Journal of Physics: Conference Series

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Very low frequency/low-frequency receiver for monitoring disturbances in

the ionosphere D layer
To cite this article: Rizal Suryana et al 2021 J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 1940 012090

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ICOMSET2020 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1940 (2021) 012090 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1940/1/012090

Very low frequency/low-frequency receiver for monitoring

disturbances in the ionosphere D layer

Rizal Suryana1,*, Timbul Manik1, Musthofa Lathif1, Suriana2, Mario Batubara1,

and Peberlin Sitompul1
1
Space Science Center, National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN), Jl. Dr.
Djundjunan No. 133, Bandung, Indonesia
2
Space and Atmosphere observation Pontianak, National Institute of Aeronautics and
Space (LAPAN), Jl. Lapan No. 1 Siantan Hulu, Pontianak, Indonesia

*rizal.suryana@lapan.go.id

Abstract. The Ionosphere layer can influence radio wave propagation from one place to
another place with a very long distance on the Earth and between satellites to the receiver.
Each ionosphere layer has different characteristics and the presence of the ionosphere changes
daily according to solar activity. The D layer is the innermost ionosphere layer, starting about
60 - 95 km above the Earth’s surface. Observation of the D layer cannot be carried out by
balloon, ionosonde, and satellite because it is too low so that continuous observation is very
difficult. VLF/LF radio web can be traveled hundreds to thousands of kilometers from the
transmitter with multiple reflections between the earth and the ionosphere that is known as the
Earth-Ionosphere WaveGuide (EIWG). VLF/LF receiver is an instrument that can be used to
observe changes in the low region ionosphere layer due to solar activities.

1. Introduction
Appleton and his research group were the first to prove the presence of a reflecting layer at an altitude
of about 100 km (the E ionosphere layer). He has performed a radio broadcasting experiment
continuously where the radio transmitter and receiver were different places over a large distance. The
results of his research can be measured by the height of the reflector layer by measuring the difference
signal between the signal emitter and the signal received from the results of reflection. The ionosphere
is partially ionized of the atmosphere by solar radiation and it extends from about 60 km to 1000 km
[1]
. The ionosphere layer contains charged particle electricity and it can be reflected in certain radio
waves. Certain radio waves cannot penetrate the ionosphere layer but are partially absorbed and
reflected. The ionosphere layer plays an important role in the electricity of the atmosphere and forms a
boundary in the magnetosphere layer. The presence of the ionosphere layer is very useful in high
frequency (HF) radio communications [2]. In the HF radio wave signal, the radio wave signal can be
traveled very long distances due to refraction and reflection in the ionosphere layer. Signals that
propagate through the ionosphere layer are called ionosphere ware or skywave. The ionosphere layer
is very important because the ionosphere can affect propagation radio from one area to another area
over long distances on the Earth and between satellites with ground stations. The main source of
ionization in the ionosphere is solar radiations such as extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and X-ray radiations
and high-frequency radiations and charged particles from the sun [1, 3].

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ICOMSET2020 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1940 (2021) 012090 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1940/1/012090

In a day, the ionized process occurs by solar radiation, and at night it does not occur but due to
cosmic rays. The number of electrons and free ions in the ionosphere layer is dependent on solar
radiation intensity and gas density. Based on height and electron density value, the ionosphere layer
can be divided into three layers, denoted by D, E, and F layers. Each layer is controlled by different
physical processes and has different main ions [1].

Figure 1. Representation of ionosphere layers [4]

