Media Literacy

Media Literacy refers to different ways in which the audience has utilized media content, thereby
acquiring knowledge and competence from the activities in the media. The Alliance for A Media Literate
America (2000) believes that Media literacy empowers people to be critical thinkers and creative
producers of an increasingly wide range of messages using image, language, and sound. It is the skillful
application of literacy skills to media and technology messages. As communication technologies
transform society, they impact our understanding of ourselves, our communities, and our diverse cultures,
making media literacy an essential life skill for the 21st century.
Cox (1994), Media literacy refers to composing, comprehending, interpreting, analyzing, and
appreciating the language and texts of print and non-print. Media use presupposes an expanded definition
of ‘text’…print media texts include books, magazines, and newspapers. Non-print media include
photography, recordings, radio, film, television, videotape, video games, computers, the performing arts,
and virtual reality constantly interact.
These four components – access, analysis, evaluation, and content creation – together constitute a
skills-based approach to media literacy. Each element supports the others as part of a non-linear, dynamic
learning process: learning to create content helps one analyze that produced professionally by others;
skills in analysis and evaluation open the doors to new uses of the internet, expanding access, and so
forth. Media literacy – indeed literacy more generally – is the ability to access, analyze, evaluate and
create messages in various forms (Aufderheide, 1993), and so does (Christ & Potter, 1998).

However, Tallim (2002) says that Media literacy is the ability to sift through and analyze the
messages that inform, entertain and sell to us every day. It’s the ability to bring critical thinking skills to
bear on all media, from music videos and Web environments to product placement in films and virtual
displays. It’s about asking pertinent questions about what’s there and noticing what’s not there. And it’s
the instinct to question what lies behind media productions: motives, money, values, and ownership and
to be aware of how these factors influence content.

Then, Thoman (1995) stated that Media literacy is a broad term that incorporates three stages of a
continuum leading to media empowerment:

The first stage is simply becoming aware of the importance of managing one’s media “diet”—
making choices and reducing the time spent with television, videos, electronic games, films, and various
print media forms.

The second stage is learning specific skills of critical viewing learning to analyze and question
what is in the frame, how it is constructed, and what may have been left out. Essential skills of viewing
are best learned through inquiry-based classes or interactive group activities and from creating and
producing one’s own media messages.

The third stage goes behind the frame to explore deeper issues. Who makes the media we
experience, and for what purpose? Who profits? Who loses? And who decides? This social, political, and
economic analysis stage looks at how everyone in society makes meaning from our media experiences
and how the mass media drive our global consumer economy.

Worsnop (1994) also confirmed that “Media literacy” is the expected outcome from media
education or media study work. The more you learn about or through the media, the more media literacy
you have. Media literacy is the skill of experiencing, interpreting/analyzing, and making media products.
Many more of the outstanding authors in books and research elaborate their interpretation about media
literacy. John (2011),

Media Literacy is the analysis of media contents to suit our insatiable needs. He says that
knowing what the media projects help us shuffle the good from the bad. Louis (1994), Media Literacy is
the absorption of media contents and variety and how we interpret it to our everyday living. Media
Literacy is a repertoire of competencies that enables people to analyze, evaluate, and create messages in a
wide variety of media modes, genres, and forms (Hobbs, 1998). Harvey (2001) agrees with Hobbs's
definition of Media Literacy. However, he adds a little detail by saying that Media Literacy is a
collection, selection, or series of competencies that enable people to analyze, evaluate, and create
messages in a wide variety of media modes, genres, and forms.

Shepherd (1993), Media literacy is an informed, critical understanding of the mass media. It
involves examining the techniques, technologies, and institutions engaged in media production, critically
analyzing media messages, and recognizing audiences' role in making meaning from those messages.
Also, Bowen (1996), Media literacy seeks to empower citizens and transform their passive relationship to
media into an active, critical engagement— capable of challenging the traditions and structures of a
privatized, commercial media culture and finding new avenues of citizen speech and discourse.

Media literacy is concerned with helping students develop an informed and critical understanding
of the nature of mass media, their techniques, and their impact. More specifically, education aims to
increase the students' knowledge and enjoyment of how the media work, produce meaning, organize, and
construct reality. Media literacy also aims to provide students with the ability to create media products.
"( Media Literacy Resource Guide, Ministry of Education Ontario, 1997).

To conclude, Media Literacy can give young people the power to recognize entertainment and the
information they need to make good decisions. What the public needs to realize is "a clear awareness of
how the media influences, shapes, and defines their lives. (Riley, 1995).

