plating. More so than with improve metal adhesion. After curing, (see figure 6-10).
most other manufacturing processes, the coated parts move to special racks
electroplating requires good communi- that rotate within the vacuum chamber A related process, sputter deposition,
cation and cooperation between the to provide the uniform coverage during uses mechanical displacement, rather
molder, material supplier, chemical the line-of-sight deposition process. than heat, to vaporize the coating metal.
supplier, and plater. Consult your Bayer An inert gas plasma impacts the metal
representative for assistance in selecting Deposition takes place by vaporizing to provide the energy for phase transition.
the proper resin grades for your electro- the metal, usually aluminum, and then Sputter deposition offers thicker metal-
plating application. condensing it onto the part surface. lic layers, and more metal choices than
Tungsten filaments or electron beams traditional vacuum metallization.
typically provide the energy to vaporize Common metals and alloys include
Vacuum Metallization the source metal through direct sublima- chromium, copper, gold, tungsten,
tion from a solid to a vapor. After met- stainless steel, and brass. Sputtering also
The vacuum metallizing process allization, decorative parts usually tends to provide better adhesion and
deposits an extremely thin metallic film receive a clear topcoat to protect the abrasion performance than conventional
(typically 1.5 microns) onto plastic vacuum metallization.
114
Chapter 6
Design Considerations for causing a malfunction or interference. Design Considerations for

Vacuum Metallization Untreated plastic parts generally appear EMI/RFI Shielding
“transparent” to electromagnetic energy,
Because vacuum metallization processes requiring a secondary shielding process Enclosure design usually affects shield-
deposit metal films in a line-of-sight or method when used in electronic ing performance more than the coating
pattern, deep recesses and undercuts enclosures needing EMI/RFI shielding. process chosen. Any openings in the
will not coat. Typically, the part must enclosure assembly, whether they be
rotate for full coverage of surfaces and A variety of shielding methods exist, intentional — holes and cooling vents
standing features. Areas “shadowed” by including coatings, sheet-metal shrouds, — or unintentional — gaps along mat-
other elements of the part geometry, adhesive foils, and special conductive ing edges, can allow electromagnetic
despite being rotated, will also not coat. fillers in the molding resin. More often, radiation to escape. The length of the
Complete front-and-back coverage may manufacturers use metallic coating. opening determines the frequency of
require a second racking step to reorient Each of the metallic-coating processes radiation that can escape. Long gaps,
the parts, and an additional pass through covered in this chapter thus far — paint- such as between mating halves, could
the metallization process. Vacuum met- ing (conductive coatings), electroless release a wide range of frequencies.
allization works best on parts with rela- plating, electroplating, and vacuum For proper shielding, these interfaces
tively simple shapes that require coating metallization — find use in EMI/RFI require a generous overlap and snug fit.
on just one side. The process is often shielding. A number of factors deter-
limited to sizes that will fit in standard mine the best process for your applica-
vacuum chambers. tion, such as part geometry and size,
masking requirements, production lev-
Vacuum metallizing is much less sensi- els, and required shielding performance.
tive to processing and part design than Contact your Bayer representative for
electroplating. Adherence to standard guidance on your specific application.
plastic part design guidelines and good
molding practices is usually sufficient All electronic devices with metallized
to obtain satisfactory results. parts submitted for recognition under
standard UL 746 C must undergo testing
of the adhesion between the shielding
EMI/RFI Shielding material and the substrate. UL test
QMSS2 evaluates conductive coating
With the proliferation of electronic and substrate combinations for acceptable
devices such as cell phones and levels of adhesion after elevated
portable computers, Electromagnetic temperature, humidity, and environmental
Interference (EMI) and Radio Frequency cycling conditions. Vendors that apply
Interference (RFI) become increasingly conductive coatings to plastic parts used
important design considerations. EMI in devices requiring UL 746 C recognition
and RFI problems occur when electro- must meet the requirements of QMRX2.
magnetic energy escapes an electrical Contact your Bayer representative for
device and reaches an unintended device, information on UL-recognized vendor/
coating combinations for EMI/RFI
shielding.
115
One design employs contact fingers PRINTING wiped with a blade, leaving ink in the
with a slight interference fit to create a etched recesses of the pattern. In both
low-impedance connection and reduced Printing is often used to apply designs, processes, the loaded inkpad then
gap size. The finger spacing determines characters, and markings to parts made stamps the pattern onto the plastic part.
the slot length and the minimum fre- from Bayer thermoplastics. The most The soft pad can accommodate textures
quency that can escape. Consult your common printing processes used on and many irregular shapes. Irregular
shielding experts for help in calculating plastic parts are discussed in this section. shapes cause distortions in the printed
the correct spacing for your application. pattern that must be compensated by
Pad printing involves pressing ink onto adjustments in the inkpad pattern.
Generally, do not place “noisy” circuit the part from a custom-designed soft
boards close to cooling vents and other inkpad. In one process, the patterned Screening, an inexpensive technique
possible weak links in the shield. Part inkpad picks up a film layer deposited used to decorate flat or cylindrical
designers and shielding experts need onto a transfer plate by a roller. In plastic parts (see figure 6-11), begins
to work together early in the design another process, a smooth pad picks up with an open-weave fabric or screen,
process to assure a good combination a pattern of ink from an etched plate commonly made of silk, polyester, or
of performance and manufacturability. that was flooded with ink and then stainless steel, which has been stretched
in a frame. Stencils, often made using a
photoetching process, are then placed
on the screen where ink transfer is not
Screen Printing Figure 6-11 desired. A rubber squeegee forces ink
through the screen and onto the part sur-
face. The screening process requires
careful control of the ink viscosity and
ambient conditions to avoid fluctuations
in temperature and humidity that could
cause the screen to stretch or shrink.
Screens also require periodic cleaning to
remove dried ink that could clog screen.
The screen-printing process can apply designs and markings to flat

and cylindrical parts.
116
Chapter 6
Laser Printing Figure 6-12
Laser printing can produce light or dark markings on plastic parts.
The sublimation ink transfer process, Laser printing produces designs and White, back-lit symbols can be produced
commonly used on computer and symbols in plastic parts either by direct on a dark background by first coating
calculator keys, relies on deep ink marking of the plastic or by selective white plastic with an opaque dark paint.
penetration to produce abrasion-resistant evaporation of a coating applied to the The laser then vaporizes the paint in the
printed symbols. In this process, heat plastic. In direct laser printing, the laser shape of the symbol, and exposes the
and pressure vaporize inks printed on usually burns dark symbols into light- white plastic substrate. The pigmented,
special transfer papers that rest against colored parts (see figure 6-12). Some white plastic reflects the laser beam
the part surface. Depending on the dark-colored plastics have been devel- without marking.
material and ink system, the ink oped that produce light-colored symbols
vapors can penetrate 0.008 inch into during laser printing. This process usu-
the part surface. ally does not produce suitable results
for back lighting.
117
Hot Stamping Figure 6-13 Dome Printing Figure 6-14
Lowering Lowering
Device Device
Heated Die with Heated Silicone

Raised Pattern Rubber Pad
Colored Colored
Foil Tape Foil Tape
Raised Part
Features
Plastic Support Support
Part Block Block
In standard hot stamping, a pattern on the heated die transfers color In dome printing, a heated silicone rubber pad transfers color to the
from the foil to the plastic part. raised features on the molded part.
Hot stamping provides a quick and compensates for minor deviations in the LABELS AND DECALS
easy method for creating colored inden- part surface.
tations for numbers, letters, and demar- Self-adhering printed labels and decals
cations. In this process, a heated stamp Your ink and printing-equipment sup- provide an easy means for applying
presses against a color foil positioned pliers can offer assistance in selecting items such as logos, model identifica-
on the part surface. The force and heat the correct process for your part. Their tion, and decorative graphics. Available
simultaneously melt a recess and trans- early involvement can prevent problems in transparent, opaque, metallic, or
fer ink from the foil (see figure 6-13). later in the design and production embossed materials, they offer an
Dome printing, a variation of the hot- process. Always pretest printing unlimited choice of shapes and colors.
stamping process, prints on top of raised processes on actual, production Opaque labels are particularly helpful
features or patterns in the molded part assemblies. for hiding trimmed sprue gates. Instead
(see figure 6-14). The reinforced sili- of relying upon a self-adhering backing,
cone rubber pad used in this process
118
Chapter 6
heat-transfer labeling uses a heated platen Achieving high levels of gloss requires resistance than sharp textures.
to release the print from a carrier and the correct resin, careful mold-steel Photoetched mold finishes can be blasted
attach it to the plastic part. Labels and selection, expensive mold polishing, with glass beads to reduce sharp edges
decals occasionally have problems with and meticulous mold care. Glossy fin- and enhance scratch resistance when
adhesion. Carefully pretest and evaluate ishes are sensitive to mold and process- molding low-viscosity resins. Consider
any proposed adhesive system on actual ing imperfections, and may readily the following when designing parts
production parts. Also, avoid placing show scratches. Mold finishing with with texture:
decals and labels on irregular surfaces, somewhat coarser abrasive media can
as they will lift more easily. produce a brushed finish that doesn’t • Avoid abrupt changes in wall thick-
show scratches and imperfections as ness, as they can cause noticeable
easily. Glass-bead blasting and light differences in the texture appearance,
TEXTURE sandblasting of the mold surface can especially with sharp-etched textures;
produce uniform matte finishes of vary-
Texture affects the look and feel of a ing degrees. Mold surface finishing is • Use spark-eroded textures to hide
molded part, as well as our perception discussed in more detail in Chapter 7 weld lines and other molding
of its quality. Textures can reduce glare, (Mold Design) of this manual. imperfections;
hide molding imperfections, and
improve scratch resistance. Because of Electric discharge machine (spark • Consider profile textures, such as
their ease of molding, thermoplastic erosion) and photoetching processes rows of lines or fine checkered patterns
resins can duplicate the surface appear- offer greater control over the mold texture. to hide read-through from linear
ance of many natural materials — such They also make possible patterned features such as ribs; and
as wood, leather, and fabric — to textures such as leather and wood grains.
disguise plastic parts. Spark-eroded mold-surface textures • Add extra draft when designing parts
tend to be smoother and more rounded with textured surfaces to aid in part
The thermoplastic molding process also than the sharp-edged textures produced ejection: typically one degree of
accommodates surfaces ranging from by photoetching. High-viscosity materi- additional draft for every 0.001 inch
high-gloss to deep texture. For ease of als, such as PC and ABS, tend not to of texture depth.
cleaning, many food-contact and health- reproduce the sharp edges and porous
care products require glossy finishes. micro finishes of photoetched cavities, See the mold and part design chapters
as do low-viscosity resins such as in this manual for more information on
nylon. Consequently, the molding resin mold textures and draft.
and processing conditions can lead
to quite different part textures from
photoetched cavities.
Likewise, parts from molds with similar

textures may look different because one
used photoetching and another spark
erosion. The inherently smooth and
rounded textures produced by spark
erosion tend to exhibit better scratch
119
120
Chapter 7
MOLD DESIGN
Key to the injection-molding process, MOLD BASICS • Choose the parting-line location to
the injection mold forms the molten minimize undercuts that would
plastic into the desired shape, provides At the most basic level, molds consist hinder or prevent easy part removal.
the surface texture, and determines of two main parts: the cavity and core.
the dimensions of the finished molded The core forms the main internal surfaces Undercuts that cannot be avoided via
article. In facilitating mold-cavity filling of the part. The cavity forms the major reasonable adjustments in the parting
and cooling, the mold also influences external surfaces. Typically, the core line require mechanisms in the mold to
the molding cycle and efficiency as well and cavity separate as the mold opens, disengage the undercut prior to ejection.
as the internal stress levels and end-use so that the part can be removed. This
performance of the molded part. mold separation occurs along the
interface known as the parting line. TYPES OF MOLDS
The success of any molding job depends The parting line can lie in one plane
heavily on the skills employed in the corresponding to a major geometric The two-plate mold, the most common
design and construction of the mold. An feature such as the part top, bottom or mold configuration, consists of two
injection mold is a precision instrument centerline, or it can be stepped or angled mold halves that open along one parting
yet must be rugged enough to withstand to accommodate irregular part features. line (see figure 7-1). Material can enter
hundreds of thousands of high-pressure
molding cycles. The added expense for
a well-engineered and constructed mold Figure 7-1 Two-Plate Mold
can be repaid many times over in mold-
ing efficiency, reduced down time and
scrap, and improved part quality.
A conventional two-plate mold with two cavities.
121
Figure 7-2A Three-Plate Mold Figure 7-2B Three-Plate Mold
Schematic of a two-cavity, three-plate mold with cutaway view Schematic of a two-cavity, three-plate mold with cutaway view
showing first stage of opening. showing second stage of opening.
the mold cavity directly via a sprue The three-plate mold configuration Unlike conventional two-plate molds,
gate, or indirectly through a runner opens at two major locations instead of three-plate molds can gate directly into
system that delivers the material to the one. Figures 7-2A through 7-2C show inner surface areas away from the outer
desired locations along the parting line. the mold-opening sequence for a typical edge of parts: an advantage for center-
The movable mold half usually contains three-plate mold. Typically, a linkage gated parts such as cups or for large
a part-ejection mechanism linked to a system between the three major mold parts that require multiple gates across
hydraulic cylinder operated from the plates controls the mold-opening a surface. Disadvantages include added
main press controller. sequence. The mold first opens at mold complexity and large runners that
the primary parting line breaking the can generate excessive regrind. Also,
pinpoint gates and separating the parts the small pinpoint gates required for
from the cavity side of the mold. Next,
the mold separates at the runner plate to
facilitate removal of the runner system.
Finally, a plate strips the runner from
the retaining pins, and parts and runner
eject from the mold.
122
Chapter 7
MOLD DESIGN continued
Three-Plate Mold Figure 7-2C
Schematic of a two-cavity, three-plate mold with cutaway view

showing final opening phase and stripper plate in forward position.
clean automatic degating can generate Another configuration, the stack mold,
high shear and lead to material degrada- reduces the clamp force required by
tion, gate blemish, and packing prob- multicavity molds. Typically, multiple
lems. Because of the high shear rates cavities are oriented on a single parting
generated in the tapered runner drops line and the required clamp force is the
and pinpoint gates, three-plate molds are sum of the clamp needed by each cavity
not recommended for shear-sensitive plus the runner system. In stack molds,
materials such as Cadon SMA and cavities lie on two or more stacked part-
materials with shear-sensitive colorants ing lines. The injection forces exerted
or flame retardants. on the plate separating parting lines
cancel, so the resulting clamp force is
the same as for just one parting line.
Stack molds produce more parts per
cycle than would otherwise be possible
in a given size molding press.
123
Figure 7-3 Mold Components
Locating Ring Sprue Bushing

