3.6.

Rectifier Circuits (整流電路)

§ One important application of diode is the rectifier –
§ Electrical device which converts alternating current (AC) to direct
current (DC)
§ One important application of rectifier is dc power supply.

Block diagram of a dc power supply

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 reference

Mutual Inductance (互感)

§ The voltage induced in the second circuit can be related to the time-
varying current in the first circuit by mutual inductance.

§ There will be two voltages across each coil

§ self-induced voltage : L1(di1/dt)
§ mutually induced voltage : M(di2/dt)

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 reference

The polarity of the voltage

§ Polarity of self-induced voltage:

a voltage drop in the direction of the current producing the voltage.
(passive sign convention)
§ Polarity of the mutually induced voltage
§ Depend on the way the coils are wound in relation to the reference
direction of coil current

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 reference

The polarity of the voltage

• Dot convention
§ when the reference direction for a current enters the dotted
terminal, the reference polarity of the voltage that it induces in
the other coil is positive at its dotted terminal.
當電流的參考方向定為流入某線圈標有黑點的一端為正時，
另一線圈所感應電壓的參考極性是以有黑點的一端為正

§ when the reference direction for a current leaves the dotted

terminal, the reference polarity of the voltage that it induces in
the other coil is negative at its dotted terminal
當電流的參考方向定為流出某線圈標有黑點的一端為正時，
另一線圈所感應電壓的參考極性是以有黑點的一端為負

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 reference

di1 di
-vg + i1 R1 + L1 - M 2 = 0, (6.31)(Mesh current)
dt dt
di di
i2 R2 + L2 2 - M 1 = 0. (6.32)
dt dt

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 reference

Determine dot markings

§ Method 1:
§ Arbitrarily select one terminal D
§ Assign a current into the dotted terminal and label it iD
§ Determine the direction of the magnetic field by iD inside the coupled
coils (right-hand rule ) and label the field ϕD
§ Arbitrarily select one terminal of the
second coil A and assign iA into the terminal
§ Determine the direction of the magnetic
field by iA inside the coupled coils
(right-hand rule ) and label the field ϕA
§ If ϕA ϕD have the same reference direction,
place a dot on the A where iA enters. If
the fluxes have different reference
directions, place a dot on the terminal
of the second coil (terminal B) where
the Circuits
Microelectronic testbycurrent leaves.
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 reference

Determine dot markings

§ Method 2
§ The coil terminal connected to the positive terminal of the dc source
via the switch and limiting resistor receives a polarity mark
§ When the switch is closed,
1. if the momentary deflection is upscale, the coil terminal connected
to the positive terminal of the voltmeter receives the polarity mark.
2. if the momentary deflection is downscale, the coil terminal
connected to the negative terminal of the voltmeter receives the polarity
mark

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 reference

Example

a) write a set of mesh current equations.

當電流的參考方向定為流入某
線圈標有黑點的一端為正時，
另一線圈所感應電壓的參考極
性是以有黑點的一端為正

當電流的參考方向定為流出某線
圈標有黑點的一端為正時，另一
線圈所感應電壓的參考極性是以
有黑點的一端為負
di1 d
4 + 8 (ig - i2 ) + 20(i1 - i2 ) + 5(i1 - ig ) = 0
dt dt
d di
20(i2 - i1 ) + 60(i2 + 16 (i2 - ig ) - 8 1 = 0
dt dt
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 reference

Example

b) verify that if there is no energy stored in the current at t = 0 and if ig = 16 −

16e−5t A, the solutions for i1 and i2 are
i1 = 4 + 64e-5t - 68e-4t A,
i2 = 1 - 52e-5t +51e-4t A.

Ans: i1 (0) = 4 + 64 - 68 = 0
i2 (0) = 1 - 52 + 51 = 0
t approaches infinity, ig approaches a constant à the magnetically coupled
coils behave as short circuits.
Req = 1/(1/5+1/20+1/60) = 3.75
Voltage across the 16 A source is 3.75*16 = 60 V
60 60
i1 (¥) = + =4
20 60
60
i 2 Sedra, Smith, =
( ¥ ) = 1
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 reference

Example

There is no energy stored in the circuit at the time the switch is opened. a)
Derive the differential equation that governs the behavior of i2. b) Find the
expression for the voltage across the current source.
2H

16H
32 Ω
4H

(a) (b)

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 step #1: increase / decrease rms magnitude of AC
wave via power transformer
step #2: convert full-wave AC to half-wave DC
(still time-varying and periodic)
step #3: employ low-pass filter to reduce wave
amplitude by > 90%
step #4: employ voltage regulator to eliminate
ripple
step #5: supply dc load .