Internet Skills and Information Literacy

Media literacy is not a new term, but it is not as generally well known as information literacy.
Media literacy relates to the ability to identify, use, and create news through different media outlets.
While users consume information on social media, they also play the role of sharing and producing
content and have the means and the ability to spread information on social networks (Kovach
&Rosenstiel, 2014). Audiences increasingly rely on Internet sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and
YouTube to get news and information in comparison with traditional media institutions (Shearer &
Gottfreid,2017). While social media has become a source of information, entertainment, and social
interaction at a global scale, it has also been criticized for serving as a conduit of misinformation.
While users consume information on
social media, they also play the role of sharing and producing content and have the means and
the ability to spread information on social networks (Kovach & Rosenstiel, 2014).
Audiences increasingly rely on Internet sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube to
get news and information in comparison with traditional media institutions (Shearer & Gottfreid,
2017). While social media has become a source of information, entertainment, and social
interaction at a global scale, it has also been criticized for serving as a conduit of misinformation.
VERIFY BEFORE SHARING
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Khan & Idris (2019) THIS COPY IS FOR RE SEARCH AND
EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY
Aral, 2018, p.1). Information can become viral within minutes when it is shared and re-shared on
various social media platforms (Alhabash & McAlister, 2015; Iribarren & Moro, 2011). In fact, a
study by Gabielkov, Ramachandran, Chaintreau, and Legout (2016) revealed that around 59% of
links on Twitter were shared by users without even reading them.
Amongst a sea of information, it is often hard to recognize which information is accurate
and which is not (Warner-Søderholm et al., 2018). When information is not accurate or is false, it
may be referred to as misinformation. Misinformation may also be understood in the context of
fake news, which has gained increased media attention due to its global implications. Nyhan and
Reifler (2010) define misinformation as “cases in which people’s beliefs about factual matters
are not supported by clear evidence and expert opinion” (p.305). It has also been defined as an
“honest mistake in the spread of inaccurate information” (Kumar & Geethakumari, 2014, p.3).
Others such as Tan, Lee, and Chae (2015) studied misinformation in addition to related terms
where information is “unverified, speculative, vague, exaggerated, contradictory” (p.675).
DiFonzo, Robinson, Suls, and Rini (2012) studied rumors that could include information which
may or may not be true.
Internet skills-related variables are also essential factors that can predict the perceived self-
efficacy in recognizing misinformation (PSERM) and the sharing behavior without verification (SWV).
We believe that it is vital for online users in today’s media environment to evaluate, analyze, understand,
differentiate, verify, and use the information to their advantage (Khan, Wohn, Ellison, 2014). Various
scholars, especially in the communication and education disciplines, have studied Internet skills, which
has led to the emergence of different related concepts in the overall domain. Therefore, it is essential to
understand the associated concepts of online skills under the broader umbrella of Internet skills and
information literacy.