Clamp Plate
Clamp Slot
Cavity
Core Cooling Guide Pin/

Channel Leader Pin
Guide Pin
Bushing
Ejector
Pin Return Pin
Ejector
Retainer Plate
Ejector Plate
Clamp Slot
Support Pillar
Components of a standard two-plate mold base with two cavities.
MOLD BASES AND CAVITIES Leader pins projecting from corners pieces into the mold base, or inserted as
of the “A” half align the mold halves. complete cavity units. Cutting cavities
The mold base comprises the majority Return pins connected to the ejector directly into the mold base can be the
of the bulk of an injection mold. plate corners project from the mold face most economical approach for large parts
Standard off-the-shelf mold bases are when the ejection mechanism is in the and/or parts with simple geometries.
available for most molding needs. forward (eject) position. As the mold When doing so, select the mold base
Typical mold bases are outfitted with closes, the return pins retract the steel carefully. The physical properties
a locating ring (see figure 7-3) and ejector plate (if not retracted already) of standard mold base steels may be
provisions for a sprue bushing in the in preparation for the next cycle. inadequate for heavy-wear areas or
stationary or “A” half of the mold and critical steel-to-steel contact points. Use
an ejector assembly in the moving “B” Mold cavities, here meaning core and inserts made of appropriate materials in
half. Both halves come with clamp cavity sets, can be incorporated in the these areas.
slots to affix the mold in the press. The mold three ways: they can be cut
“B” half has holes to accommodate bars directly into the mold plates, inserted in
that connect the press ejection mecha-
nism to the ejector plate in the mold.
124
Chapter 7
Assembling the cavity in the mold base MOLDING UNDERCUTS action mechanism. For more informa-
lets you select different metals for the tion on design alternatives to avoid
various cavity components, optimizing Undercuts, part features that prevent undercuts, see the section on undercuts
the mold’s durability and performance. straight ejection at the parting line, in Chapter 2 of this manual.
It also simplifies and speeds repairs for tend to increase mold complexity and
worn or damaged cavity components, lead to higher mold construction and Undercut features that cannot be avoided
especially if you maintain spare mold maintenance costs. Whenever feasible, through redesign require mechanisms in
pieces for vulnerable components. redesign the part to avoid undercuts. the mold to facilitate ejection. These
Additionally, assembling the cavities Minor part design changes can often types of mechanisms include side-action
from pieces can simplify component eliminate problematic undercuts in the slides, lifter rails, jiggler pins, collapsible
fabrication. Some of the drawbacks of mold. For example, adding through- cores and unscrewing mechanisms.
mold-base cavity assemblies include holes can give access to the underside The remainder of this section discusses
high initial mold cost, less-efficient of features that would otherwise be these options.
mold cooling, and potential tolerance undercuts (see figure 7-4). Likewise,
accumulation problems with the cavity simple modifications enable the mold Side-action slides use cam pins or
components. to form a hole in the sidewall with hydraulic (or pneumatic) cylinders to
bypass steel rather than with a side- retract portions of the mold prior to
Cavity units offer many of the same
advantages found in mold-base cavity
assemblies. Because many cavity units
are face-mounted in the mold base Figure 7-4 Undercut Alternatives
for quick removal, worn or damaged
Example 1: Snap-Fit Undercut
cavities are easily replaced. Some mold
bases are designed to accept standard
No Side
cavity-insert units for rapid part change Side Action
Action Draw Core
while the mold is still in the molding Required Pin
press. These cavity units typically have

Complex Simple
independent cooling circuits and ejector Tool Tool
mechanisms that automatically connect
to the mold-base ejector system.
Example 2: Side Hole
Draw Hole
No Side
Hole Requires Action
Side Action
Complex Tool Simple Tool
Simple/complex part design for undercuts.
125
Side-Action Slide Figure 7-5
Cam Pin Undercut
Slide
The cam pin

retracts the
slide during
mold opening.
Lifter Figure 7-6 ejection. Cam-pin-driven slides retract

as the mold opens (see figure 7-5). As
the mold closes, the cam pins return the
slides to their original position for the
next injection cycle. Slides driven by
hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders can
activate at any time during the molding
cycle, an advantage in applications
requiring the slides to actuate prior to
mold opening or closing.
Shallow undercuts can often be formed

by spring-loaded lifters (see figure 7-6)
or lifter rails attached to the ejector
system. These lifters move with the part
on an angle during mold opening or
ejection until the lifter clears the under-
cut in the part. A variation on this idea,
Typical spring-loaded lifter mechanism.
126
Chapter 7
Jiggler Pin Figure 7-7 Unscrewing mechanisms are common-

ly used to produce internal threads. A
variety of devices can drive the rotation
of the threaded cores, including rack-
and-pinion devices actuated by mold
opening, motors, or hydraulic cylinders;
or motor-driven gear and chain mecha-
nisms. The mold design should include
provisions to lubricate the various mov-
ing parts of the unscrewing mechanism.
Slides, cams, collapsible cores, and

unscrewing mechanisms add to the cost
and complexity of the mold, as well as
the mold maintenance cost. Investigate
Angled surfaces slide the jiggler pin to clear the undercut during ejection.
the “jiggler” pin (see figure 7-7), has Figure 7-8 Collapsible Core
angled surfaces to guide the pin away
from the undercut during ejection, then
return it to the molding position as the
ejector system retracts.
Features such as internal threads, dim-

ples, slots, or grooves on the inside of
holes or caps may require collapsible
cores. These complex cores are made in
segments that collapse toward the center
as they retract during mold opening (see
figure 7-8). Available in a variety of
standard sizes from various mold-com-
ponent suppliers, these specialty cores
are typically modified to produce the
desired undercut shape. The number
and complexity of individual core
components limit the minimum size of
collapsible cores. Collapsible cores are
Standard-style
rarely used for inside diameters less
collapsible core pin
than 0.625 inch. in expanded and
contracted position.
127
options that avoid complex mold Figure 7-9 Ejector Pins and Blades
mechanisms. Clever part design can
often eliminate troublesome undercuts.
Some undercuts are most economically
produced as secondary operations,
particularly if they can be automated or
performed within the cycle at the press.
PART EJECTION
Typically, molds have ejector systems

built into the moving “B” half. The
ejection unit of the molding press acti-
vates these systems. Rods linking the
press-ejector mechanism to an ejector Ejector pins and ejector blades push the part off of the core as the
plate in the mold enable the press con- ejector plate moves forward.
troller to control the timing, speed, and

length of the ejection stroke. Reverse-
injection molds eject parts from the sta- Figure 7-10 Ejector Sleeves
tionary side of the mold via independent
ejection mechanisms operated by
springs or hydraulic cylinders. This con-
figuration facilitates direct injection onto
the inside or back surface of cosmetic
parts. The added complexity of reverse-
injection molds adds to the mold cost.
Specialized ejection components, such

as knockout (KO) pins, KO sleeves, or
stripper plates, project from the mold
ejector plate to the part surface where
they push the part out of the mold (see
figures 7-9 through 7-11). These topics
are discussed in this section.
The common, round knockout pin

provides a simple and economical
method for part ejection. Manufactured Cylindrical ejector sleeves provide maximum ejection contact area
with high surface hardness and a tough along the edge of circular parts.
core, these inexpensive, off-the-shelf
items resist wear and breakage. The
128
Chapter 7
Figure 7-11 Stripper Plate Figure 7-12 Angled Ejector Pin
In molds with stripper-plate ejection, the face plate which forms the Ejector pins on angled surface must be keyed to prevent rotation and
edge of the parts moves forward stripping the parts from the core. often require grooves to prevent sideways deflection of the ejector pin.
mold maker selects the desired diameter pins push on angled surfaces, consider Many factors determine the amount of
and shank length from the vast array of adding grooves to the part design to ejector area needed, including the part
standard sizes and machines it to fit. prevent pin deflection (see figure 7-12). geometry, mold finish, material-release
The fit of the ejector pin into the round KO pins extending to narrow walls and characteristics, and part temperature at
ejector hole must be held to a tight edges can be stepped or positioned, so the time of ejection. To prevent damage
tolerance to avoid flash. Worn ejector that only a portion of the pin contacts during ejection, thin-walled parts gener-
holes can be refitted with 0.005-inch the molded part (see figure 7-9). This ally require larger ejectors and greater
oversized pins available for standard avoids using small-diameter KO pins ejector area than comparable parts with
diameters. Ejector blades, KO pins that are more difficult to maintain and thicker walls.
with a rectangular cross section, operate can deflect or bend.
much the same as standard round pins, Draw polishing the mold steel in the
but can be more difficult to fit and KO pins leave witness marks, small direction of ejection generally helps
maintain. Typically, they are used on indentations or rings where the pin ejection. Thermoplastic polyurethanes,
the edges of ribs or walls that are too contacts the part, that could be exceptions to this rule, usually eject
thin for standard round pins. objectionable on cosmetic surfaces. more easily from molds with frosted
Additionally, they can read-through to finishes that limit plastic-to-metal
KO pins usually extend to the surfaces the opposite surface if the part is difficult contact to peaks in the mold texture.
lying parallel to the mold face. If KO to eject, or if the ejector area is too small.
129
Air-Poppet Valve Figure 7-13 Core shift and mold flexure can pinch
part surfaces, hindering ejection. To
prevent this problem, add support to
the mold or core, or change the filling
pattern to balance the injection forces.
MOLD VENTING
As molten plastic enters the mold, it

quickly displaces air in the tightly
Air
Air
sealed mold. Although some air escapes
through the parting line or loose-fitting
ejectors or slides, most molds need
strategically placed vents for rapid
and complete air removal. This section
discusses vent design and placement.
Air valve at the top of a core to relieve vacuum.
Parting-Line Vents
Also, adding a generous amount of problems. If planning to use a spray As a first choice, place vents along the
mold draft helps ejection. Draft refers mold release, check it for chemical mold parting line. Typically easy to cut
to the slight angle or taper added to part compatibility with your resin. and keep clear of material, vents in the
features to ease part ejection. Most parting line provide a direct pathway for
Bayer materials require at least one Ejection difficulties can arise if a vacuum air escaping the mold.
degree of draft for easy ejection. forms between the part and mold during
Lustran SAN resins and Desmopan ejection. Typically, this difficulty
TPU resins require at least two degrees develops in deeply cored, closed-bottom
of draft. See the section on draft in parts. Off-the-shelf mold components
Chapter 2 for additional information. such as air-poppet valves (see figure
7-13) can alleviate the problems. Air-
Materials with internal mold release poppet valves relieve the vacuum and
can reduce the required ejection force deliver pressurized air between the part
and alleviate some ejection problems. and mold surface during ejection.
Spray mold releases, though often
effective as a short-term fix, can lengthen
the molding cycle and lead to cosmetic
130
Chapter 7
Figure 7-14 shows standard parting-line • Add more vents or widen existing Add vents sparingly in molds for these
vent guidelines for Bayer thermoplastic ones to increase venting; and materials. Carefully review Bayer’s
resins. To prevent material from flowing Product Information Bulletin for specific
into the vent during filling, the depth of • To avoid flash, do not increase vent venting recommendations, particularly
the first 0.150 inch to 0.300 inch of vent depth beyond the guidelines. for flame-retarded materials.
length must be small, typically less than
0.0020 inch for amorphous resins and For the vast majority of resins and part
less than 0.0015 inch for semi-crystalline geometries, more vents are better. The Vent Placement
resins. Your resin selection and processing exceptions are resins with components —
conditions determine the vent’s maximum usually flame retardants or other addi- Vents should be placed at various
depth. The ranges given in figure 7-14 tives — that can boil to the surface at locations along the runner system and
apply to typical molding conditions. the flow front and deposit on the mold part perimeter, but they are especially
Other rules of thumb for venting: surface and vents. These resins rely on needed at the last areas of the mold to
pressurized air in front of the flow front fill (see figure 7-15). Typically these
• The amount of venting needed to hold volatiles in the material. Over- areas are located on the parting line and
increases with part volume and venting can prevent the flow front lie farthest from the gate. When the last
filling speed; from generating the required pressure. area to fill is not vented, air may become
Vent Depth Figure 7-14 Vent Placement Figure 7-15
0.15 in Vent Land

0.30 in
Vent Channel
≥ 0.04 in
Gate
Vent Depth “D”