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Gaudet Block diagram of a dc power supply
 3.6.1. The Half-Wave Rectifier

§ half-wave rectifier – utilizes

only alternate half-cycles of the
input sinusoid
§ Constant voltage drop diode
model is employed.
§ v0=0 when vs<VD
v0= vs-VD when vs⩾VD vs-vD

§ When vs is negative, the

Turn on
diode will be off and the v0 will
be zero.
PIV=Vs (a) Half-wave rectifier (b) Transfer characteristic of the
rectifier circuit (c) Input and output waveforms

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§ peak inverse voltage (PIV) – what is maximum reverse voltage it is
expected to block w/o breakdown?最大反向電壓值
the specified maximum voltage that a diode rectifier can block, or the
maximum voltage that a rectifier needs to block in a given circuit.

§ exponential model? It is possible to use the diode exponential model in

describing rectifier operation; however, this requires too much work.

§ small inputs? Regardless of the model employed, one should note that
the rectifier will not operate properly when input voltage is small (< 0.1V).
§ Those cases require a precision rectifier.

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 3.6.2. The Full-Wave Rectifier

The key here is center-tapping of the

§ The secondary winding is center-
transformer, allowing “reversal” of
tappedà provide two equal
certain currents
voltages vs

Full-wave rectifier utilizing a transformer with a

https://www.mpja.com/24V-10A- center-tapped secondary winding: (a) circuit; (b)
Center-Tapped-12-0-12-
Transformer/productinfo/27846%20TR/ transfer characteristic assuming a constant-voltage-
drop model for the diodes; (c) input and output
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When3.6.2 The Full-Wave
instantaneous Rectifier
source voltage is positive,
D1 conducts while D2 blocks.
When instantaneous source voltage is negative, D2 conducts while D1 blocks.

3.6.2 The Full-Wave Rectifier

The current conduct by D2 will flow through R and back to the center tap.
The vo will be unipolar because the current through R always flows in the same direction
 3.6.2. The Full-Wave Rectifier
The direction of current flowing across load never changes (both halves of
AC wave are rectified). The full-wave rectifier produces a more “energetic”
waveform than half-wave.

(using CVDM) for the positive half cycles, the voltage at the cathode (anode)
of D2 is v0 (- vs), the reverse voltage across D2 will be v0 + vs . It will reach
max when v0 is at the peak value of VS – VD
§ PIV for full-wave = v0 + vs = VS – VD +VS=2VS – VD

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 § Determine the currents and voltages in a half-wave rectifier circuit.
§ Assume VB = 12 V, R = 100 ohm, and Vγ = 0.6 V. Also assume vS(t) =
24 sinωt. Determine the peak diode current.

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 3.6.3. The Bridge Rectifier

§ An alternative
implementation of the full-
wave rectifier is bridge
rectifier.

The bridge rectifier circuit.

§ Q: What is the main advantage of BR?

§ A: No need for center-tapped transformer.
§ Q: What is main disadvantage?
§ A: Series connection of TWO diodes will reduce output voltage.

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 When instantaneous source voltage is positive, vs is positive, D1 and D2
conduct while D3 and D4 block.

positive cycle, the reverse

voltage across D3 can be
found from the loop D3 R
D2,
vD3(reverse)=vo+vD2(forward)
PIV = VS -2 VD + VD =VS – VD

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 When instantaneous source voltage is negative, -vs is positive , D1 and D2
conduct while D3 and D4 block. vo will always be positive.

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 3.6.4. The Rectifier with a Filter
Capacitor
§ Pulsating nature of rectifier
output makes unreliable dc
supply.
§ As such, a filter capacitor is
employed to remove ripple.

(a) A simple circuit used to illustrate the effect of a filter

capacitor. (b) input and output waveforms assuming an ideal
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 reference

The Capacitor

§ Capacitance is a circuit parameter that relates the current induced

by a time-varying electric field to the voltage producing the field.
§ The circuit symbol for a capacitor (C), is measured in farads (F)

§ Assigning reference voltage and current to the capacitor, following

the passive sign convention

dv
i=C
dt
i : amperes, C : farads, v : volts, t : seconds
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 reference

The Capacitor

§ Voltage cannot change instantaneously across a capacitor

§ If the voltage across the capacitor is constant, the capacitor current = 0.
1 t v (t )
idt = Cdv or ò dx = ò idt
v ( t0 ) C t0
1 t
v(t ) = ò idt + v(t0 ) Capacitor v-i equation
C t0

