STATISTICS

Definition

Statistics is the branch of

Mathematics that deals with the
collection, organization,
presentation, analysis and
interpretation of numerical
data for the purpose of
assisting in making a more
effective decision.
Introduction

Decision makers make better

decisions when they use all
available information in an
effective and meaningful way.
Introduction

The primary role of statistics is to

provide decision makers with methods
for obtaining and analyzing
information to help make these
decisions. Statistics is used to answer
long-range planning questions, such
as when and where to locate facilities
to handle future sales.
 USES OF STATISTICS
Some company advertisement
use statistic so that more
customers' would prefer their
product over competitors such
as a certain petroleum company
claims that 60% of fuel
consumers preferred their
products compared to other fuel
companies.
USES OF STATISTICS

 To show the quality of the product

just like the claim of safeguard
soap; the company advertises that
their soap kill 99.99% of germs.

 Wide application of statistic in

different field such as astronomy,
business, education, science,etc.
 2 Types of Statistics
1. Descriptive Statistics

concerned with THE GATHERING,

CLASSIFICATION, summary
calculations, graphs, charts
and tables. THE SUMMARIZING
VALUES COMMONLY USED IN
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ARE
THE MEASURES OF CENTRAL
TENDENCY, VARIABILITY, AND OF
SKEWNESS AND KURTOSIS.
 DIVISION Of Statistics

1. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
 The totally of methods and treatment
employed in the collection,
description, and analysis of numerical
data.

The purpose of a descriptive statistic is to

tell something about the particular group of
observation.
1. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
 DIVISION Of Statistics

2. Inferential Statistics

Inferential statistics is the logical

process from sample analysis to a
generalization or conclusion about a
population. It is also called statistical
inference or inductive statistic.

a method used to generalize from a

sample to a population.
 2 Types of Statistics

Inferential statistics demands a higher

order of critical judgment and
mathematical methods. It aims to give
information about large groups of data
without dealing with each and every
element of these groups. It uses only a
small portion of the total set of data in
order to draw conclusions or
judgments regarding the entire set.
 2 Types of Statistics
TOPICS INCLUDED IN INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
1. z-test
2. t-test
3. Simple linear correlation
4. Analysis of variance
5. Chi-square test
6. Regression analysis
Population

 Is the collection of all

possible observations of a
specified characteristic of
interest.

 sample is a subset of the

population.
The major advantage of descriptive
statistic is that they permit researchers
to describe the information contained in
many scores with just a few indices.
 Parameter is a numerical index
describing a characteristic of a
population.
 Statistic is a numerical index
describing a characteristic of a sample.
 CONSTANT

 CONSTANT is a characteristic
of objects, people, or events
that does not vary.

For example, the temperature

at which water boils (100
degrees Celsius).
Variable

A variable is an item of
interest that can take on
many different numerical
values.

Example:
1. weight of people (quantity)

2. hair color of people (quality)

 2 Types of Variables or Data

1. Qualitative Variables are

non-measurable
characteristics that cannot
assume a numerical value but
can be classified into two or
more categories.
Examples:
1. gender
2. religioN
1. Dichotomous variable – can take only
two values.

2. Trichotomous variable – can take three

possible values.
2 Types of Variables or Data

Quantitative Variables - exist in

some degree along a continuum
form, less to more and numbers
can be assigned to a different
individuals or object to indicate how
much of the variable they possess.
2 Types of Variables or Data

Quantitative Variables are

those quantities that can be
counted with your bare hands,
can be measured with the use of
some measuring devices, or can
be calculated with the use of
mathematical formula.
Examples:

1. checking account
2. number of children in A
family.
 2 TYPES of quantitative variables
1. Discrete variables consist of
variates (actual values) usually
obtained by counting

Examples:
1. Number of students in statistics class

2. Number of subjects a student can enroll

3. Number of vehicular accidents from

selected places
2. Continuous variables – obtained
by measurements, usually with
units and by evaluating values
using a formula.
Examples:
1. Height in meters
2. Weight in kgs
3. Time in minutes
4. Final grades
Which are discrete and which are continuous
data in the following statements?

1. The heaviest package receive last week was

10.7 kilos.
2. The maximum temperature in Cebu
according to weather newscaster was 92.9oC.
3. A total of 300 fires were reported by the fire
department to have occurred last year.
4. The annual income of a congressman is
P420, 000
5. Only 3, 205 applicants passed the
engineering exam
6. A can of peaches weighs 1.45 kgs
7. Nissan Motor Corporation reported it
sold 458 cars and 439 trucks during the
past 8 months.
8. The destructive typhoon made the
president to declare a state of calamity
to 15 areas, including metro manila.
9. Fernando Poe jr. died at the age of 67.
10. The steel platform can support a
weight of 350 tons
Which are quantitative and which are
qualitative data in the following?