(See Below)
Vent
Parting-line vents were positioned along the perimeter of this cavity insert.
Typical Vent Depth “D” Range for Bayer Resins Extra vents were directed to corners opposite the gate that fills last.
0.0010 – 0.0020 in Amorphous Resins: Makrolon,
Apec, Bayblend, Makroblend,
Texin, Desmopan, Cadon,
Lustran, and Centrex.
0.0005 – 0.0015 in Semicrystalline Resins:
Durethan, Triax, and Pocan.
Note: For applications requiring minimal flash, reduce

the upper limits of the above ranges by 0.0005 in.
131
trapped in the mold, preventing complete inserts can also provide venting for diffi- • Round or angle the ends of standing
filling of the cavity and causing a gas cult air-trap areas but may require peri- ribs to prevent air entrapment
burn on the part. The trapped air is super odic cleaning. (see figure 2-21 in Chapter 2).
heated during compression and in severe
cases can pit or erode the mold steel. Part features produced by blind holes in Air trapped in unvented pockets or
the mold, such as posts and bosses, recesses in the mold can exit these areas
When feasible, move gates or vary part require venting at the last area to fill, behind the flow front and lead to splay
thickness to change the filling pattern usually the tip or end. Bosses can usual- or teardrop-shaped surface defects.
and direct air to parting-line vents. If air- ly vent along the core insert forming the
trap areas persist, consider using ejector inside diameter of the boss. Posts usual- Severe weld lines often form where
pins modified with flats for venting (see ly require ejector-pin vents at the tip of flow streams meet head on, especially at
figure 7-16). Ejector-pin vents usually the post. Other venting issues you the end of fill. You can often improve
self clean with each ejection stroke. Air- should address: the strength and appearance of these
trap areas not accessible by ejector-pin weld lines by installing overflow wells
vents may require vents placed along • Direct mold filling along the length (see figure 7-17). Overflow wells are
mold inserts or splits in the mold. This of the rib so gasses can escape at modified vent features that provide an
type of vent usually requires periodic the ends; and extra-deep vent channel, usually about
disassembly for cleaning. Porous metal one-third the part thickness, that emp-
Ejector-Pin Vent Figure 7-16 Overflow Well Figure 7-17
0.002 in Gate
Weld Line
Overflow Well
Overflow wells can improve the strength and appearance of weld lines.
Ejector pin in forward position showing flats added to provide venting.
132
Chapter 7
Sprue Bushing Figure 7-18 parting line. Though they can be cut
directly into the mold, sprue bushings
0.5-in or 0.75-in Spherical Radius are usually purchased as off-the-shelf
Locating Ring
items and inserted into the mold (see
0.5-in/ft
Taper figure 7-18). The head end of the sprue
bushing comes premachined with a
spherical recess — typically 0.5- or
Nozzle Tip
0.02 – 0.08-in
0.75-inch radius — to receive and seal
Radius off against the rounded tip of the press
injection nozzle. The sprue bushing
flow-channel diameter typically tapers
larger toward the parting line at a rate of
0.5 inch per foot. This eases removal of
the molded sprue. The sprue orifice
size, the diameter at the small end,
comes standard in odd 1/32s from 5/32
to 11/32 inch.
Sprue Bushing
Sprue design can affect molding effi-
ciency and ease of processing. In many
Sprue bushings convey the melt from the press nozzle tip to the mold parting line.
molds, the greatest restriction to materi-
al flow occurs at the press nozzle tip
and sprue orifice. These areas see the
ties into a cylindrical well. Venting air SPRUES, RUNNERS, AND GATES highest volumetric flow rate of the
escapes the well around a shortened entire system. An excessively small
ejector pin fitted with a 0.002-inch Standard horizontal clamp presses sprue orifice can generate large amounts
clearance. Cool material at the leading deliver molten resin to the mold of material shear and lead to material
edge of the advancing flow fronts through a hole in the center of the degradation, cosmetic problems, and
merges and enters the overflow well stationary press platen. A material- elevated filling pressure. The problem
leaving hotter material to mix and fuse delivery system — usually consisting can be worse in the press nozzle tip
at the weld line. The overflow well is of a sprue, runners, and gates — then because the tip orifice must be slightly
ejected with the part and clipped off leads the resin through the mold and smaller than the sprue orifice to avoid
after molding. Overflow wells can also into the cavity. These components forming an undercut.
provide ejector-pin locations for parts of the material delivery system are
such as clock faces or instrument lenses discussed in this section. The volumetric flow rate used during
that cannot tolerate ejector-pin marks filling largely determines the correct
on the part surface. sprue orifice size. Shot size and filling
Sprues speed, as well as the flow properties of
the specific resin, govern the required
The sprue, oriented parallel to the press flow rate.
injection unit, delivers resin to the
desired depth into the mold, usually the
133
Figure 7-19 diameter at the base. This large base
160 diameter lengthens cooling and cycle
150 times and also leads to regrind problems.
140
11/32 in
130 Hot sprue bushings provide one solution
120 to this problem. Hot sprue bushings
110
have a heated flow channel that transports
100
material along its length in molten form,
90
9/32 in eliminating or shortening the molded
80
TOTAL SHOT VOLUME (in3)
70 cold sprue. Additionally, some molds

60 rely on extension press nozzles that
50 reach deep into the mold to reduce
40 sprue length.
7/32 in
Sprue-size (small- 30
end diameter) 20
recommendations 10
5/32 in Runners
as a function of 0
shot volume and 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
fill time. Unlike sprues, which deliver material
ANTICIPATED FILL TIME (seconds) depthwise through the center of the
mold plates, runners typically transport
material through channels machined
into the parting line. Runner design
• Large parts and/or parts needing fast loss takes place in the first two inches, influences part quality and molding
filling speeds require large sprue these guidelines should apply to sprues efficiency. Overly thick runners can
orifice diameters to avoid problems of various lengths. Part geometry lengthen cycle time needlessly and
associated with excessive flow shear. influences filling time to some extent. increase costs associated with regrind.
For example, parts with a mix of thick Conversely, thin runners can cause
• As a general rule, amorphous resins and thin features may need a fast filling excessive filling pressures and related
and blends such as Makrolon speed to prevent premature cooling of processing problems. The optimum
polycarbonate, Lustran ABS, and the thin features. Other geometries may runner design requires a balance
Bayblend PC/ABS resins require require slower filling speeds to prevent between ease of filling, mold design
larger sprues and runners than problems such as cosmetic defects or feasibility, and runner volume.
semicrystalline resins such as excessive clamp tonnage requirements.
Durethan PA 6 and Pocan PBT.
The diameter at the base of the sprue
Figure 7-19 shows typical sprue sizes increases with increasing sprue length.
for Bayer amorphous resins as a func- Standard sprue taper, typically one-
tion of shot size and filling time. half inch per foot, leads to large base
Because the maximum shear rate in a diameters in long sprues. For example,
sprue occurs at the orifice and the a 6-inch sprue with a 7/32-inch orifice
majority of shear heating and pressure diameter will have nearly a 0.5-inch
134
Chapter 7
Runner Cross Sections Figure 7-20
Good *Better Best Poor Poor Poor
*“Round-Bottomed” Trapezoid
Full round runners provide the most efficient flow.
Material passing through the runner The runner system often accounts for
during mold filling forms a frozen wall more than 40% of the pressure required
layer as the mold steel draws heat from to fill the mold. Because much of this
the melt. This layer restricts the flow pressure drop can be attributed to
channel and increases the pressure drop runner length, optimize the route to
through the runner. Round cross-section each gate to minimize runner length.
runners minimize contact with the mold For example, replace cornered paths
surface and generate the smallest per- with diagonals or reorient the cavity to
centage of frozen layer cross-sectional shorten the runner.
area. As runner designs deviate from
round, they become less efficient (see Runner thickness has a direct effect on
figure 7-20). Round runners require filling pressure, cycle time, packing,
machining in both halves of the mold, and runner volume. The optimum • Increase runner thickness for long
increasing the potential for mismatch runner diameter depends on a variety runners and runners subjected to
and flow restriction. A good alternative, of factors including part volume, part high volumetric flow rates.
the “round-bottomed” trapezoid, thickness, filling speed and pressure,
requires machining in just one mold runner length, and material viscosity. • Amorphous resins typically require
half. Essentially a round cross section larger runners than semicrystalline
with sides tapered by five degrees • For sufficient packing, make runners resins.
for ejection, this design is nearly as at least as thick as the part nominal
efficient as the full-round design. wall thickness.
135
Amorphous-Runner Diameters Figure 7-21 Semicrystalline-Runner Diameters Figure 7-22
5 5 1/2 in
1/2 in
7/16 in
4 4
7/16 in
3/8 in
3 3
3/8 in
5/16 in
2 2
5/16 in
FLOW RATE (in3/s)
FLOW RATE (in3/s) 1/4 in

1/4 in
1 1
3/16 in
3/16 in
1/8 in 1/8 in
0 0
0 3 6 9 12 0 3 6 9 12
RUNNER LENGTH (in) RUNNER LENGTH (in)
Runner-diameter guidelines based on volumetric flow rate and Runner-diameter guidelines based on volumetric flow rate and
runner length. runner length.
Figures 7-21 and 7-22 provide a As an approximation, calculate Rounding up, the secondary runner
means for estimating primary-runner secondary-runner diameters so that diameter becomes 3/16 inch. The
diameters based on volumetric flow the total cross-sectional area of the methods outlined above for calculating
rate and runner length. Calculate the secondary runners equals the cross- runner diameters usually generate
flow rate by dividing the part volume sectional area of the primary runner, reasonable, but not necessarily optimum,
of material passing through the runner and then round up to the nearest runner sizes. Consider computerized
segment by the anticipated filling time. standard cutter size. For example, to mold-filling analysis to achieve a higher
For example a primary runner section calculate diameters for two secondary level of optimization.
feeding half of a 6 in3 part, with an runners branching from a 0.25-inch
anticipated filling time of 3 seconds, primary runner, first solve for a runner
would have a volumetric flow rate of diameter with half the cross-sectional
1 in3/sec. Use figure 7-21 for amorphous area of the 0.25-inch primary runner:
Bayer resins, and figure 7-22 for semi-
crystalline Bayer resins. rsec = (rprim2 ÷ 2)1/2 so
rsec = (0.1252 ÷ 2)1/2 and dsec= 0.177
where r = radius and d = diameter
136
Chapter 7
Family Mold Figure 7-23
The runner diameter feeding the smaller part was reduced to

balance filling.
Runners for Multicavity Molds each cavity. Naturally balanced runners 7-24) work well for tight clusters of
provide an equal flow distance from the small cavities. However they become
Runners for multicavity molds require press nozzle to the gate on each cavity. less efficient as cavity spacing increases
special attention. Runners for family Spoked-runner designs (see figure because of cavity number or size.
molds, molds producing different parts
of an assembly in the same shot, should
be designed so that all parts finish filling
at the same time. This reduces over- Figure 7-24 Spoked Runners
packing and/or flash formation in the
cavities that fill first, leading to less
shrinkage variation and fewer part-quality
problems. Consider computerized mold-
filling analysis to adjust gate locations
and/or runner section lengths and diam-
eters to achieve balanced flow to each
Cold-Slug
cavity (see figure 7-23). The same Well
computer techniques balance flow within Good Better
multi-gated parts. Molds producing
multiples of the same part should also
provide balanced flow to the ends of The spoked runner on the right provides a cold slug well at the end of each primary
runner branch.
137
Naturally Balanced Runners Figure 7-25 Often, it makes more sense to orient
cavities in rows rather than circles.
Rows of cavities generally have
branched runners consisting of a primary
main feed channel and a network of
secondary or tertiary runners to feed
each cavity. To be naturally balanced,
the flow path to each cavity must be of
equal length and make the same number
and type of turns and splits. This gener-
ally limits cavity number to an integer
power of two — 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc. —
as shown in figure 7-25. Generally, the
runner diameter decreases after each
split in response to the decreased number
of cavities sharing that runner segment.
Assuming a constant flow rate feeding
the mold, the flow-front velocity in
the cavity halves after each split. The
molding press flow-rate performance
may limit the number of cavities that
Naturally balanced runners for cavities in two rows.
can be simultaneously molded if the
press cannot maintain an adequate
flow-front velocity.
138
Chapter 7
Figure 7-26 Runner Balancing • As a general rule, secondary runner To ease removal from the mold, these
length should be no less than 1/5 the drops taper smaller toward the gate at a
flow distance from the inboard rate of about 0.5 inch per foot. Avoid
secondary/primary runner junction long drops because the taper can lead to
to the gates on the outboard cavities. excessive thickness at the runner junc-
tion or flow restriction at the thin end.
Unbalanced
Runners for three-plate molds (see Three-plate runners usually require
figures 7-2A through 7-2C) initially sucker pins or some other feature to
convey material along the runner-split hold the runner on the stripper plate
parting line and then burrow perpendic- until the drops clear the center plate
ularly through the middle plate to during mold opening. Be sure these
Naturally the cavity parting line. Tapered drops features do not restrict flow. See
Balanced typically project from the main runner figure 7-27 for three-plate runner
to pinpoint gates on the part surface. and gate-design guidelines.
Artificially Figure 7-27 Three-Plate Runner

Balanced
Good Bad Good

The artificially balanced runner achieves flow (Too Restrictive)
balance by adjusting runner diameters instead
of by maintaining uniform runner length. A
Artificially balanced runners provide Sucker Pin

balanced filling and can greatly reduce
runner volume. Artificially balanced A
designs usually adjust runner-segment

diameters to compensate for differences 0.5 in/ft Taper
in runner flow length. For instance, in
ladder runners, the most common artifi- B
90°
cially balanced runner design, a primary B 0.8d 0.8d
runner feeds two rows of cavities s or
through equal-length secondary runners. d = 0.6s d = 0.6s
The diameters of these secondary
runners are made progressively smaller
Three-plate runner system guidelines.
for the cavities with shortest runner
flow distance (see figure 7-26). These
designs require enough secondary
runner length to flow balance using
reasonable runner diameters.
139
Figure 7-28 Common Edge Gate Figure 7-29 Variations of the Edge Gate
Fan Gate Chisel Gate