Figure 1 is shown the ionosphere layer in general from Earth atmosphere that located in a range of
about 50 km to more 1000 km above Earth surface and contain charge electric particle. D layer is the
lowest layer at altitude ~50 - 90 km above the ground, E layer is the second ionosphere layer, starting
at about ~90 - 150 km. The F layer is the last of the ionosphere layer, starting at about 150 - 600 km
and it can extend up to more than 1000 km that is the uppermost of the ionosphere. The differences in
the formation of the ionosphere layer are influenced by solar activities, this can seen the formed
ionosphere layers depends on time: D, E, F1, and F2 layers. In the night condition, the amount of
electrons is decreased so that only F2 and E layers occur. The D layer is a fundamentally solar
controlled layer and the transport process is not very important in this layer of the ionosphere [3,5]. It
can reflect very low frequency 3 - 30 kHz (VLF) and low frequency 30 - 300 kHz (LF) radio wave and
absorb medium frequency 300 kHz - 3 MHz (MF) and high frequency 3 - 30 MHz (HF) up to some
extent [3,6].
VLF/LF Radio waves can be traveled hundreds to thousands of kilometers from the transmitter
with repeated reflections between the Earth and the ionosphere that is called Earth-Ionosphere Wave-
Guide (EIWG). Earth surface (sea and land) becomes the lower boundary propagation and the
ionosphere D layer becomes upper boundary propagation radio wave VLF/LF [7]. The repeated
reflections between the Earth and the ionosphere can be utilized to observe changes in the ionosphere
layer by using VLF/LF radio wave from natural source or VLF/LF transmitters, especially at the D
layer can be disturbed due to solar flare, lightning energy, cosmic rays, earthquake etc. The D layer is
the ionosphere layer that is difficult to observe. It is too high to be observed by balloon, too low to be
observed by ionosonde, and too low to be observed by satellite [7, 8] so the D layer is difficult to
observe continuously. The D layer observation using rocket sounding has been carried out but this is
very limited to certain places and uses certain frequencies, Besides that, It has been used medium
frequency radar (MF Radar) but requires high cost [8]. About 30 VLF/LF transmitters on range
frequency 10 - 77.5 kHz are operated in many countries: Australia, the United States of American,
Japan, China, India, and some in European countries. By utilizing the VLF/LF transmitters, we can

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ICOMSET2020 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1940 (2021) 012090 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1940/1/012090

observe the occurrence of solar flare by looking at the phase and amplitude changes of the signal
received using the VLF/LF receiver.

2. Research Method
VLF/LF receiver located in Pontianak space and atmospheric observation (0.000U, 109.370T) of the
facility of the National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN). This VLF/LF receiver is joined
in the Asia VLF Observation Network (AVON) that has the aims to monitoring lightning activity,
Energetic particle precipitation from radiation belts, solar X-ray flare event effect on upper and middle
atmospheres, the effect of the solar eclipse, atmospheric gravity waves, and sound wave on the lower
ionosphere and detection of a gamma-ray burst. VLF/LF radio waves from the transmitters are
reflected by the low region ionosphere layer will be received by a receiver that has undergone a
change in amplitude and phase.

2.1. VLF/LF Receiver

The VLF/LF receiver was installed, operated and worked in three modes on August 26, 2010. The first
mode is VLF-E that worked in the frequency of 100 Hz - 20 kHz. The second mode is VLF-B that
worked at the frequency of 1 kHz - 40 kHz and the third mode is LF-STD that worked at the frequency
of 10 kHz - 100 kHz. In this research, The VLF/LF receiver will be worked in the LF-STD mode and
using a vertical electric monopole antenna. Figure 2 shows a diagram block of the VLF/LF receiver
and It system consists of the vertical electric monopole antenna, low noise amplifier (pre-amplifier),
the main amplifier included low pass filter, GPS locked oscillator, and computer included analog to
digital converter (ADC) and software for signal processing and data recorder.

Figure 2. Diagram block of VLF/LF receiver system [9]

The vertical monopole antenna was selected to avoid a large land use and can also receive signals
from any direction. The monopole antenna constitutes a group of derivative of dipole antennas and
only half of the dipole antenna needed for operation so the presence of the ground plane allows the
monopole antenna to operate as electrically equivalent to a dipole antenna [11]. The input signals from
the ionosphere reflector is received by the antenna and is almost in few micro-watts or less, therefore
the VLF/LF receiver requires a Pre-Amplifier to amplify the signal and then amplifies again by the
main amplifier to require on the minimum input of the VLF/LF receiver system. The pre-amplifier is
located very close to the vertical monopole antenna to avoid the decrements of the signal transmitted
through the coaxial cable. The GPS locked oscillator is an external reference oscillator needed by the
main amplifier to generate a local oscillator, on the other hand, it is also used as an accurate source of
timing.