1. Religion
2. Age
3. Gender
4. College program
5. Educational attainment
6. Size of the class
7. The heaviest package receive last week
8. Color of the skin
9. The maximum temperature in Cebu according to
weather newscaster
10. A total of number fires reported by the fire
department to have occurred last year.
11. Nissan Motor Corporation reported it sold 458 cars
and 439 trucks during the past 8 months.
12. Civil status
13. The number of destructive typhoon that made the
president to declare a state of calamity
14. Age of Fernando Poe Jr. when he died.
15. The weight a steel platform can support.
________________
Indicate which of the following variables fall
into continuous and which into discrete
series

1. time
2. census data
3. football scores
4. number of pages in 100 books
5. vital statistics
6. weight in kgs
7. school grade
8. length of 1 yard
9. sizes of high school classes
10. distance traveled by car
11. weight
12. mental ages
13. intelligence quotient
14. height of a child
15. average grade in statistics
 Define the following

Statistics
1.

2.data
3. Quantitative data
4. Inferential statistics
5. Population
 Independent variable
The independent variable is
presumed to affect or
influence other variables.
 dependent variable
The dependent or
outcome variable is
presumed to be affected
by one or more
independent variables.
 Intervening variable
An intervening variable
is an independent variable
that may have unintended
effects on a dependent
variable in a particular
study.
variables
Example: To predict the value of
fertilizer on the growth of plants,
the dependent variable is the
growth of plants; while the
independent variable is the amount
of fertilizer used.
instrumentation
The collection of data is an extremely
important part of any type of research,
for the conclusions of a study are based
on what the data show. Thus, the kind
of data to be gathered, the method to
be used in gathering of data, and the
treatment of the data is need to be
considered carefully.
instrumentation
The success and usefulness of
the result of the study will
depend much on the accuracy
and reliability of the data.

Bear in mind that no statistical

treatment can make unreliable
data correct.
 COLLECTION OF DATA

Data is the core of Statistics.

Without data, there would be no
statistical analyses. All Statistics
are derived from data that are
based on observations-including
observations that are made
directly by people to data
gathered in formal research
 data
Refers to the kind of information
researchers obtain on the
subjects of their research.

• Can be classified according to

source and to form.
 TYPES OF DATA
1. Primary Data
REFER TO INFORMATION WHICH ARE
GATHERED DIRECTLY FROM AN ORIGINAL
SOURCE.

EXAMPLES:
1. observation
2. interview
3. Questionnaire
 TYPES OF DATA
2. Secondary Data: refer to information which are
taken from published or unpublished data which
were previously gathered by other individual or
agencies. Data which are already available.

Example:
1. statistical book
2. published books
3. newspapers
4. journals
5. book

Advantage: less expensive.

Disadvantage: may not satisfy your needs
Data according to source
Secondary sources of data

Data that have been

previously gathered,
complied and are made
available to the researcher
for analysis.
Data according to form
Quantitative data are the data that
are measured on a scale.

Qualitative or Categorical data

these are observations that can be
classified into a single category or a
set of categories
Data according to form
An important decision
every researcher makes
during the planning stage
of his investigation is the
selection of the kind of
data he intends to collect.
 Data according to form
Instrument - The device such
as pencil, paper test,
questionnaire or a rating scale,
the researcher uses to gather
data.

Instrumentation - The whole

process of gathering data.
 Methods of Collecting
Primary Data
1. The Direct or Interview Method.

A method of person-to-person
exchange between the interviewer
and the interviewee. The interview
method provides consistent and more
precise information since clarification
may be given by the interviewee.
 Direct or Interview Method

Advantages: Precise and consistent

answers can be obtained by modifying
or rephrasing the questions especially to
illiterate respondents or to children
under study.
Disadvantages: It is time, money, and
effort consuming and it will be
applicable only for small population,
except when conducting a census.
Data collection method
2. Indirect or Questionnaire Method

• written responses are given to prepared

questions. A questionnaire is a list of
questions which are intended to elicit
answers to the problems of a study.

• the subjects responds to the questions

by writing or marking an answer sheet.

• can be mailed or given to a large

numbers of people at the same time.
 Indirect or Questionnaire Method
Advantages:

Lesser time, money, and

efforts are consumed.
 Indirect or Questionnaire Method
Disadvantages:
1. Many responses may not be consistent due to
the poor construction of the questionnaire.
2. The meaning of the questions may be different
from each respondents.
3. Inconsistent responses can no longer modified.
4. The unclear or seemingly ambiguous questions,
which cannot be clarified, and the respondents
having no chance to expand or react verbally to
a question of particular interest or importance.
Data collection method
B. Interview Method

A method of personal communication

between the researcher and the
respondents.