Information Literacy.
Information refers to the capability of an individual to search and assess information
(ACRL, 2013). Some may perceive it as the ability to locate, distinguish, evaluate, and use the
information to explain a problem or an issue (ALA, 1989). Information-literate users assess available
information critically and question its validity (Mardis, 2002), in addition to the ability to evaluate the
quality and credibility of the message (Hobbs, 2006).
Being able to retrieve information (information searching), communicate it (information
sharing), and critically evaluate it (information verification) are a set of vital competencies in the modern
media environment (Bawden, 2001; Koltay, 2011). People may argue that the presence of such
competencies makes someone media or information literate. These elements are vital since the Internet is
a place where users may encounter biased and false information. Individuals need to carefully filter,
evaluate, and verify the information to separate reliable content from wrong. Such vital skills need to be
grasped through practice and a mental frame of mind that is skeptical. At the elementary level,
information literacy or digital information-seeking and sharing skills can prove instrumental in
determining information verification behaviors (Kim, Sin, & Yoo-Lee, 2014).
According to Khan, John, and Ellison (2014), Internet skills, which we refer to as information
literacy, are from an information-seeking and information-sharing angle. We extend that framework to
include information verification as information literacy to understand factors influencing people to
perceive and recognize misinformation. The researchers believe that information seeking and information
sharing factors are closely related and predictive of sharing behavior on social media. For example, an
individual or an online user may seek health or politics-related information by reading an article posted
by someone, reading social media comments, view images and videos. In other instances, online users
may need to comment and share information to solicit advice and better understand some issues.
Media literacy analysis and evaluation of messages in the media can motivate students to
challenge their ideas about literature, culture, and other topics presented by the mass media ( Routledge,
2003). He also added that media literacy provides the students with the opportunity to discover new
issues and knowledge about media. The center for Media Literacy in New York defines media literacy as
the capacity to communicate information through print or electronic means and the people’s ability to
analyze images, words, and sounds and how it helps them interpret real messages and understand ideas
better (Horn,2002). James Potter (2021) conceived and studied media literacy and how this is developed.
Media literacy is the perspective from which we expose ourselves to the media and interpret the meanings
of the messages we encounter. Added by James, we build this perspective from knowledge structures. To
develop our knowledge structure, we need tools and unprocessed material. The devices are our skills; the
untreated material is information from the media and the real world.
James Potter (2021) also states that media literacy cannot be limited. A person will never be
cultural and literate enough to take in all messages that media provides. He conclude that there is always
space for improvement in the media literacy world. Media literacy is dependant on the sophistication of
the person receiving the messages. People with a less evolved understanding of messages accept all the
commercials, television shows, and movies positively, without analyzing the content of each message
presented by the media. However, those with a greater capacity to process messages explore them in a
very different way (Potter, 2021). These are still imperfect because they do not process messages in a
meaningful way. They must also catch all the pros and cons of the messages transmitted across different
media. When people through the years learn about media and have a complete comprehension of the
messages, they can interpret and actively process messages. It is crucial to catch up with the ideas and
messages that media present because daily media present a different kinds of information.
Media literacy provides us with enough skill to interpret the message (Potter, 2021). Journalists,
advertisers, and entertainers give us their interpretations about news, the behavior of the human being,
how conflicts are present, and how to achieve success. These give society an idea of how to construct
their interpretations of the messages. In the process fundamental to understanding media literacy ideas, it
is vital to recognize and analyze the messages received from the media (Silverblatt, 2001). The
development of a high level of media literacy increases the control over the media influence process.
Education is essential to media literacy. It is the pillar to learn and understand the messages with being
educated facilitates.
Preventing misinformation.
As the overall media landscape has changed, there have been several ominous developments.
Rather than using digital tools to inform people and elevate civic discussion, some individuals have taken
advantage of social and digital platforms to deceive, mislead, or harm others through creating or
disseminating fake news and disinformation. False information is dangerous because of its ability to
affect public opinion and electoral discourse.
 According to David Lazer, “such situations can enable discriminatory and inflammatory ideas
to enter public discourse and be treated as fact. Once embedded, such ideas can in turn be used to create
scapegoats, to normalize prejudices, to harden us-versus-them mentalities and even, in extreme cases, to
catalyze and justify violence.” (Newman, 2017). As he points out, factors such as source credibility,
repetition, and social pressure affect information flows and the extent to which misinformation is taken
seriously. When viewers see trusted sources repeat specific points, they are more likely to influence that
material.

There are several alternatives to deal with falsehoods and disinformation that various
organizations can undertake. These ideas represent solutions that combat fake news and disinformation
without endangering freedom of expression and investigative journalism namely:

Government

According to Nyhan (2017), One of the most critical things governments worldwide can do is
encourage independent, professional journalism. The general public needs reporters who help them make
sense of complicated developments and deal with the ever-changing nature of social, economic, and
political events. Many areas are going through a transformation that I have called “mega changes,” and
these shifts have created enormous anger, anxiety, and confusion (West,2017). In addition, governments
should avoid crackdowns on the news media’s ability to cover the news. Those activities limit freedom of
expression and hamper the ability of journalists to cover political developments.

News Industry

The news industry should continue to focus on high-quality journalism that builds trust and
attracts more significant audiences. An encouraging development is that many news organizations have
experienced significant gains in readership and viewership over the last couple of years. It helps to put
major news outlets on a better financial footing. News organizations need to call out fake news and
disinformation without legitimizing them (Born, 2016). They can do this by relying upon their in-house
professionals and well-respected fact-checkers.

Educational Institutions

Funding efforts to enhance news literacy should be a high priority for governments. It is
especially the case with people who are going online for the first time. For those individuals, it is hard to
distinguish false from real news, and they need to learn how to evaluate news sources, not accept at face
value everything they see on social media or digital news sites. Helping people become better consumers
of online information is crucial as the world moves towards digital immersion. Education is vital for
young people. Research by Joseph Kahne and Benjamin Bowyer (2017) found that third-party
assessments matter to young readers. However, their effects are limited. Those statements judged to be
inaccurate reduced reader persuasion, although to a lower extent than alignment with the individual’s
prior policy beliefs. If the person already agreed with the statement, it was more difficult for fact-
checking to sway them against the information.