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ICOMSET2020 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1940 (2021) 012090 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1940/1/012090

2.2. Data
There are about 30 VLF/LF transmitters in the world such as Australia, the United States of American,
Japan, China, India, and several in European countries. In this research, The VLF/LF receiver located
in Pontianak (PTK, Geographic lat. 0.00oN, long. 109.36oE) that will record the LF signal from
Fukushima-Japan (JJY40) in the frequency of 40.0 kHz, Fukuoka-Japan (JJY60) in the frequency 60.0
kHz, and Pucheng-China (BPC) in the frequency 68.5 kHz. Figure 3 shows the location of the VLF/LF
receiver and transmitters that used in this research. The Transmitter Receiver Great Circle Path
(TRGCP) from JJY40, JJY40, and BPC transmitter to the receiver station at PTK is about ~5262.84
km, ~4307.97 km, and ~3908.59 km, respectively. Three transmitters were selected based on data
available where the results of the observation from those transmitters are the best base on empirical
data.

Figure 3. Location of VLF/LF receiver and transmitters

The VLF/LF data is a form binary format with a time resolution of 0.1 seconds. In this research,
data will be processed when a solar flare occurs from 2011 to 2016. The data was selected to represent
every one of the incidences of solar flare events in the C, M, and X classes for analysis. Solar flare
events data obtained from https://satdat.ngdc.noaa.gov/sem/goes/data/full/ in computable document
format (CDF) file and solar flare event archive or real-time monitoring can be seen from
https://www.spaceweatherlive.com/en/archive. Solar flare event observed is used by Geostationary
Operational Environmental satellites (GOES) using X-ray sensors onboard the Space environment
Monitor (SEM). The X-ray sensor provides solar X-ray fluxes for the wavelength bands of 0.5 to 4 Å
and 1 to 8 Å. Solar flares are classified in A, B, C, M, and X classes according to the peak flux in
Watts per square meter (W/m2). Solar flares events are selected only a few events that represent M, C,
X classes that show in Table 1.

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ICOMSET2020 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1940 (2021) 012090 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1940/1/012090

Table 1. Solar flare events starting in 2011 until 2016

Class Date Start Maximum End

X2.2 2011/02/15 01:44 01:56 02:06

X6.9 2011/08/09 07:48 08:05 08:08

X5.4 2012/03/07 00:02 00:24 00:40

X1.8 2012/10/23 03:13 03:17 03:21

M8.7 2012/01/23 03:38 03:59 04:34

X3.3 2013/11/05 22:07 22:12 22:15

M2.9 2013/06/21 02:30 03:14 03:43

M2.1 2015/01/29 11:32 11:42 11:52

C7.2 2016/02/18 01:49 01:58 02:04

2.3. Data processing

The file name of VLF/LF data has a format RRRYYYYMMDDHH where RRR for the initial site
location, ie. PTK for Pontianak, YYYY for observation year, MM for a month, DD for the day, and
HH for an hour. In the file, there are 3601 blocks of data or rows, and the size of each block of data
can be calculated using Eq 1.

size of each block = Number of frequency channel x 20 x 2 Byte + 4 Byte (1)

The information contained in the VLF/LF data is divided into two parts: the header file and
observation data (phase and amplitude parameters). The header file is the first of block data where it
has three parts of the information: observation time (Year, Month/Day, and Hour), sampling
frequency, Data length for FFT, number of the frequency channel, block size, and list of frequency
channels. Table 2 shows the structure of the header file. The data observation is divided into two parts
such as zero pad and information blocks. The zero pad is a block of data that values all contain zeros
so this block data should be removed when data processing. Information block is the main data
resulting from observations consisting of time, amplitude, phase for every on frequency channel.

Table 2. Structure of header file

No. Contents Size

1 Year (YYYY) 2 Byte

2 Month/Day (MMDD) 2 Byte

3 Hour (HH) 2 Byte

4 Sampling frequency (kHz) 2 Byte

5 Data length for FFT (point) 2 Byte

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Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1940 (2021) 012090 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1940/1/012090

6 Number of the frequency channel 2 Byte

7 Block size (byte) 2 Byte

8 Frequencies recorded 2 Byte x

Number of
the frequency
of channel

The information block has 3601 field data, always starting with a value of 0X7FFF in hexadecimal
or 32767 in decimal, time (minute and second) in the second field data, and next field data for
amplitude and phase for every frequency channel and resolution time of 0.1 second. That will be
repeated as many times as the number of the frequency channel and a minute observation will be
recorded in one data block so one file of VLF/LF data for one hour observation. Figure 4 shows the
structure of the information block data.