In pratical applications, the initial time is 0

1 t
\ v(t ) = ò idt + v(0)
C 0

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 reference

Power and Energy

§ Capacitor power equation

dv
p = vi = Cv
dt
é1 t ù
or p = i ê ò idt + v(t0 )ú
ë C t0 û

§ Capacitor energy equation

dw dv
p= = Cv
dt dt
\ dw = Cvdt
w v 1 2
ò0 dx = C ò0 ydy or w = 2 Cv
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 reference

The Natural Response of an RC Circuit

Steady-state condition:
Capacitor behaves as an open circuit, After switching:
The voltage source cannot sustain a current, The voltage on the capacitor is Vg
The source voltage appears across the capacitor

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 reference

The Natural Response of an RC Circuit

dv v
C + =0
dt R

v(0- ) = v(0) = v(0+ ) = vg = V0

v(t) = V0 e-t/t , t ≥0
t = RC
The time constant of an RC circuit equals the equivalent
capacitance times the Thévenin resistance as viewed from the
terminals of the equivalent capacitor

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 reference

The Natural Response of an RC Circuit

§ After determine v(t), we can derive
v(t ) V 0 -t /t
i (t ) = = e , t ³ 0+
R R
V 0 2 -2t /t
p = vi = e , t ³ 0+
R
2
t tV0
w = ò pdx = ò e-2 x /t dx
0 0 R

1
= CV 0 2 (1 - e -2 /t ), t ³ 0
2
Ø Calculating the natural response of an RC circuit can be summarized as
follows:
1. Find the initial voltage, V0, across the capacitor.
2. Find the time constant of the circuit, t = RC.
3. Use, v(t) = V0e-t/t, t ≥ 0 to generate v(t) from V0 and t.

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 3.6.4. The Rectifier
with a Filter Capacitor
Assume the diode is ideal
§ step #1: source voltage is positive,
diode is forward biased, capacitor
charges.
§ step #2: source voltage is reverse,
diode is reverse-biased (blocking),
capacitor cannot discharge (because
there is no way to discharge).
§ step #3: source voltage is positive,
diode is forward biased, capacitor
charges (maintains voltage).

當 vI趨向正值，二極體導通且對電容充電，即 vO = vI ，
這種操作現象會一直持續，直到vI到達其峰值V 。超
過峰值之後， vI開始下降，二極體變為逆偏且輸出電
壓維持常數，其值即先前之峰值V

Microelectronic Circuits by Sedra, Smith, Carusone, and A simple circuit used to illustrate the effect…
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 3.6.4. The Rectifier
with a Filter Capacitor

Assume the diode is ideal

§ Q: What happens when load

resistor is placed in series with
capacitor?
§ A: One must now consider
the discharging of capacitor
across load.

Figure 3.25 (a)

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§ The capacitor charges to the
peak of input Vp
電容充電至輸入正弦的峰值Vˆ ，二極體關
閉且電容經由負載電阻R 放電，直到輸入正
弦之值超過電容電壓，於是二極體再度導
通，造成電容充電至vI的峰值Vˆ ，不斷重複
週期性的操作。
circuit state #1
output voltage for state #1
!"" "#""" $
vO ( t ) = vI ( t ) - vD
t
-
vO ( t ) = V p e RC
%""&""'
output voltage for state #2
circuit state #2
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§ step #1: Analyze circuit state #1.
§ When diode is forward biased
and conducting.
§ step #2: Input voltage (vI) will be
applied to output (vO), minus circuit state #1
0.7V drop across diode.
§ step #3: Define output voltage vO
iL =
for state #1. R
output voltage for state #1
!"#"$ iD = iC + iL
vO = vI - vD action: define capacitor
current differentially
!""#""$
dvI
iD = C + iL
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dt
§ step #4: Analyze circuit state #2.
§ When diode is blocking and
capacitor is discharging.
§ step #5: Define KVL and KCL for
this circuit.
§ vO = RiL
§ iL = –iC