Provides consistent and precise information

to the researcher because the respondent
may classify the information.

Probably the most effective way of enlisting

the cooperation of the respondents.
Data collection method
B. Interview Method

Structured Interview uses a research

instrument called interview schedule.

It is made up of carefully prepared and

logically ordered questions.
Data collection method
B. Interview Method

Unstructured Interview is open and

flexible.

The contents, sequence and wordings of

the questions depends upon the researcher
who makes use of an interview guide,
which is listing of topics that will be taken
up during the interview process.
Data collection method
3. Registration Method

The method or gathering information is

governed by laws.
 Registration Method

Advantages: organized data from an

institution can serve as ready
references for future study or for
personal claims of people’s records.

Disadvantages: problem arises when an

agency doesn’t have a Management
System and if the system or process of
registration is not implemented well.
Data collection method
4. Observation

One of the earliest methods for

acquiring knowledge.

In this method, the researcher

watches closely the overt behaviors
of the subjects under investigation in
various natural settings.
Data collection method
4. Observation Method.
Used to data that are
pertaining to behaviors of an
individual or a group of
individual at a time of
occurrence of a given
situation.
Data collection method
Observation Method

One limitation of this method

is that observation is made
only one at a time or
occurrence of the appropriate
events.
Data collection method
Participant Observation

May be done by actual

participation, which allows
the researcher to gain
detailed and comprehensive
picture of the respondents.
Data collection method
Non-Participant Observation

It would be advantageous for

any kind of study that the
respondents are not aware
that they are being observed
so that they will behave
naturally.
Data collection method
Structured Observation

The researcher makes use of an

observation guide that limits the
focus of his observations to
aspects of behavior and activities
or events relevant to the research
problem and activities.
Data collection method
Unstructured Observation

Open and flexible because the

researcher does not restrict this
activity within an observation guide.

This gives the researcher an

opportunity to modify the objectives
of his study as he gathers more data
about the research problem.
Methods of Collecting Primary Data

4. The Observation Method

In this method, the investigator

observes the behavior of persons or
organizations and their outcomes.
 The Observation Method

Advantages: applied to respondents that cannot

be asked or need not speak, especially when
behaviors of persons/culture of
organization/performance outcomes of
employees/students are to be considered

Disadvantages: Subjectivity of information

sought cannot be avoided.
Data collection method
E. Experiment Methods

Used to determine the cause and

effect relationship of certain
phenomena under controlled
conditions.

• Usually employed by scientific

researcher.
Levels of measurement
A. Nominal Scale

The simplest and the most limited form of

measurement researchers can use.

Used to differentiate categories in order to

show differences.

Mutually exclusive and exhaustive -

meaning it is used to differentiate classes
or categories for purely classification or
identification purpose.
Levels of measurement
A. Nominal Scale

It is the weakest form of

measurement because no attempt can
be made to account for differences
within the particular category or to
specify any ordering or direction
across the various categories.

• discrete variables.
 Levels of measurement

1. Nominal Data: Classifies objects

or peoples’ responses so that all
those in a single category are
equal with respect to some
attributes and then each
category is coded categorically
 Levels of measurement
A. Nominal Scale
QUALITATIVE CATEGORIES
VARIABLES

Gender Male, Female

Automobile ownership Yes, No

Type of Life Insurance Term, Endowment, Straight – Life,

Owned Others, None
4 Types of Quantitative Data:

Example:

Respondents can be grouped according to

marital status based on the four nominal
scales, single – 1, married – 2,
separated – 3, or widow - 4
Levels of measurement
B. Ordinal Scale

One which data are not only classified

but also ordered in some way high to
low or least to most.

It is used in ranking.
Levels of measurement
B. Ordinal Scale

It is somewhat stronger form of

measurement, because an
observe value classified into one
category is said to posses more of
a property being scaled than does
an observed value classified into
another category.
Levels of measurement
B. Ordinal Scale

That is, the ordering implies only

which category is "greater" or "lesser"
-- not how much "greater" or "lesser"
ordinal data are discrete variables.
 Levels of measurement
2. Ordinal or Rank Data: Classifies objects or
individual’s responses according to degree or
level, then each level is coded numerically.

Numbers are used to rank.

 QUALITATIVE CATEGORIES
VARIABLES
Students class Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, Senior
designation
Product Satisfaction Unsatisfied, Neutral, Satisfied, Very
satisfied
Movie Classification G, PG, PG-13, R-18, X
Faculty Rank Professors, Associate Prof., Assistant
Prof. , Instructor
Hotel Ratings Δ, ΔΔ, ΔΔΔ, ΔΔΔΔ, ΔΔΔΔΔ
Students Grades 1.0, 1.25, 1.50, 1.75, 2.00, ….
 Examples of Ordinal Data
1. wind forces at sea
gentle breeze is 3
strong breeze is 6.
1. Customers satisfaction towards
company services.
1 - Excellent
2 - very satisfactory
3 - satisfactory
4 - fair
5 - poor/needs improvement
How do you feel today?