Figure 4. Structure of information block data

Data processing includes reading, filtering, and plotting the amplitude and phase of the VLF/LF
signals. The filtering is used to remove noise from the data for easier reading and analysis. The median
filter is applied in data processing to remove noise, one of the reasons for using median filter, is simple
and fast in the computational. The median filter visits each point in the data and places its center on it;
all the intensity values within the window are sorted, and the median intensity value is then used to
replace the window’s center in the filtered data [12]. The window is used of 900 in this data processing.

3. Results and discussion

Solar activities can affect sudden changes to the ionosphere layer, these impulse will change the
amplitude and phase strength when the solar flare occurs, the amplitude and phase strengths will
increase suddenly. The changes are used to detect solar flare events by observing changes on the
ionosphere D layer. The sudden change in the ionosphere layer caused by the energy of solar flare
reaching the Earth’s upper atmosphere, this energy will be increased by the ionization in the
ionosphere [13]. Figure 5 shows the solar flare event detected by the VLF/LF receiver in Pontianak on
February 15, 2011, and confirmed using X-ray flux data from GOES satellite observation.
The solar flare that occurred on February 15, 2011, was an X-class flare with a magnitude of X2.2.
During the solar flare event, the X-ray flux is increased suddenly together with the amplitude and
phase of JJY40, JJY60, and BPC transmitters as shown in figure 5. The solar flare occurred on
February 15, 2011, starting at 01:44 AM (UT) until 02:06 AM (UT), the peak of the solar flare at
01:56 AM (UT). If we look further, time delays (∆t) between amplitude and phase peaks with the X-
ray peak about of 0.5 to 5 minutes is estimated for some of the flares, with the C class of flare

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ICOMSET2020 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1940 (2021) 012090 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1940/1/012090

revealing the largest time delay of 5 minutes [14]. In Figure 5c, the amplitude signal did not increase
suddenly, there are several possible causes for his case, due to the VLF/LF receiver was a problem on
the amplitude processing or below may not have produced any detectable VLF perturbations [14]. The
phase change represents an increase or decrease in the effective reflection height of the VLF/LF radio
wave.
Figure 5 shows the phase and amplitude changed when the solar flare occurs on the X-class flare
where the phase and amplitude are the results of VLF/LF observation and the X-ray flux is the result
of GOES satellite observation. In figure 5, the phase value is more than 360 degrees and it has an
ambiguity of 360 degrees, in this case, the magnitude of the phase change depends on the effective
reflection height value. The phase value is more than 360 degrees due to change in the effective
reflection height becoming larger than the wavelength of the radio wave so the phase change cloud
becomes more than 360 degrees. In data processing to correct the jump, we need to add +360 or -360
degrees on the phase value when it is increasing or decreasing and crosses +180 or -180 degrees to
avoid the phase suddenly changing to -180 or +180 degrees. A rapid decrease of effective reflection
height by changing the ionization rate of O2 and N2 and increasing the ionosphere D layer ionization
degree at lower heights [15, 16].

When solar flare event

When solar flare event

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ICOMSET2020 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1940 (2021) 012090 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1940/1/012090

When solar flare event

Figure 5. Plotting of VLF/LF signal amplitude, phase, and X-ray flux when solar flare event in X-
class flare on February 15, 2011. a). Solar flare event is detected from BPC transmitter, b). Solar flare
event is detected from JJY60 transmitter, and c). Solar flare event is detected JJY40 transmitter.

The difference phase value is caused by the behavior of the ionosphere D layer as EIWG to the
VLF/LF propagation through the ionosphere and the conditions corresponding to the flare peak. The
X-rays from solar flare will ionize the neutral atmosphere at the ionosphere D layer which increases
the electron densities, thus markedly lowering the effective VLF/LF reflection height where this
lowering of the reflection height is the main cause of the increase in amplitude and phase values
during the solar flare events [14]. Besides, the electron density at the lower edge of the ionosphere D
layer will sharpen during solar flares in the sense that the rate of increase of electron density with
height increases, and this also can be affected the amplitude and phase at the VLF/LF receiver [15, 17].
Figure 6 shows a few solar flares event on August 9, 2011, June 21, 2013, and February 18, 2016, in
X-class, M-class, and C-class flares, respectively.