Radius
Runner 0.060 in Max.
C C D D
Gate Width “w”
0.040 – 0.060 in
Land
t = 0.5C to 0.65C
“t” Gate Thickness

PL
“C”
Section C-C Section D-D
Common edge-gate guidelines. Fan gates and chisel gates can provide better cosmetics in
some applications.
Gates part via a rectangular gate opening. tabs (see figure 7-30) that are removed
When designing edge gates, limit the after molding or hidden in assembly.
Except for special cases, such as sprue- land length, the distance from the end These tab gates allow quick removal
gated systems which have no runner or edge of the runner to the part edge, of the gate without concern about gate
sections, gates connect the runner to the to no more than 0.060 inch for Bayer appearance.
part. Gates perform two major functions, thermoplastics. Edge gates generate
both of which require the thickness to be less flow shear and consume less
less than the runner and part wall. First, pressure than most self-degating Figure 7-30 Tab Gate
gates freeze-off and prevent pressurized designs. They are therefore preferred
Tab Same
material in the cavity from backing for shear-sensitive materials, high- Thickness
through the gate after the packing and viscosity materials, highly cosmetic as Part
holding phases of injection. Applied applications, and large-volume parts.

pressure from the press injection unit
can stop earlier in the cycle, before the Fan gates and chisel gates, variations
part or runner system solidifies, saving of the edge gate, flare wider from the
energy and press wear-and-tear. runner (see figure 7-29) to increase the
Secondly, gates provide a reduced- gate width. Chisel gates can provide Gate Land
0.060 in Max.
thickness area for easier separation of better packing and cosmetics than stan-
the part from the runner system. dard edge gates on some thick-walled
parts. Like the standard edge gate, the
A variety of gate designs feed directly land length for fan gates should not
The gate tab can be hidden in the assembly
into the parting line. The common edge exceed 0.060 inch at the narrowest
or trimmed off after molding.
gate (see figure 7-28) typically projects point. Chisel gates taper from the runner
from the end of the runner and feeds the to the part edge with little or no straight
land area. Edge gates can also extend to
140
Chapter 7
“Z” Runner Figure 7-31 Gate Under the Edge Figure 7-32
Cold-Slug Well
x
Section x-x 0.060 in Max.
0.060 in Maximum Gate Land
PL
Edge gate from the side of a “Z” runner. This gate can be trimmed without leaving a gate mark on the
cosmetic part surface.
Edge gates may also extend from the cold-slug well at the end of the runner. Because they extend under the mold
side of a runner oriented parallel to the To hide the large gate vestige left by parting surfaces, tunnel gates can reach
part edge (see figure 7-31). This design, large edge gates, the gate can extend surfaces or features that are not located
coupled with a “Z”-style runner, tends under the edge as shown in figure 7-32. on the parting line. The gates typically
to reduce gate blush by providing uniform feed surfaces oriented perpendicular to
flow along the width of the gate and a the mold face. Depending upon their
141
Knockout-Pin Gate Figure 7-33 Stationary-Side Tunnel Gate Figure 7-34
PL
Knockout Pins
Runner Flexes
During Ejection
Tunnel gates that extend below the parting line on the ejector side Tunnel gates into non-ejector side of the mold degate and separate
of the mold degate during ejection. from the part during mold opening.
design, they degate during ejection or mold. The runner must flex for the gate The orifice edge closest to the parting
mold opening (see figures 7-33 and to clear the undercut in the mold steel. line must remain sharp to shear the gate
7-34). Tunnel gates that degate during The gate may break or lock in the mold cleanly. When molding abrasive materials
mold opening often require a sucker pin if the runner is too stiff or if the ejector such as those filled with glass or mineral,
or a feature similar to a sprue puller to pin is too close to the gate. Normally, make the gate of hardened or specially
hold the runner on the ejector half of the the ejector pin should be at least two treated mold steel to reduce wear. Also,
runner diameters away from the base of consider fabricating the gate on an
the gate.
142
Chapter 7
Tunnel-Gate Modified Tunnel-

Configuration Figure 7-35 Gate Configuration Figure 7-36 insert for easy replacement. The drop
angle and conical angle must be large
Parting
Parting Line enough to facilitate easy ejection (see
Line
figure 7-35). Stiff materials, glass-filled
45 – 65°
40 – 50° grades for example, generally require
drop angles and conical angles at the
A 20 – 30° A high side of the range shown in the
5 – 10° figure. The modified-tunnel gate
Effective Gate design (see figure 7-36) maintains a
Diameter
A A Critical large flow diameter up to the gate shear-
Gate
Thickness off point to reduce pressure loss and
Section
Section A-A A-A excessive shear heating.
Standard tunnel-gate guidelines. Modified tunnel-gate guidelines.

Curved-tunnel gates permit gating
into the underside of surfaces that are
oriented parallel to the parting plane
Curved-Tunnel Gate Figure 7-37 (see figure 7-37). Unlike mold fabrica-
tion for conventional tunnel gates, the
curved, undercut shape of this design
must be machined or EDM burned on
the surface of a split gate insert. The
curved gate must uncurl as the runner
advances on guided posts during ejection.
Curved-tunnel gates
can reach past the
finished edge to the
underside of surfaces
oriented parallel to
the parting plane.
143
Curved-Tunnel-Gate Guidelines Figure 7-38 Other Gate Designs
Pinpoint gates feed directly into part

X
surfaces lying parallel to the mold part-
ing plane. On the ends of three-plate
D runner drops, multiple pinpoint gates
d1
can help reduce flow length on large
L2
d2
r parts and allow gating into areas that are
inaccessible from the part perimeter.
X > 2.5 or Min. 15 mm (0.600 in) For clean degating, the gate design must
D 1
provide a positive break-off point (see
D = Approx. 4 to 6 mm L1
(0.160 to 0.235 in) figure 7-40) to minimize gate vestige.
d1 < D (Normally 4 to 6 mm / Set in recesses or hidden under labels,
0.150 to 0.235 in)
properly designed and maintained
r = 2.5 to 3 x d1
d1 to d2 Equals a Taper
pinpoint gates seldom require trimming.
of 3° to 5° Incl. Because gate size must also be kept
L1 > L2 small, typically less than a 0.080-inch
Curved-Tunnel-Gate
This gate design works well for unfilled Figure 7-39 Design Guidelines Figure 7-40 Pinpoint Gate
materials that remain somewhat
0.3 – 2.0 mm Max. 0.5 mm
flexible at ejection temperature such 0.012 – 0.080 in Max. 0.020 in
90°
as Makrolon PC, Lustran ABS, and
amorphous blends such as Bayblend
and Makroblend resins. Avoid
this gate for filled materials, brittle
materials, or materials with very high
stiffness. See figures 7-38 and 7-39 for
curved-tunnel gate design guidelines.
0.8 – 2.5 mm Dia. 90°
0.020 – 0.100 in Dia.
The curved tunnel gate needs a well-defined

break-off point for clean degating.
Both of these pinpoint gate designs provide

a well-defined break-off point for clean
degating. Design permitting, pinpoint gates
should be placed in recessed gate wells to
accommodate gate vestige.
144
Chapter 7
Figure 7-41 Filter-Bowl Gate Figure 7-42 Diaphragm Gate
Trim Here
Typical filter-bowl gate avoids knitlines and provides even flow The diaphragm gate, which extends from the center disk to the
around the core. inside of the cylinder, must be removed in a secondary step.
diameter, pinpoint gates may not provide Gate Optimization • Glass- and/or mineral-filled nylons
sufficient packing for parts with thick may pack sufficiently with gates as
wall sections. Factors affecting optimum gate size small as one-third the wall thickness.
include part thickness, part volume,
Parts with holes in the center such as filling speed, material properties, and The volumetric flow rate through the
filter bowls, gears, and fans often use number of gates. Gate thickness controls gate may dictate gate sizes larger than
the “filter-bowl” gate design to provide packing ability. For proper packing, needed for packing alone. High flow
symmetrical filling without knitlines. gates must remain open and free from rates in gates can generate excessive
Typically, the gate extends directly freeze-off long enough to inject shear rates and shear heating, damaging
from a sprue and feeds the cavity additional material during packing to the material and leading to a variety of
through a continuous gate into the edge compensate for shrinkage. In general: molding problems.
of the hole (see figure 7-41). Degating
involves trimming away the sprue and • Unfilled materials require gates that Thin-walled parts — those with nomi-
conical gate section flush with the outer are at least half as thick as the part. nal wall thicknesses less than 1.5 mm
surface. Another design variation, the — often require disproportionately
diaphragm gate, feeds the inside edge • Use gates that are two-thirds the part large gates to accommodate the very
of the hole from a circumferential edge thickness for highly cosmetic parts high filling speeds needed for filling.
gate extending from a center disk (see or parts that could exhibit read-
figure 7-42). Degating usually involves through from features such as ribs
punching or drilling through the hole. and bosses.
145
Gate diameters that are greater than Computer flow analysis can take Table 7-1 Bulk Shear-Rate Limits
80% of the wall thickness are often into account the best filling-speed and
required to prevent excessive gate injection-velocity profile for a given
Polymer Family Shear Rate 1/s
shear. Ideally these gates should feed system when calculating the maximum
into thickened wells that ease flow from shear rate encountered in the gate. A Makrolon 40,000
the gate into the part wall sections. Hot- less accurate but simpler method is to Apec 40,000
runner valve gates are often required to calculate bulk shear rate using an esti- Bayblend 40,000
achieve the required gate size without mated, uniform volumetric flow rate in Makroblend 40,000
excessive gate vestige. the appropriate shear-rate formula: Triax (PA/ABS) 50,000
Lustran ABS 40,000
Volumetric flow rate and gate size con- Lustran SAN 40,000
shear rate = 4Q/πr3 for round gates Cadon 15,000
trol shear rate in the gate. Bulk shear
shear rate = 6Q/wt2 for rectangular gates Centrex 40,000
rate in the gate is roughly proportional
to the volumetric flow rate. Reducing Durethan 60,000
the filling speed or flow rate by half Where: Durethan (reinf.) 40,000
reduces the shear rate by about half. Q = flow rate (in3/sec) Texin TPU 20,000
r = gate radius (in) Texin PC/TPU 10,000
The effect of gate size on bulk shear w = gate width (in) Desmopan 20,000
rate depends on the gate geometry. For t = gate thickness (in) Note: Use 1/2 these values for flame-
retardant grades and for critical transparent
example, increasing the diameter of a Note: See figure 7-28 for edge gate
or cosmetic applications.
round gate by 25% cuts the shear rate nomenclature.
to half. For rectangular gates, doubling
the width or increasing the thickness To calculate flow rate, divide the vol- Materials differ in the maximum shear
by about 40% reduces the shear rate ume passing through the gate by the rate they can tolerate before problems
by half. estimated time to fill the cavity. For occur. Table 7-1 lists the suggested
parts with multiple gates, this will mean shear-rate limits for a variety of Bayer
assigning a portion of the part volume resins. Shear-related problems seldom
to each gate. Note that the rectangular- occur below these limits.
gate formula becomes more accurate
when the gate width is much greater
than the gate thickness.
146
Chapter 7
To minimize packing and gate shear Gate Position Gate position determines the filling
problems: pattern and resulting flow orientation.
Gate position can have a direct impact Plastics typically exhibit greater
• Set edge-gate thickness according to on part moldability, performance, strength in the flow direction. Glass-
the packing rules and adjust the appearance, and cost. The location of the fiber-filled plastics can often withstand
width to achieve an acceptable gate gate determines the filling pattern and more than twice the level of applied
shear rate; maximum material flow length. Ideally stress in the flow direction as in the
the gate would be positioned to balance cross-flow direction. Keep this in mind
• Adjust the diameter of round gates, filling and minimize flow length, typi- when choosing gate locations for parts
such as tunnel gates and pinpoint cally near the center of the part or at subjected to mechanical loads. When
gates, based upon the packing rules strategic intervals for multi-gated feasible:
or on the size needed to stay within parts. Often these best gate locations for
the shear-rate limits of the material: filling are unacceptable for other reasons. • Position gates to direct filling in the
whichever is larger; and For example, they might result in direction of applied stress and strain.
unsightly gate marks or weld lines in
• Increase the quantity of gates if the cosmetic areas, or increase mold con- Flow orientation also affects part
calculated gate size is too large to struction costs. Cavity layout restric- shrinkage in the mold. Shrinkage in
degate cleanly. tions and mechanisms in the mold such unfilled plastics, which tend to shrink
as slides or lifters may also restrict just a little more in the flow direction
gating to less-than-ideal locations. The than in the cross-flow direction, is only
best gate position is often a compromise slightly affected by flow orientation.
between molding ease and efficiency, Flow orientation has a large effect on
part performance and appearance, and fiber-filled plastics, which typically
mold design feasibility. The Design exhibit two or three times as much
Engineering Services Group at Bayer shrinkage in the cross-flow direction.
Corporation has the experience and As general rules:
resources to assist you in choosing the
optimum gate locations. • To minimize warpage and dimensional
problems in glass-filled plastics,
position the gates to provide uniform
flow orientation along the part length.
• In parts with varying thickness,