1 – Very Unhappy
2 – Unhappy
3 – OK
4 – Happy
5 – Very happy
How’s our discussion so far?

1 – Very Unsatisfied
2 – Somewhat Unsatisfied
3 – Satisfied
4 – Somewhat
5 – Very Satisfied
 Levels of measurement

The main difference between

ordinal data and nominal data
is that ordinal data contain both
an equality (=) and a greater-
than (>) relationship, whereas
the nominal data contain only
an equality (=) relationship
 Levels of measurement

3. Interval scale

has the attributes of ordinal scale plus

another feature;

the distance between the points on the

scale are equal.
 Levels of measurement

3. Interval scale

It is used to classify order and

differentiate between classes or
categories in terms of degrees of
differences.

 either discrete or
continuous variables.
 Levels of measurement

3. Interval Scale: when the numbers

used to identify observations represent
not only ordering of observations but
also meaningful information regarding
degree of difference or distance
between observation.
 Examples of Interval Scales

The grades of three students are

90%, 70%, 60%, they may be
ranked 1 to 3. The difference
between rank 1 and rank 2 is
20%; between 2 and 3 is 10%, the
difference between 1 and 3 is
30%.
Interval data are preferred
over ordinal data because,
with them, decision makers
can precisely determine
the difference between two
observations.
 Levels of measurement
4.Ratio scale is similar to the
interval scale only it has an actual
or true zero point which indicates
a total absence of property being
measure.
 Levels of measurement
4.Ratio scale
It differs from interval
measurement only in one aspect;

True zero point - complete

absence of the attitude being
measured.
 Levels of measurement
Ratio scale
4.

With an absolute value point it

can be said that the ratio of two
observation is "twice as fast",
"half as long" or other.

 either discrete or continuous

variables.
 Levels of measurement
4. Ratio Scale:

Takes into account the interval

size and the ratio of two related
quantities, which are usually
based on a standard
measurement. It Is the highest
level of measurement and allows
for all basic arithmetic operations,
including division and
multiplication.
Levels of measurement

Data measured on a ratio scale

have a fixed or non-arbitrary
zero point. Examples include
business data, such as cost,
revenue and profit, and others
such as weights, time, height,
rate of change in production
and return on investments.
 Levels of measurement
The fourth and highest level of
measurement is the ratio level.

Data at the ratio level possess all of the

features of the interval level, in addition
to a zero value.

Due to the presence of a zero, it now makes

sense to compare the ratios of measurements.

Phrases such as "four times" and "twice" are

meaningful at the ratio level.
 Levels of measurement
Distances, in any system of measurement give us data
at the ratio level.

A measurement such as 0 feet does make sense, as it

represents no length. Furthermore 2 feet is twice as
long as 1 foot.

So ratios can be formed between the data.

At the ratio level of measurement, not only can sums

and differences be calculated, but also ratios.

One measurement can be divided by any nonzero

measurement, and a meaningful number will result.
 Levels of measurement
Levels of Properties
Measurement
Nominal Indicates the distinction
Ordinal Indicates the distinction
Indicates the direction of the distinction
(e.g. less than or more than)
Interval Indicates the distinction
Indicates the direction of the distinction
Indicates the amount of distinction (in
equal interval)
Ratio Indicates the distinction
Indicates the amount of distinction
Indicates an absolute zero
 Levels of measurement
Classification of Numerical Data

Numerical Data

Qualitative Quantitative

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Levels of measurement
 Determine whether each of the following is
nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio data.

1. Political affiliation of politicians in the

Philippines.
2. Temperatures measured in Fahrenheit.
3. Marital status of clients in a UCPB Savings
Bank.
4. Course in a certain College or University.
5. Beauty contest winners.
6. The number of passengers on LRT 2 from
Recto to Santolan.
7. Ranking of tennis players.
 Determine whether each of the following is
nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio data.
8. Intelligence Quotient of managers in
Jollibee.
9. Military ranks.
10. Evaluation of students to faculty
members in a Likert scale.
11. Pages in the PLDT telephone book.
12. Nationality of certain individuals.
13. Weight of the students in the public
elementary schools.
14. Performance rating of the students in
Geometry.
 Determine whether each of the following is
nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio data.
15. Time required for engineers to do a certain
project.
16. Ages of companies in Makati Business Club.
17. Salaries of the top ten CEOs in Makati City.
18. Social Security System (SSS) Number.
19. Number of votes in each Presidential
candidate.
20. Philippine Regulation Commission (PRC)
posts the scores for Psychometrician board
examination result.