§ step #6: Use combination of circuit state #2

circuit and Laplace Analysis to
solve for vO(t) in terms of initial
condition and time…
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 3.6.4. The Rectifier
with a Filter Capacitor

action: take Laplace transform

!"" "#"""$ !""""" "#""""""
action: eliminate RC from both sides
$
ì dv ü æ 1 ö
vO = RiL L ívO + RC O = 0 ý RC ç s + ÷ VO ( s ) = RCVO ( 0 )
î dt þ è RC ø
action: replace
iL with - iC action: solve for VO ( s )
!"#"$ !""""" action: take Laplace transform
"#"""""" $ !""" "#"""" $
vO = - RiC VO ( s ) + RC éë sVO ( s ) - VO ( 0 ) ùû = 0 V ( s ) = V ( 0 ) 1
action: define iC %"" "&""" ' O O
1
!"" differentially
"#""" $ transform of
dvO s +
dt RC
æ dv ö
vO = - R ç C O ÷ action: seperate disalike / collect alike terms
!""""" #"""""$ !""""" action: take inverse Laplace
"#"""""" $
è% dt ø
"&" ' VO ( s ) + RCsVO ( s ) = RC VO ( 0 ) ì üï
%"""&""" ' %&' -1 ï 1
iC L íVO ( s ) = VO ( 0 ) ý
action: change sides
!""#""$
(1+ RCs )VO ( s ) initial
condition ïî s + 1 / ( ) ïþ
RC
action: pull out RC
dv !"""" "#""""" $ !""""#""""
action: solve
$
vO + RC O = 0 (%""
1 + RCs ) VO ( s ) = RCVO ( 0 )
dt &""' -
t

æ
RC ç s +
1 ö vO ( t ) = VO ( 0 ) e RC
÷VO ( s )
è RC ø
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§ step #7: Define output voltage
for states #1 and #2.

circuit state #1

output voltage for state #1

!"" "#""" $
vO ( t ) = vI ( t ) - vD
t
-
vO ( t ) = V p e RC
%""&""'
output voltage for state #2

circuit state #2
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output
outputvoltage forstate
state#1#1
!"
!"" ""#""
voltage for
#""" $$
vOv(Ot )( t=)v=I (vtI )(-t )vD
t
- - t
vOv ( t()t =) =
V pVe e RC RC
%""O
%" " &""
&"" p'
'
output voltage for state #2
output voltage for state #2

Voltage and Current Waveforms in the Peak Rectifier Circuit WITH RC >> T (避免輸出電壓衰減太快).
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The diode is assumed ideal.
 A Couple of Observations
§ The diode conducts for a brief interval (Dt) near the peak of the input
sinusoid and supplies the capacitor with charge equal to that lost during
the much longer discharge interval. The latter is approximately equal to
T.
§ Assuming an ideal diode, the diode conduction begins at time t1 (at which
the input vI equals the exponentially decaying output vO). Diode
conduction stops at time t2 shortly after the peak of vI (the exact value of
t2 is determined by settling of ID).
§ During the diode off-interval, the capacitor C discharges through R
causing an exponential decay in the output voltage (vO). At the end of the
discharge interval, which lasts for almost the entire period T, voltage
output is defined as follows – vO(T) = Vp – Vr.
§ When the ripple voltage (Vr) is small, the output (vO) is almost constant
and equal to the peak of the input (vI).

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 3.6.4. The Rectifier
with a Filter Capacitor t
-
vO ( t ) = V p e RC

§ Q: How is ripple voltage (Vr) defined? T is discharge interval

!"" #""$
§ step #1: Begin with transient response V p - Vr = vO (T )
of output during “off interval.”
æ - RC
T
ö
§ step #2: Note T is discharge interval. V p - Vr » V p ´ çç e ÷÷
§ step #3: Simplify using assumption è%&'ø
because RC >>T ,
that RC >> T. we can assume...
T
- T
§ step #4: Solve for ripple voltage Vr. e RC » 1-
RC
action: solve for
§ step #5: Put expression in terms of !""#"" ripple voltage Vr
$
frequency (f = 1/T). æ T ö
(eq3.28) Vr ( V p ç ÷
§ Observe that, as long as Vr << Vp, è%RC
&'ø
the capacitor discharges as constant T
1- -1 V p
current source (IL). RC
!R
Vp I
expression to define ripple (eq3.29) Vr » = L
Microelectronic Circuits by Sedra, Smith, Carusone, and
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 cos(0°)

Q: How is conduction interval (Dt)

defined?

§ step #1: Assume that diode

conduction stops (very close to
when) vI approaches its peak.
§ step #2: With this assumption, V p cos (wDt ) = V p - Vr
!""" "#"""" $
one may define expression to the note that peak of vI represents cos(0 ° ),
right. therefore cos (wDt ) represents variation
around this value
§ step #3: Solve for wDt.

(eq3.30) wDt = 2Vr / V p

!""#""$
as assumed, conduction
interval Dt will be small
when Vr <<V p
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