always try to gate into the thickest
sections to avoid packing problems
and sink.
147
Avoid thin-to-thick filling scenarios. Figure 7-43 Internally vs. Externally Heated Hot Runners
When gating must feed a thinner wall,
Cool Mold Steel Cool Mold Steel
consider adding a thickened channel or Annular Flow Channel Insulating Air Gap
flow leader from the gate to the thicker Heated Probe
Stagnant Layer Heater
wall sections to facilitate packing and
minimize shrinkage variations. The
advancing flow front in parts with thick
and thin wall section will often hesitate
in the thin walls until the thicker walls
have filled. This flow hesitation can
lead to freeze-off and incomplete
filling of the thin-wall section. Often,
positioning the gate so that the thinnest
walls are near the end of fill reduces the
hesitation time, enabling the thin sections
to fill. This is particularly helpful in
thin-walled parts which are prone to Internally Heated Externally Heated
flow-hesitation problems.
Unlike externally heated systems, internally heated hot-runner systems form a cool layer of
stagnant material along the outer surface of the flow channel.
Gates typically generate elevated levels
of molded-in stress in the part area
near the gate. Also, gate removal often
leaves scratches or notches that can act The flow length resulting from the chosen The pressure imbalance from uneven
as stress concentrators that weaken the gate locations must not exceed the flow flow around long, unsupported cores
area. For these reasons: capabilities of the material. Check the can bend or shift the cores within the
calculated flow length, usually the mold. This core shift increases the wall
• Avoid gating into or near areas that shortest distance from the gate to the thickness on the side nearest the gate
will be subject to high levels of last area to fill, against the published and reduces the wall thickness opposite
applied stress such as screw bosses, spiral flow data for the material. the gate. In severe cases, this can lead to
snap arms or attachment points. Consider computerized mold-filling non-fill opposite the gate and/or mold-
analysis if the flow length is marginal or opening or ejection problems as the
if the wall thickness varies or is outside core springs back after filling and
the range of published spiral flow data. pinches the thicker wall. Such parts
Flow leaders, thickened areas extend- require symmetric gating around the
ing from the gate toward the last areas core or wall-thickness adjustments to
to fill, can aid filling without thickening balance flow around the core.
the entire part. See Chapter 2 for more
information on flow leaders.
148
Chapter 7
HOT-RUNNER SYSTEMS feeding the heaters and thermocouples prevent material hang-up at trouble
are usually guided through channels or spots such as corner plugs and the
Hot-runner systems use heated or insu- conduits in the mold to prevent shorting transitions between components.
lated channels to transport molten resin or pinching of the wires between mold
through the mold, delivering it directly plates. Pinched thermocouple wires can • Avoid internally heated designs when
into the mold cavity or to a cold-runner cause erroneous temperature measure- molding transparent or heat-sensitive
system. Used to eliminate or reduce ments and lead to excessive heater materials, or when surface cosmetics
cold-runner size and runner regrind, hot temperatures and degraded material. are critical.
runners add to mold construction and In addition to resistance heaters, some
maintenance costs, and can complicate designs use high-conductivity metals • Streamline flow channels to eliminate
processing and mold startup procedures. and/or heat pipes to distribute heat. areas in the hot runner where material
Properly designed hot runners efficient- could hang-up and degrade.
ly distribute flow to widely dispersed Hot-runner systems are available in
gates with little pressure loss or melt both externally and internally heated
temperature change. They also facilitate configurations (see figure 7-43). Hot-Runner Gates
gating in areas inaccessible from parting- Externally heated designs maintain the
line runners and gates. This section dis- temperature through heat supplied from Molten materials exit the hot-runner
cusses hot-runner design issues. outside the molten flow channel. These system through gates at the ends of the
systems rely on heaters or thermal con- heated drops. In conventional hot-runner
ductors attached to the outside of the gates, the material in the hot-drop tip
Hot-Runner Designs hot-runner components or encapsulated, must solidify just enough to prevent
embedded, or inserted under the metal material leakage or drool through the
Commercially available in a wide array surface. Internally heated designs typi- gate between injection cycles.
of standard designs, hot-runner systems cally maintain melt temperature by way Conversely, if it solidifies too much
range from simple, hot sprue bushings of torpedo heaters or heated probes and forms a large cold slug, it may
costing a few hundred dollars to large, placed inside the flow channel. leave blemishes on the next molded
valve-gated, sequential-filling designs part. To achieve the optimum balance,
costing tens of thousands of dollars. Although both types of hot runners one of the most challenging aspects of
Most hot runners consist of a center have been used successfully with Bayer hot-runner design, you must control
drop that receives melt from the press engineering thermoplastics, internally heat transfer into and out of the area
nozzle, a manifold to distribute flow heated designs have an inherent disad- where the hot-drop tips contact the
parallel to the mold face, and drops that vantage in some applications. Internally mold.
move material perpendicularly through heated flow channels tend to form a
the mold plate to the mold cavity or stagnant layer of material on the cooler
cold runner. Zones of electrical-resistant outer surface of the flow channels. Over
heaters maintain uniform melt tempera- time, this material can degrade and
ture throughout the system via separate produce black specks, brown streaks,
temperature controllers and strategically and other cosmetic problems in molded
placed thermocouples. The many wires parts. The same problems can occur in
all types of hot-runner systems if the
flow channels are not streamlined to
149
Insulated Tips Figure 7-44
Some hot-tip gate

designs rely on an
insulating layer of
the molding
material to control
heat transfer at the
Stagnant Material Stagnant Material
tip. These designs
are not suitable for
all applications.
Many factors determine the rate of heat Hot-runner gates come in a variety designs for high-viscosity, amorphous
transfer, including the molding material, of styles. Mini-sprue gates (see figure engineering plastics. Because they isolate
the tip orifice size and shape, the proximi- 7-45) are one of the most popular the heated portion of the drop further
ty of cooling channels, melt temperature,
and cycle time. Many designs minimize
the drop-to-mold contact area or insulate Figure 7-45 Free-Flow Gates
the tip to reduce heat loss to the mold.
In some designs, the first material shot Mini-Sprue Gate Standard Gate
through the hot-runner system fills a
gap at the tip of the drop and forms an
insulating layer of plastic (see figure
7-44). This plastic layer remains in
place until the tip is removed for
service. Because the insulating layer
can degrade in time and release burnt
material into the melt stream, avoid
this design for transparent parts and
any part that cannot tolerate occasional Mini-Sprue
Gate Vestige
streaks or black specks. Contact your
hot-runner manufacturer for guidance
in selecting the best tip design for your
material and application.
Free-flowing gate designs provide the large orifice sizes and low shear rates required by
many high-viscosity amorphous resins.
150
Chapter 7
Reduced-Vestige Gate Figure 7-46 cycles, valve-gated hot runners use

hydraulically or pneumatically driven
Reduced-Vestige Gate Valve Gate valves to close the gate orifice mechani-
cally. These valves provide positive
gate shutoff, offer freedom from drool,
and accommodate very large gates.
Valves designed to shutoff flush with
the mold surface produce no gate vestige
and leave only a ring witness mark simi-
lar to an ejector-pin mark. Additionally,
mechanical shutoff designs offer the
Small Vestige Slight Gate Ring option to open gates sequentially to
maintain a continuous flow front over
long distances without knitlines.
Drawbacks of valve-gated systems
include higher cost, frequent mainte-
nance, and increased mold complexity.
A stationary probe in the reduced-vestige gate helps the gate break cleanly. In the closed
position, the valve pin in the valve gate leaves a ring similar to an ejector-pin mark.
THERMAL EXPANSION
AND ISOLATION
from the mold surface, mini-sprue gates • Crystalline resins — including PA 6,
usually do not develop the heat build up PA 66 and PBT — are generally Because of the high operating tempera-
and dull gate blemish problems associated more tolerant of restrictive, reduced- tures of hot-runner systems, typically
with some designs. Mini-sprue gates vestige gate designs, but require between 400 and 600°F for Bayer
form a short sprue on the runner or part. careful temperature control to prevent resins, you must address both thermal
freeze-off or drooling. expansion and thermal isolation within
Standard free-flowing gates typically the mold. Usually, hot runners are fixed
leave a short gate vestige, which may • Direct mold cooling to the gate area, at the manifold centering ring and at the
require trimming. Some anti-vestige both on the gate side and side end of each hot drop. The design must
designs rely on annular flow around opposite the gate, to prevent heat accommodate the substantial growth of
unheated probes in the tip to promote buildup and variations in gloss on the system between these fixed points
cleaner gate separation with less vestige the part surface. as the components heat and expand
(see figure 7-46). during startup. Systems with short
drops often have a sliding fit between
• Amorphous engineering resins — Valve Gates the drop and the manifold to allow for
including PC, PC blends, ABS, and expansion. Designs with long drops
SAN — tend to experience fewer Some hot-runner designs feature may simply allow the drops to flex.
problems with free-flowing mechanical shutoffs to prevent leakage
gate types. or drool. Rather than relying on delicate
control of temperature and heat transfer
to seal the gate between injection
151
The length of the hot drops also grows Hot-Runner-Channel Pressure Gradients Figure 7-47
significantly during startup. Some
designs only create a positive seal at the 1,000
tip of the drop when at the intended

operating temperature. Plastic injected 1/4 in
before the drop reaches this temperature
could flow into the gap between the hot-
750
runner drop and the mold plate, creating
a messy problem. Hot-runner manufac-
turers calculate the expansion and make 3/8 in
expansion provisions based on the hot-

runner configuration and anticipated 500
operating temperatures.
PRESSURE GRADIENT ( psi/in)
To avoid excessive heat loss to the 1/2 in

mold, minimize metal-to-metal contact
250
between the heated hot-runner compo-
nents and the mold. When feasible, use 5/8 in
materials with low thermal conductivity
at the contact points. In addition to an
insulating air gap around the hot-runner
system, some designs surround the 5 10 15 20
heated components with insulating

material and/or infrared reflectors. VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE (in3/s)
Use this graph to calculate the pressure drop per inch of heated
hot-runner channel.
Flow Channel Size
As in cold-runner systems, flow chan- Figure 7-47 shows the approximate channel length in inches by the pressure
nels and gates require proper sizing for correlation between pressure gradient gradient. The pressure-gradient range
optimum performance. Generally hot- and flow rate at various diameters for for a given flow rate and channel diam-
runner gate sizes should follow the size a range of Bayer engineering resins. eter correlates to the range of material
guidelines for cold-runner gates outlined To estimate the pressure drop through viscosities. Use the lower pressure-
in the gate-optimization section of this a given hot-runner channel section, first gradient values for low-viscosity
chapter. With regrind or runner waste calculate the flow rate in that section by materials such as Durethan PA 6 and
not a concern, hot-runner channels can dividing the volume of material, in higher values for high-viscosity grades
be considerably larger than cold runners cubic inches, fed by that section by the of Makrolon polycarbonate.
and consequently consume less pressure. number of seconds required to fill the
mold. Then read from the graph the
pressure gradient corresponding to the
flow rate and channel size. To estimate
the pressure drop in psi, multiply the
152
Chapter 7
Stagnant Flow Figure 7-48
Incorrect Correct
Plastic
Improper flow-channel design and construction can result in stagnant-flow areas where
material can degrade.
Most hot-runner systems are naturally The process of drilling flow channels MOLD COOLING
balanced and provide an equal flow can produce dead spaces where material
distance to each hot-runner gate. As the can stagnate and degrade (see figure 7-48). In thermoplastic molding, the mold
hot-runner channels branch off to form Plug and streamline the flow in these performs three basic functions: forming
secondary or tertiary channels, the areas to prevent black specks, burnt molten material into the product shape,
channel diameters can become smaller streaks, and material discoloration. removing heat for solidification, and
to accommodate the corresponding drop Dead spaces can also occur at gaps ejecting the solid part. Of the three, heat
in material throughput. Unbalanced between poorly fitting components removal usually takes the longest time
configurations — for example a row of and at unblended transitions in the and has the greatest direct effect on cycle
drops fed from a common manifold flow channel. time. Despite this, mold cooling-channel
channel — need careful adjustment of design often occurs as an afterthought in
the hot-drop, flow-channel diameters to the mold-design process; after the feed
balance flow. Typically, smaller diame- system, mold mechanism, and ejection
ters are assigned to the channels or hot system designs are already designed.
drops feeding the shorter flow path. The Consequently, many cooling designs must
choice of channel diameters is often accommodate available space and machin-
limited to the standard sizes offered ing convenience rather than the thermody-
by the hot-runner manufacturer. Most namic needs of the product and mold. This
hot-runner manufacturers will calculate section discusses mold cooling, a topic to
the required diameters for you. If not, consider early in the mold-design process.
consider computer flow simulation.
153
Mold-Cooling Considerations Cooling Time vs. Wall Thickness Figure 7-49
80
Good mold-cooling design maintains Lustran ABS

70
the required mold temperature, provides Bayblend PC/ABS
uniform cooling, and achieves short Makrolon GF PC
60 Makrolon PC
molding cycles. Optimizing mold cool-
ing promotes improved part quality and 50
cost savings. Improper cooling can
introduce elevated levels of thermal and 40
shrinkage stresses resulting from cool-
COOLING TIME tk (sec)
ing-rate variations throughout the part. 30
Differences in cooling rate cause areas

20
to shrink and solidify at different rates
and by different amounts. In parts made
10
of semicrystalline resins such as PA 6
or PBT, the cooling rate affects the
0
degree of crystallization and shrinkage. 0 1 2 3 4 mm 6
Variations in shrinkage within the part
can lead to warpage, distortion, and WALL THICKNESS s (mm)
dimensional problems.
Mold-surface temperature can affect Before heat from the melt can be Figure 7-49 plots cooling time (to freeze)
the surface appearance of many parts. removed from the mold, it must first versus wall thickness for a variety of
Hotter mold-surface temperatures conduct through the layers of plastic Bayer thermoplastics assuming typical
lower the viscosity of the outer resin thickness to reach the mold surface. mold-cooling conditions.
layer and enhance replication of the Material thermal conductivity and part
fine microtexture on the molding sur- wall thickness determine the rate of heat Once at the cavity wall, heat must travel
face. This can lead to reduced gloss at transfer. Generally good thermal through the mold material to the surface
higher mold-surface temperatures. In insulators, plastics conduct heat much of the cooling channels. The thermal
glass-fiber-reinforced materials, higher more slowly than typical mold materials. conductivity of the mold material and
mold-surface temperatures encourage Cooling time increases as a function of the spacing of the cooling channels
formation of a resin-rich surface skin. part thickness squared; doubling wall
This skin covers the fibers, reducing thickness quadruples cooling time.
their silvery appearance on the part sur-
face. Uneven cooling causes variations • Core out thick sections or provide
in mold-surface temperature that can extra cooling in thick areas to
lead to non-uniform part-surface minimize the effect on cycle time.
appearance.
154
Chapter 7
determine heat transfer in this area. and uneven cooling. If they are too far
Table 7-2 shows thermal conductivity away, cooling becomes more uniform
for a variety of mold materials. but less efficient.
• Avoid low-conductivity mold materials, • Place cooling-channel centerlines

such as stainless steel, when fast approximately 2.5 cooling-channel
cycles and efficient cooling diameters away from the mold-
are important. cavity surface.
The spacing between adjacent