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ICOMSET2020 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1940 (2021) 012090 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1940/1/012090

Figure 6. Plotting of VLF/LF signal amplitude, phase, and X-ray flux when solar flare event on
August 9, 2011, a). Solar flare event is detected from the JJY40 transmitter, b). Solar flare event is
detected from the JJY60 transmitter, and c). Solar flare event is detected the BPC transmitter

0.1-0.8nm
0.05-0.4nm

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ICOMSET2020 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1940 (2021) 012090 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1940/1/012090

0.1-0.8nm
0.05-0.4nm

0.1-0.8nm
0.05-0.4nm

Figure 7. Plotting of VLF/LF signal amplitude, phase, and X-ray flux when solar flare event on June
21, 2013, d). Solar flare event is detected from the JJY40 transmitter, e). Solar flare event is detected
from the JJY60 transmitter, and f). Solar flare event is detected the BPC transmitter

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ICOMSET2020 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1940 (2021) 012090 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1940/1/012090

Figure 8. Plotting of VLF/LF signal amplitude, phase, and X-ray flux when solar flare event on
February 18, 2016, g). Solar flare event is detected from the JJY40 transmitter, h). Solar flare event is
detected from the JJY60 transmitter, and i). Solar flare event is detected the BPC transmitter.

The ionization densities in the ionosphere D layer are sufficient to support the ionospheric
propagation of VLF/LF radio waves and the reflection from a weak lower layer D dominates the
propagation mechanism for the longer paths [18, 19]. The perturbation of the ionosphere D layer due to
the solar flares can be seen in the amplitude and phase of the VLF/LF signals that suddenly changes.
Delta amplitude (∆A) and phase (∆P) values are used to find out how much perturbation of the
ionosphere D layer due to the solar flares. Both values are calculated by subtracting the maximum
values (Apeak and Ppeak) during the solar flare events to the regular value or the normal condition value.
The ∆A values in solar flare events on Feb 15, 2011, January 23 and March 7, 2012, June 21, 2013,
and February 18, 2016, are 5.0 dB, 4.66 dB, 6.49 dB, 2.17 dB, and 3.70 dB respectively and the ∆P
values are 422 deg, 344 deg, 772 deg, 264, and 249 deg respectively. The values of the ∆A and ∆P are
influenced by the magnitude of the solar flare, in that data, the largest solar flare events are X5.4 and
X2.5 classes on Feb 15, 2011, and March 7, 2012.
Besides that, the magnitude of the disturbance is also influenced by the propagation of VLF/LF
signals through Earth’s ionosphere waveguide due to the solar X-ray flares, significant modifications
of the propagation happen due to significant changes in the lower ionosphere electron density [20,21].
The values of ∆A and ∆P change as there is an increase in density in the D layer in the electrical
conductivity at the upper waveguide edge along the trace of the VLF/LF signals and consequently

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ICOMSET2020 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1940 (2021) 012090 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1940/1/012090

gives rise to the change in all propagating parameters [20] so the VLF/LF radio wave does not lose
energy as it reflects from the bottom of the ionosphere D layer [22].

4. Conclusion
Solar flare events will increase the density of the ionosphere D layer, as a result of that change will be
increased the signal strength at the amplitude and phase of the VLF/LF receiver. Increased amplitude
and phase are used as an indicator of solar flare events but only increased sudden can be used as an
indicator of solar flare events. The increase in the amplitude and phase are due to electron density
increasing in the D layer so that the VLF/LF radio waves does not lose energy as it reflects from the D
layer. The magnitude of the amplitude and phase depend on the class of solar flares, the solar flare of
X class will show a high enhancement in the amplitude and phase when compared to solar flare of the
M-class and C-class. The magnitude of perturbation can be calculated by subtracting the value of the
maximum (amplitude or phase) with the value of the normal condition of amplitude or phase.

Acknowledgments
Authors wishing thanks to Asia VLF Observation Network (AVON) team and director of Space
Science Center of LAPAN for supporting research and development of VLF/LF receiver in Indonesia
and Staffs of Space and Atmosphere observation Pontianak.

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