Cooling-Channel Placement cooling channels also affects cooling
uniformity.
Cooling-channel placement determines
cooling efficiency and uniformity. • As a general rule of thumb, use
Positioning the channels too close to center-to-center spacing of no more
the cavity surface can cause cold spots than three cooling-channel diameters
(see figure 7-50).
Thermal Conductivity of Various

Table 7-2 Mold Materials at 68°F Figure 7-50 Cooling-Line Spacing
Thermal Conductivity
BTU•ft W t
Mold Material hr • ft2 • °F M°C
C
420 Stainless 14.4 25.0
H13 Steel 16.3 28.3
D
P20 Steel 20.0 34.5
S7 Steel 21.0 36.4
B
C-17200 BeCu 68.0 118.0
QC7 Aluminum 80.0 138.8
C17510 BeCu 135.0 234.2 B = 3D Maximum
(High Conductivity)
C = 2.5D
D = 3/16 in – 5/16 in for t < 1/16 in
D = 5/16 in – 7/16 in for t < 1/8 in
D = 7/16 in – 5/8 in for t < 1/4 in
Cooling-line spacing guidelines.
155
Figure 7-51 Bubbler Figure 7-52 Spiral Cooling Channels
IN IN
T T
OU OU
IN
OUT
In bubblers, coolant flows up through a tube and then cascades Round core and cavity cooled via spiral cooling channels.
down the outside of the tube. Baffles perform a similar function by
splitting the channel with a blade. Coolant flows up one side of the
blade and then down the other side.
Because of size and/or machining • Adjust the bubbler tube or baffle When designing cooling channels, pay
constraints, standard round cooling length for optimum cooling. If they special attention to the sections of the
channels may not be feasible for some are too long, flow can become mold forming inside corners in the part
deeply-cored part geometries. Parts restricted. If too short, coolant flow design to prevent possible part distor-
tend to shrink tightly onto deep cores, may stagnate at the ends of the tion problems. Corners place a higher
separating from the cavity wall. This hole; and thermal load on this mold area than on
separation transfers more heat to the core. the mold area in contact with the outside
• Consider using spiral channels cut
• Consider using baffles (see figure into inserts for large cores
7-10) and bubblers (see figure 7-51) (see figure 7-52).
to remove heat from deep cores;
156
Chapter 7
Heat Buildup in Corner Figure 7-53 Improved Corner Cooling Figure 7-54
Water Water
Line Line
Smaller
Large Hot Area
Hot Area
Illustration of heat distribution through the cross section of a corner Illustration of heat distribution through a corner cross section showing
showing heat buildup in the corner of the core. improved cooling with cooling line moved closer to the inside corner.
Corner Cooling Figure 7-55 corner (see figure 7-53). The resulting
heat buildup slows cooling and shifts
the molten core toward the inside. As
the shifted molten core shrinks and
Poor solidifies, it pulls disproportionately
on the inside corner, leading to corner
warpage and a reduction in corner
angle. This phenomenon causes the
classic hourglass distortion in box-
Rounding the
shaped parts. There are several possible
Better Better
corner or removing ways to correct heat buildup on inside
material from the corners including:
corner lessens the
heat buildup in the
• Moving a cooling line closer to the
corner steel.
hot corner area (see figure 7-54) to
more effectively remove heat;
• Rounding the corner or using corner

coring to remove material from the
corner and lessen heat buildup
(see figure 7-55);
157
• Directing cooling into corners with Figure 7-56 Ejectors in Corners
bubblers or baffles (see figure 7-56);
• Using high-conductivity metal inserts

or heat pipes to remove excess heat
and reduce corner distortion; and
No Cooling
• Placing ejector pins away from the

inside corners. The air-gap clearance
surrounding ejector pins in corners
acts as an insulator and hinders heat
flow out of the corner.
Cooling-Line Configuration A B
Longer Cycle Time Shorter Cycle Time
Cooling lines can be arranged in series Ejector pins in
or parallel configurations (see figure Ejector corners act as
7-57). Cooling lines in parallel circuits Damage thermal insulators
share the coolant delivered by the mold F that can aggravate
heat buildup and
temperature controller. Assuming equal
corner warpage.
pressure drop per line, the coolant flow- F It is better to direct
Ejector Pin
rate-per-line approximately equals the Bubbler cooling to the
total flow rate delivered by the tempera- Ejector Rail corners and provide
ture controller divided by the number ejection via ejector
sleeves or rails.
of parallel lines connected to it. For
example, a 10 gallon-per-minute control
unit would deliver about 1.25 gallons
per minute to each of eight equal Figure 7-57 Cooling Circuits
parallel cooling lines.
Slight differences in pressure drop In In Out

between parallel lines can cause large
differences in coolant flow rate and
In
potential cooling problems. Series circuits In
avoid this problem by maintaining a
uniform coolant flow rate throughout
Out Out Out
the circuit. On the other hand, a large
rise in coolant temperature in long
series circuits can lead to less efficient
Parallel Series Multiple Series
Multiple series cooling circuits can often provide better cooling than either parallel or
series circuits.
158
Chapter 7
cooling at the ends of the circuits. As a Reynolds Number Figure 7-58

6,000
compromise, consider splitting large
cooling circuits into multiple smaller
series circuits of equal pressure drop.
Use flow-control meters to balance flow 5,000
through circuits with unequal lengths
and/or restrictions. In series circuits, Laminar Turbulent
direct cooling to areas requiring the most

4,000
cooling first: typically, thick sections,
)
hot cores, or the mold center.
• h • deg
( m2kcal
3,000
Coolant Flow Rate
COEFFICIENT OF HEAT TRANSFER
For efficient heat transfer from the mold

2,000
to the coolant, design the cooling sys-
tem to achieve turbulent flow, that is, a ϑT = 80 °C
Reynolds number significantly higher νH O = 0.346 • 10-6 m2/s
2
d = 0.01 m
than the turbulence onset value of about 1,000 L = 1.00 m
2,500. At a Reynolds number of 10,000,
the normal design target value, water
coolant transfers heat an order of mag-
0
nitude faster than laminar flow (see fig- 0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000
ure 7-58). You can estimate Reynolds
number using the following formula. REYNOLDS NUMBER (Re)
Coefficient of heat transfer as a function of Reynolds number for water.

3,160Q
Re = _______
Dη
Q = gallons per minute

Q = DηR
____ = ________________
D = flow channel diameter 0.438 • 0.4 • 10,000 system and mold-temperature control
η = kinematic viscosity (centistoles) 3,160 3,160 unit can deliver the cooling rate needed.
ηwater = 1.3 @ 50°F = 0.5 gal/min
= 0.7 @ 100°F Do not underestimate the cooling
= 0.4 @ 150°F Multiply this value by the number of requirements of thin-walled parts.
= 0.3 @ 200°F parallel circuits to estimate the flow-rate Decreasing wall thickness by half
Solving for Q assuming 150°F water, requirement for the mold-temperature reduces minimum cooling time to one-
the formula shows that a standard 7/16- control unit. Flow rate has a greater fourth. To realize the full cycle-time-
inch-diameter, cooling channel requires influence on cooling efficiency than reduction potential, the cooling system
0.5 gallons per minute to achieve a mold temperature. Be sure the cooling must remove heat at four times the rate.
Reynolds number of 10,000. Other cooling considerations to address:
159
• Avoid flow restricting, quick Many processing and design factors • Thick-wall sections cool more slowly
disconnects, and other obstructions determine the amount of shrinkage for a and tend to shrink more than thin-
that increase pressure drop and given application. Use published shrink- wall sections (see figure 7-59);
reduce coolant flow rate; age information with caution as it is
tested under laboratory conditions that • Fiber-filled materials typically
• Use flow-control meters to check may not reflect your specific part exhibit much less shrinkage in the
for obstructions and to adjust the geometry or processing environment. flow direction;
coolant flow rate through the Consider the following when addressing
cooling circuits; and shrinkage: • Mixed orientation typically leads to
shrinkage ranging between published
• Provide enough coolant flow to limit • Cooling rate and mold temperature flow and cross-flow shrinkage values
the coolant temperature rise in the can affect the level of crystallinity (see figure 7-60); and
circuits to no more than 4°F. and shrinkage in semicrystalline
resins; • Shrinkage varies with the level of
packing.
MOLD SHRINKAGE
Typically, thermoplastics shrink signifi-

cantly as they cool and solidify during Shrinkage vs. Wall Thickness Figure 7-59
1.0
the molding process. Mold designers GF 30 PC
make the mold cavity larger than the 0.8
desired final part size to compensate 0.6
for shrinkage. Mold shrinkage data
0.4
published by the resin supplier for the
specific material can be used to estimate 0.2
the amount of compensation needed. 0

Published mold shrinkage data, based 0 2 4 6 8 10
on simple part geometries and standard 1.4

GF 30 PA 6
molding conditions, is calculated using 1.2
the following formula:
1.0
0.8
(mold dimension – part size)
shrinkage = _______________________
SHRINKAGE (%)
0.6
mold dimension
0.4
0.2
Mold shrinkage, listed as length-per-
unit-length values or as percentages, 0
assumes room-temperature measurements. 0 2 4 6 8 10
WALL THICKNESS (mm)
Examples of shrinkage as a function of wall thickness.
160
Chapter 7
Shrinkage Figure 7-60 As explained above, many factors can

affect the level of shrinkage. You can
PC-ABS
(Bayblend) usually obtain the most accurate shrink-
age values for new molds by calculating
PA 6 the actual shrinkage in existing molds
(Durethan)
producing similar parts sampled in the
GF 30 PA 6 same material. Ideally, the gating, flow
orientation, mold cooling, and process-
PC
(Makrolon) ing should be similar to that expected
for the new mold. Prototype molds
GF 30 PC can also be a good source of shrinkage
In Direction of Flow
Transverse to
values, but may not replicate production
ABS
(Lustran) Direction of Flow conditions.
BAYER RESINS
PBT Published shrinkage data represents

(Pocan)
the typical range of shrinkage based on
GF 30 PBT laboratory conditions. Applying this
data to a specific part and mold requires
0 0.5 1 1.5 2%
a combination of engineering judgment
and educated guess. Tend toward the
lower end of the range for parts thinner
RANGE OF SHRINKAGE (for s = 2 mm)
than 0.100 inch, and for highly constrained
Shrinkage ranges for various Bayer resins at a 2 mm wall thickness.
features such as the distance between
holes. Anticipate flow orientation in
glass-filled parts and apply the flow and
cross-flow shrinkage values appropriately.
Packing forces additional material into The mold constrains the part and pre- Areas of random orientation will tend to
the mold to compensate for volume vents significant dimensional change shrink at a level midway between the
reduction, lowering shrinkage. Gate until after part ejection. The type and flow and cross-flow values. Computerized
size, part thickness, and gate position duration of this constraint can affect net shrinkage analysis takes some of the
can limit the level of packing that can shrinkage between part features. For guesswork out of shrinkage prediction
be achieved through processing adjust- example, the shrinkage percentage and is worth considering if the resin has
ments. Large gate thickness and high between holes in a molded plate will undergone the required testing.Consider
mold temperature delay gate freeze-off tend to be less than between the uncon- designing critical features and dimensions
and promote higher levels of packing. strained edges of the plate. Long cycle “steel safe” to simplify modifications to
Packing typically decreases and shrinkage times constrain the part in the mold correct for errors in shrinkage prediction.
increases further from the gate, particu- longer and reduce initial shrinkage, but
larly in distant thick-wall sections. can induce stresses that lead to additional
shrinkage over time as the stresses relax.
161
MOLD METALS Most high production injection molds provides superior abrasion and is often
designed for engineering plastics are used in high wear areas such as runner
Mold designers consider a variety of fabricated from high-quality tool steel. and gate inserts for abrasive materials.
factors when selecting the mold metal Mold bases are usually made of P-20 Small inserts and components that see
including, machining ease, weldability, prehardened to 30 – 35 HRC and are steel-to-steel wear can be manufactured
abrasion resistance, hardness, corrosion often plated to resist corrosion. from steels that can achieve hardness
resistance, and durability. Metals can Specifications for high-quality molds, levels greater than 56 HRC such as O-1,
range from the soft, low-melt-temperature especially for medical parts, often O-6, A-2, and A-10. Table 7-3 lists
alloys used in inexpensive, cast-metal, specify 420 stainless steel to eliminate some of the common steels used in
prototype molds to the porous metal corrosion concerns. mold making. Steel manufacturers also
used in vent inserts. Metals are chosen offer a variety of specialty grades with
based not only on the cost, manufacturing, Cavity and cores steels vary based on properties tailored to mold making.
and performance requirements of the the production requirements, machining The heat-treating process used to
mold or component, but also on the complexity, mold size, mechanical achieve the high hardness values of
experience and comfort level of the needs, and the abrasive or corrosive some of the mold steels, can result in
mold design and construction shop. nature of the molding resin. P-20 steel cracks in large cores, particularly if the
(30-36 HRC) provides a good mix cross-sectional thickness is not consistent.
Aluminum, long a popular choice for of properties for most molds running Consider prehardened mold steels for
prototype molds, is gaining acceptance non-abrasive materials such as unfilled these applications.
in moderate-run production molds. PC or ABS. Prehardened 420 stainless
Improved aluminum alloys, such as (30-35 HRC) can also be used when
QC-7, exhibit greater strength and corrosion resistance is needed. For Table 7-3 Mold Steels
hardness than standard aircraft-grade longer mold life and increased durability,
aluminum, and sufficient durability for many medical molders select 420 stain-
Mold Common
some production molds. Hard coatings less hardened to 50-52 HRC for their Components Steels
can raise the surface hardness of alu- molds running unfilled resin grades.
Cavity Blocks P20, H13, 57, L6, A2
minum molds to more than 50 Rockwell This highly polishable stainless steel and Inserts A6, P2, P6, 420SS
C (HRC) for improved wear resistance. resists corrosion and staining but Cavity Plates P20, H13, S7, 420SS
Steel inserts and mechanical components provides less efficient cooling than Clamping Plates P20, H13, S7
are usually used in high wear areas most other mold steels. Core Blocks P20, H13, 57, L6, A2
within the aluminum mold to extend and Inserts A6, P2, P6, 420SS
mold life. Aluminum offers easier Most abrasive glass or mineral-filled Ejector Nitrided H13
(Knockout) Pins
machining and faster cycle times than resins require mold steels with hardness
Ejector Plates P20, H13, S7
conventional mold steels at the expense ratings of at least 54 HRC. Air hardened
Guide Pins O1, A2, P6
of wear resistance and mold durability. steels, such as H-13, machine more and Bushings
easily than prehardened steels and can Leader Pins Nitrided H13
be hardened to 54 HRC for use with Retainers P20, H13, S7
most abrasive glass or mineral-filled Slides Nitrided P20, O1,
resins. Air hardened S-7 sees similar O2, O6, A2, A6, P6
applications as H-13, but can be hard- Sprue Bushings O1, O2, L6, A2,
A6, S7, P6
ened to 54-56 HRC for higher-wear
areas. Air hardened D-2 (54-56 HRC)
162
Chapter 7
As a general rule, the Rockwell hardness Polishing with 240 – 320 grit paper Photoetching uses an acid etching
of mold components that slide against can produce a uniform brushed finish. process to create a wide array of surfaces
each other, such as bypass cores, should High-gloss finishes typically require ranging from leather finishes to wood
differ by at least 2 HRC to reduce a sequence of polishing steps using grain. The process creates detailed
galling and damage to both components. progressively finer silicon carbide textures by photographically applying
The less expensive or more easily stones ranging from 220 to 900 grit. an acid-resistant masking material to
replaced component should have the The surface is then polished and buffed the mold surface and then etching the
lower hardness. with increasingly finer diamond pastes exposed areas with acid. To avoid
ending with a 3-micron paste. The level variations in texture, make sure that the
Inserts made of BeCU or high-conduc- of gloss attainable on the molding molding surfaces for matching textured
tivity alloys can reduce heat buildup in surface generally increases with greater parts are manufactured from the same
difficult-to-cool areas of the mold. The steel hardness. A surface hardness of at mold steel and have undergone the
metals with the best thermal conductivity least 30 HRC is usually required for same heat treatment process. Texture
tend to be the softest. To protect the soft moderately fine gloss finishes. High- uniformity and gloss level can be
metals from abrasion and deformation, gloss finishes typically require hardness adjusted to some extent through
they are often inserted into harder steel in excess of 50 HRC. The steel type and multiple etching steps or by blasting
cores or components. quality, heat treatment, and polishing the surface with glass beads.
technique all affect the attainable gloss
level. Different molding resins and processing
SURFACE TREATMENTS conditions can change the surface
Molding-surface treatments can produce appearance of parts molded from the
To varying degrees, plastics replicate a variety of surface finishes and textures same mold surface texture. Low-viscosity
the finish and texture of the molding in the molded part. Textures can resins such as Durethan PA 6 and Pocan
surface. Fine scratches and roughness enhance the overall part aesthetics and PBT can replicate the fine microtexture
on the molding surface will tend to hide surface blemishes such as minor and sharp edges of photoetched textures.
create a non-glossy part surface and sink and gate blush. Relatively flat The molded surface appears duller than
potential part-ejection problems. Polish surfaces can be blasted with sand or that produced by higher-viscosity plastics
molding-surface roughness in the direc- glass beads to produce a low-luster such as Makrolon PC or Lustran ABS
tion of ejection to ease part release and matte finish. The spark-erosion process which tend to round off the microtexture.
remove surface defects. Most thermo- for manufacturing mold cavities in an Higher melt temperatures and pressures
plastics eject more easily from polished EDM machine can also produce textured increase the matte level by enhancing
mold surfaces. Thermoplastic urethane surfaces ranging from very fine to the ability of the resin to replicate the
resins, exceptions to this rule, release coarse. Textures produced this way fine features of the mold texture.
more easily from mold surfaces that tend to have rounded peaks that resist
have been blasted with sand or glass scratching and marring better than com-
beads, or vapor honed to an SPI D2 parable photoetched textures. In general,
(formerly SPI #5) finish. coarser textures resist scratching better
than fine textures.
163
Mold components are coated or plated MOLD COST AND QUALITY • Spare parts for items prone to wear or
for a variety of reasons. Flash chrome breakage are usually cheaper to
and thin deposits of electroless nickel The true cost of a mold includes not manufacture during mold construction
less than 0.001-inch thick offer protec- only the costs of design and construc- than after the mold is in production.
tion against rust and corrosion. Thicker tion, but also mold-maintenance costs Spare parts reduce costly down time.
deposits of hard chrome, usually and the mold-related costs associated
more than 0.002-inch thick, prolong with scrap, cycle time, part quality • In the long run, it is usually more
the life of molds running glass-filled problems, and press down time. In the economical to adjust the mold steel
or mineral-filled resins. Hard chrome long run, the least-expensive mold to produce parts in the middle of
and electroless nickel plating can also option seldom produces the most the tolerance range at optimum
build thickness to correct dimensional economical, high-quality parts. Extra processing conditions than to adjust
problems or refurbish worn areas. engineering and expense up front can dimensions by processing within a
Mold release coatings such as PTFE- improve molding efficiency and narrow processing window at less-
modified hard chrome or electroless increase the number of good parts the than-optimum conditions.
nickel have performed well in molds mold can produce. When developing
with ejection problems such as medical the mold specifications, consider the When obtaining quotations for new
parts with insufficient draft. following. mold construction, make sure that every
mold maker works from the specific set
• Hardened steel molds last longer and of mold specifications. Also consult
require less maintenance and rework processing, mold-maintenance, and
than soft steel molds. inspection personnel at the molding
facility for mold-design input based
• Money spent on enhanced mold on experience with similar molds.
cooling can pay back many times
over in reduced cycle time and
improved part quality.
• Hardened mold interlocks and

alignment features ensure proper
mold alignment and prevent wear or
damage due to misalignment.
The conditions of your use and application of our products, technical assistance and information (whether verbal, written or by way of
production evaluations), including any suggested formulations and recommendations, are beyond our control. Therefore, it is imperative that you
test our products, technical assistance, and information to determine to your own satisfaction whether they are suitable for your intended uses
and applications. This application-specific analysis at least must include testing to determine suitability from a technical as well as health, safety,
and environmental standpoints. Such testing has not necessarily been done by Bayer Corporation. All information is given without warranty or
guarantee. It is expressly understood and agreed that customer assumes and hereby expressly releases Bayer Corporation from all liability, in
tort, contract or otherwise, incurred in connection with the use of our products, technical assistance and information. Any statement or recom-
mendation not contained herein is unauthorized and shall not bind Bayer Corporation. Nothing herein shall be construed as a recommendation to
use any product in conflict with patents covering any material or its use. No license is implied or in fact granted under the claims of any patent.
164
INDEX
A buffing, 103 creep modulus, 55, 59, 74

Acme threads, 37 bulk shear rate, 146 creep properties, 54
acrylic paints, 105 burnt streaks, 153 critical thickness, 20
adhesive bonding, 91 buttress threads, 37 crowns, 67
adhesives, 91 bypass steel, 125 crystallinity, 160
agency approvals, 9 crystallization, 154
air-curing paints, 106 C curved-tunnel gates, 143
air entrapment, 22 cable-guide hardware, 84 cutting oils, 98
air-poppet valves, 130 cam pins, 125 cyclic loading, 78
alignment, 92 cams, 35
alignment features, 92 cavities, 124 D
alignment fingers, 93 cavity, 121 decals, 118
aluminum, 162 cavity assemblies, 125 depth-to-diameter ratio, 33
American National (Unified) thread, 37 cavity units, 125 design formulas, 58
amorphous plastics, 106 chamfers, 92 design process, 7
annealing, 101 chemical exposure, 8 diaphragm gates, 100, 145
apparent modulus, 55 chisel gates, 140 die cutting, 100
appearance, 8 circular sawing, 100 dimensional tolerances, 9
artificially balanced runners, 139 clamp slots, 124 dipping, 108
ashing, 104 clicker dies, 100 distortion, 154
automated assembly, 88 coefficient of friction, 53 draft, 25, 32
coefficients of linear draw polishing, 129
B thermal expansion (CLTE), 80 drilled holes, 98
baffles, 156 collapsible cores, 35, 127 drilling, 97
balance filling, 22 compressive properties, 53 drills, 97
balanced flow, 137 compressive stress, 61 drops, 149
band sawing, 99 consolidation, 14, 83 dry sanding, 103
beam bending, 64 coolant flow rate, 159 dry spray, 107
bearings, 42 cooling-vent design, 36 dynamic friction, 53
bending, 61 cooling channel placement, 155
bending moment, 61 cooling rate, 160 E
black specks, 149, 153 cooling time, 154 edge gate, 140, 141
blanking, 100 core pulls, 35 edge-stiffening, 113
blind holes, 132 core shift, 130, 148 ejector assembly, 124
blow molding, 12 cores, 33, 121 ejector blades, 129
bolts, 84 corner radius, 31 ejector plate, 124
bonding, 88 corner warpage, 157 ejector-pin vents, 132
bosses, 27, 132 corners, 21 elastic limit, 52
break point, 52 corrugations, 67 elastic modulus, 58
brown streaks, 149 crazing, 56, 107 electric discharge machine, 119
brushing, 108 creep, 47, 54, 73 electrical performance, 8
bubblers, 156 creep and recovery data, 54 electroless nickel, 164
165
electroless process, 112 G internal threads, 37, 127
electroplating, 111 gas-assist molding, 25, 69 internally heated, 149
electrostatic systems, 107 gas burn, 132 isochronous stress-strain curve, 55
elongation at yield, 52 gate marks, 103, 104
EMI/RFI shielding, 115 gate optimization, 145 J
end mills, 101 gate position, 147 “jiggler” pin, 127
energy directors, 89 gate size, 145, 152
engineering strain, 60 gate vestige, 144, 151 K
epoxies, 105 gates, 104, 140 knockout pins, 128
equivalent thickness, 71 gears, 42 KO sleeves, 128
equivalent-thickness factor (ETF), 70 geometric tolerancing, 41
external threads, 37 glass-bead blasting, 119 L
extension press nozzles, 134 gloss differences, 21 labels, 118
externally heated, 149 glossy finishes, 119 laser, 102
extrusion, 11 glue, 91 laser machining, 102
extrusion blow molding, 13 gussets, 30 laser printing, 117
latches, 86
F H leader pins, 124
fan gates, 140 hard chrome, 164 lettering, 40
fasteners, 84 hard coats, 111 life expectancy, 9
fatigue, 56, 78 hardware, 14, 84 lifter rails, 126
fatigue curves, 56 heat-curing systems, 106 lifters, 35
fatigue data, 78 heat pipes, 158 locating ring, 124
fatigue endurance, 78 hex holes, 85 logos, 15
fiber orientation, 50, 58 high-gloss finishes, 163 long-term loads, 59, 73
filing, 103 hot-air remelting, 104 lost-core process, 69
fillet radius, 79 hot-plate welding, 90 louvers, 36
film-insert molding, 110 hot runner designs, 149 Luer tubing connectors, 39
“filter-bowl” gate, 145 hot-runner gates, 149
finger tabs, 88 hot runner systems, 149 M
first-surface film decorating, 111 hot sprue bushings, 134 machining stresses, 97
flash, 103, 104 hot stamping, 118 manufacturing costs, 15
flash chrome, 164 markings, 15
flexural modulus, 53, 58 I masking, 108
flow channels, 152 impact, 76 manifold, 149
flow control meters, 159, 160 impact performance, 19, 76 material discoloration, 153
flow hesitation, 25, 148 in-mold decorating, 109 mating edges, 93
flow leaders, 22, 148 in-mold transfer decoration, 109 matte finish, 163
flow length, 20, 147, 148 injection blow molding, 13 mechanical fasteners, 84
flow orientation, 147 injection molding, 10 mechanical loading, 8
flow restrictors, 22 interlocking edge, 93 metallic coatings, 111
free-flowing gates, 151 internal runners, 22 milling, 101
166
INDEX continued
mini-sprue gates, 150 plating adhesion, 113 runner system, 135

mismatch, 33 plating racks, 113 runner thickness, 135
modified-tunnel gate, 143 Poisson’s ratio, 53 runners, 134
mold base, 124 polishing, 103, 163
mold cooling, 153 polyurethane paints, 105 S
mold draft, 130 porous metal, 132 S-N curves, 56
mold flexure, 130 powdered paint, 109 safety factors, 59
mold interlocks, 164 press nozzle tip, 133 sandblasting, 119
mold metals, 162 pressure gradient, 152 sanding, 103
mold release, 130 primary-runner diameters, 136 sanding marks, 103
mold-filling analysis, 136, 137 proportional limit, 52 satin finishing, 104
mold-release coatings, 164 prototype testing, 17 saw guides, 99
molded-in hinges, 84 prototype molds, 161 sawing, 99
molded-in stress, 148 punching, 100 scrap, 17
molded-in threads, 37 PV factor, 43 scrapers, 104
moment of inertia, 61 PV limit, 43 scraping, 104
multi-shell process, 69 scratches, 103
Q screening, 116
N quick disconnects, 160 screws, 84
naturally balanced runners, 137, 153 secant modulus, 49, 58
nesting features, 84 R second-surface film decorating, 111
radiation, 8 secondary-runner diameters, 136
O radius-to-thickness ratio, 31 self-tapping screws, 85
orientation, 94 reamers, 101 semicrystalline plastics, 106
overflow wells, 132 reaming, 97 series circuits, 158
recycling, 84, 86, 88, 92 shape, 67
P repair, 84, 86, 88, 92 sharp corners, 30
packing, 135, 145, 160 retention features, 92 shear modulus, 66
pad painting, 108 return pins, 124 shear rate limits, 146
pad printing, 116 reverse-injection molds, 128 shear stress, 65
paint curing, 106 rework, 17 shrinkage, 147, 154, 160
paint soak, 107 Reynolds number, 159 shrinkage analysis, 161
paints, 105 rib design, 24 side-action slides, 125
parallel circuits, 158 rib location, 27 side mills, 101
part design checklist, 169 rib size, 26 sink, 21, 24, 28
part ejection, 32, 128 rib thickness, 24 skip-tooth blades, 99
parting line, 121 ribs, 24, 71, 72 slides, 34
parting-line vent, 131 rivets, 84 slotted holes, 94, 95
permissible strain, 59 Rockwell hardness, 163 snap-fit joints, 85
photoetching, 119, 163 rolling, 108 solvent bonding, 91
pinpoint gates, 144 rotomolding, 13 spark erosion, 163
plate deflection, 65, 75 “round-bottomed” trapezoid, 135 spin welding, 91
167
spiral channels, 156 tapered drops, 139 unscrewing cores, 37
spiral flow data, 148 tapered pipe threads, 38 unscrewing mechanisms, 127
splay, 132 tapered threads, 38 use of moduli, 58
split cavities, 35 tapping, 99 UV-cured adhesives, 91
split cores, 35 temperature, 8
spoked runners, 137 tensile modulus, 49, 52, 58 V
spray painting, 107 tensile properties, 51 vacuum metallizing, 114
spraying, 107 tensile stress, 61 valve-gated hot runners, 151
spring-clip fasteners, 84 tensile stress at break, 52 vapor honing, 104
spring-loaded lifters, 126 tensile stress at yield, 52 vent channel, 132
sprue, 133 texture, 119, 163 vent designs, 36
sprue bushing, 124, 133 thermal conductivity, 155 vent placement, 131
sprue orifice, 133 thermal expansion, 80, 94, 151 vents, 130
sprue taper, 134 thermal isolation, 151 vibration welding, 90
sputter deposition, 114 thermal load, 80, 156 vinyls, 105
stack mold, 123 thermoforming, 12 viscoelasticity, 46
stainless steel, 162 thickness transitions, 21 voids, 21
static friction, 53 thin-wall molding, 20 Voight-Maxwell model, 46
steel-rule dies, 100 thin-walled parts, 20, 25, 129, 145, 148, 159 volatile organic compounds, 106
steel safe, 161 thread pitch, 38
stencil, 109 thread profiles, 37 W
stiffness, 46, 67 threaded inserts, 85 wall thickness, 19, 70
strain limits, 59 threads, 99 warpage, 25, 147, 154
stress concentration, 28, 30, 76, 79 three-plate mold, 122, 139 washers, 85
stress-concentration factor, 59 three-plate runners, 139 waterborne coatings, 106
stress limits, 59 tight-tolerance holes, 34 weather resistance, 8
stress relaxation, 47, 54, 56, 74, 75 tolerances, 40, 94 weld lines, 132, 147
stress-strain behavior, 48 tool steel, 162 welding, 88
stripper plates, 128 torsion, 66 wet sanding, 103
stripping undercuts, 34 trapped air, 132 wiping, 108
sublimation ink transfer, 117 tumbling, 104 witness marks, 129
sucker pins, 139, 142 tunnel gates, 141
surface appearance, 154 turbulent flow, 159 Y
surface contamination, 109 turning, 101 yield point, 52
surface-crowning, 113 two-component paint systems, 106 Young’s modulus, 49
surface treatments, 163 two-plate mold, 121
symmetry, 94
U
T ultimate strength, 53
tab gates, 140 ultrasonic welding, 89
tangent modulus, 52 undercuts, 34, 125
168
PART DESIGN CHECKLIST
For Injection-Molded Engineering Thermoplastics

Material Selection Requirements
Loads ■ Magnitude ■ Duration ■ Impact ■ Fatigue ■ Wear
Environment ■ Temperature ■ Chemicals ■ Humidity ■ Cleaning Agents
■ Lubricants ■ UV Light
Special ■ Transparency ■ Paintability ■ Plateability ■ Warpage/Shrinkage
■ Flammability ■ Cost ■ Agency Approval
Part Details Review
Radii ■ Sharp Corners ■ Ribs ■ Bosses ■ Lettering
Wall Thickness
Material ■ Strength ■ Electrical ■ Flammability
Flow ■ Flow Length ■ Too Thin ■ Avoid Thin to Thick
■ Picture Framing ■ Orientation
Uniformity ■ Thick Areas ■ Thin Areas ■ Abrupt Changes
Ribs ■ Radii ■ Draft ■ Height ■ Spacing
■ Base Thickness
Bosses ■ Radii ■ Draft ■ Inside Diameter/Outside Diameter
■ Base Thickness ■ Length/Diameter
Weld Lines ■ Proximity to Load ■ Strength vs. Load ■ Visual Area
Draft ■ Draw Polish ■ Texture Depth ■ 1/2 Degree (Minimum)
Tolerances ■ Part Geometry ■ Material ■ Tool Design (Across Parting Line, Slides)
Assembly Considerations
Press Fits ■ Tolerances ■ Hoop Stress ■ Long-Term Retention
Snap Fits ■ Allowable Strain ■ Assembly Force ■ Tapered Beam ■ Multiple Assembly
Screws ■ Thread-Cutting vs. Forming ■ Avoid Countersinks (Tapered Screw Heads)
Molded Threads ■ Avoid Feather Edges, Sharp Corners, and Pipe Threads
Ultrasonics ■ Energy Director ■ Shear Joint Interference
Adhesive and ■ Shear vs. Butt Joint Compatibility
Solvent Bonds ■ Trapped Vapors
General ■ Stack Tolerances ■ Assembly Tolerances ■ Care with Rivets and Molded-In Inserts
■ Thermal Expansion ■ Component Compatibility
Mold Concerns
Warpage ■ Cooling (Corners) ■ Ejector Placement
Gates ■ Type ■ Size ■ Location
Runners ■ Size and Shape ■ Sprue Size ■ Balanced Flow
■ Cold-Slug Well ■ Sharp Corners
General ■ Draft ■ Part Ejection ■ Avoid Thin/Long Cores
BAYER CORPORATION • 100 Bayer Road • Pittsburgh, PA 15205-9741 • Phone: (412) 777-2000
For further design assistance in using Bayer’s engineering thermoplastics, contact a field market development representative at a regional office near you.
USA Sales Offices:
CA: 9 Corporate Park Drive, Suite 240, Irvine, CA 92714-5113 • 1-949-833-2351 • Fax: 1-949-752-1306
MI: 2401 Walton Blvd., Auburn Hills, MI 48326-1957 • 1-248-475-7700 • 1-248-475-7701
NJ: 1000 Route 9 North, Suite 103, Woodbridge, NJ 07095-1200 • 1-732-726-8988 • Fax: 1-732-726-1672
IL: 9801 W. Higgins Road, Suite 420, Rosemont, IL 60018-4704 • 1-847-692-5560 • Fax: 1-847-692-7408
Canadian Affiliate:
Ontario: 77 Belfield Road, Etobicoke, Ontario M9W 1G6 • 1-416-248-0771 • Fax: 1-416-248-6762
Quebec: 7600 Trans Canada Highway, Pointe Claire, Quebec H9R 1C8 • 1-514-697-5550 • Fax: 1-514-697-5334
169
Radii Wall Uniformity
Avoid Avoid
Sharp
Prefer Prefer
R
.015 in
min.
Ribs Bosses
Avoid Avoid
Too Thick Too Close Too Too
Thin Tall
Tall Sharp
Prefer Thick
w Screw Lead-In Prefer
2w
2 3w
R Gussets
w
Draft Snap-Fit
Avoid Avoid
No Draft
Prefer Undercut
Prefer vs. Length
1/2° min. Draw Polish vs. Material
R
Shallow
Taper Lead-In
Screws Molded-In Threads
Avoid Avoid
Thread Forming
(Avoid for PC
and PC Blends)
Prefer Prefer
1/32 in
Lead-In
Thread Cutting
Picture Framing Warpage
Avoid Avoid
Ejector
Pins
Prefer Mold Prefer

Cooling
170
NOTES
171
172
Bayer Corporation
Bayer Corporation • 100 Bayer Road • Pittsburgh, PA 15205-9741 • 1-800-622-6004
http://www.bayer.com/polymers-usa
Sales Offices:
California: 9 Corporate Park Drive, Suite 240, Irvine, CA 92506-5113

1-949-833-2351 • Fax: 1-949-752-1306
Michigan: 2401 Walton Boulevard, Auburn Hills, MI 48325-1957 Engineering Polymers

1-248-475-7700 • Fax: 1-248-475-7701
New Jersey: 1000 Route 9 North, Suite 103, Woodbridge, NJ 07095-1200

1-732-726-8988 • Fax: 1-732-726-1672
Illinois: 9801 W. Higgins Road, Suite 420, Rosemont, IL 60018-4704
1-847-692-5560 • Fax: 1-847-692-7408 THERMOPLASTICS

Canadian Affiliate:
Ontario: Bayer Inc.

77 Belfield Road, Etobicoke, Ontario M9W 1G6
1-416-248-0771 • Fax: 1-416-248-6762
Quebec: Bayer Inc.

7600 Trans Canada Highway, Pointe Claire, Quebec H9R 1C8
1-514-697-5550 • Fax: 1-514-697-5334
A Design Guide
THERMOPLASTICS
Note: The information contained in this bulletin is current as of April 2000.
Please contact Bayer Corporation to determine whether this
publication has been revised.
Printed on recycled paper KU-GE028 Copyright © 2000, Bayer Corporation Printed in U.S.A. 570 (25M) 04/00

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Bayer Corporation

Bayer Corporation • 100 Bayer Road • Pittsburgh, PA 15205-9741 • 1-800-622-6004

California: 9 Corporate Park Drive, Suite 240, Irvine, CA 92506-5113

Michigan: 2401 Walton Boulevard, Auburn Hills, MI 48325-1957 Engineering Polymers

New Jersey: 1000 Route 9 North, Suite 103, Woodbridge, NJ 07095-1200

Part and Mold Design

Ontario: Bayer Inc.

Quebec: Bayer Inc.

• Centrex® ASA, AES and ASA/AES

• Durethan® Polyamide 6 and 66,

• Texin® and Desmopan®

• Pocan® PBT Polyester

Bayer Plastics Product Information

7 Design Process 19 Wall Thickness

45 Structural Considerations In Plastics 83 Part Consolidation

105 Painting 121 Mold Basics

Many applications have features

Extrusion Figure 1-2 Extrusion

In extrusion forming, molten material

Blow molding efficiently produces

Thermoforming Figure 1-4 Blow Molding

Thermoforming creates shapes from a

Thermoforming can produce large parts

The two most-common types of blow OPTIMIZING

Within the constraints of good molding

Clever part design can often eliminate

Consider specifying a molded-in color

Markings and Logos REDUCING of good design and molding practice,

Miscellaneous • Use standard colors, which are less

This molded in schematic is a cost effective alternative to labels or printing.

• Designing your mold with good

• Increasing the number of cavities in

Labor Scrap and Rework PROTOTYPE TESTING

Do not select your mold maker based

While engineering resins are used Critical Thickness Figure 2-1

IZOD IMPACT STRENGTH (ft•lb/in)

WALL THICKNESS stiffness. Increasing wall thickness also

Consider moldability when selecting Figure 2-2 Racetracking

problems, and filling problems that

Non-uniform wall thickness can lead to air traps.

Coring Figure 2-3 • Make the outside radius one wall-

• Round or taper thickness transitions

In some cases, thickness-dependent

Figure 2-4 Corner Design Figure 2-5 Thickness Transitions

Too Thick Correct

Flow Leaders Figure 2-6 Flow Restrictors Figure 2-7

Corners typically fill late in box-shaped parts. Adding flow leaders

Flow restrictors can change the filling pattern to correct problems

Figure 2-8 Sink Figure 2-9 Offset Rib

Sink opposite thick rib.

Offset rib to reduce read-through and sink.

Rib design guidelines.

Generally, taller ribs provide greater

Thin Rib Thick Rib

Warpage vs. rib thickness in glass-filled resins.

Multiple Ribs Figure 2-13

Boss Design Figure 2-14

Bosses Figure 2-16

Core Too Short Core Too Long

Radius Too Large Correct