How the public can protect itself

Individuals can protect themselves from false news and disinformation by following a
diversity of people and perspectives. Relying upon a few like-minded news sources limits the range of
material available to people and increases the odds they may fall victim to hoaxes or false rumors. This
method is not entirely fool-proof, but it increases the odds of hearing well-balanced and diverse
viewpoints.

In the online world, readers and viewers should be skeptical about news sources. Many online
outlets resort to misleading or sensationalized headlines(Kahne & Boyer,2017). They emphasize the
provocative or the attention-grabbing, even if that news hook is deceptive. News consumers have to keep
their guard up and understand that not everything they read is accurate, and many digital sites specialize
in false news. Learning how to judge news sites and protect oneself from inaccurate information is a high
priority in the digital age (Kahne & Boyer,2017).

Reliance to the whole new media

Social media covers a wide variety of web-based technologies that enable users to contribute to and
consume information. It should be considered by marketers, advertisers, and content creators as a
fundamental part of their communications because social media affects all aspects of the Internet and
transforms the role of the Internet in people's lives (Akar & Topcu 2011; UnicersalMcCann 2008).

The image of the future that Teilhard De Chardin (1955), a French philosopher, envisaged, which he
called 'Future Earth,' included the overwhelming importance of ICTs in transforming communities. De
Chardin described the Future Earth as a 'noosphere' (Greek word 'nous' = mind and 'sphaira' = sphere),
encompassing interrelated technologies and consciousness (Levinson, 2011; Peters & Heraud, 2015). He
envisioned the role of technology in engendering a global consciousness, manifested in social media in
today's businesses. The Internet and social media also facilitate social production (Peters & Reveley,
2015), transform users as consumers and producers, and bridge the real and virtual worlds (Levinson,
2011). Together, these arguments strengthen the significance of social media in today's contemporary
world.

Social media is considered one of the game-changers in learning and teaching (Healy, 2015). The
overwhelming popularity of social media has led to a proliferation of studies that examined its role in
higher education. According to Balakrishnan & Gan, 2016, these include analyzing social media usage for
learning concerning students' learning styles. The relationship between personal, teaching, and
professional purposes of social media by higher education scholars (Manca & Ranieri, 2016); learner-
generated content and its impact on learning outcomes and satisfaction (Orús et al., 2016); impact of
online social networks on academic performance (Paul, Baker, & Cochran, 2012); and success factors of
social networking sites (Schlenkrich & Sewry, 2012).

In his essay 'Social Media in Higher Education,' Selwyn (2012) discussed the educational implications
of social media in terms of new types of learners, learning, and higher education provision. He argued
that although there are debates on the actual use of social media for learning and knowledge generation,
educators are continually challenged to find ways to utilize social media in higher education settings
effectively. Findings of previous studies (Balakrishnan & Gan, 2016; Schlenkrich & Sewry, 2012;
Sobaih, Moustafa, Ghandforoush, & Khan, 2016) revealed that social media has a great potential for
improving learning experience through active interaction and collaboration.

In a study by Usman (2015), He highlighted social media as having power and challenge. He
explained and contributed to the information dissemination emphasis based on its accessibility and
diversified format. These new media provide creation, sharing, and exchange of ideas and information.
Hence, users become interactive and are given equal participation.

The study also acknowledged the role of social media in civic engagement and political
mobilization. As people are given the freedom to access information and express their opinions and
concerns, they become an active part of society in dealing with public affairs, which was perceived to be
limited in traditional forms of media (Usman,2015).

The shift in the communication landscape also paved the way to challenges on privacy and credibility
of information. The study regarded these new platforms brought by communication technologies as more
complex and participatory (Usman,2015). Hence, the authenticity of content is a significant concern.
Implications on the diversity of people's opinions are then considered inevitable.
 Concludingly, Usman (2015) raised accessibility to the Internet in remote areas as a concern to
significantly regard social media as a tool in disseminating information. The assumptions drawn from the
study of Usman (2015) are congruent with the study conducted by Baruah (2012), through which he gave
the effectiveness of social media as a communication tool focus. Online sharing of knowledge and
information is one of the most considered advantages brought by this communication platform. The venue
provides an opportunity for everyone to participate in the process of gathering and generating content.

Importance of being proficient and skillful in Social Media.

Information literacy is essential owing to the amount of information that is available in

contemporary society. Being exposed to a great deal of information will not make people
informed citizens; they need to learn how to use it effectively, ACRL (2000). Data Smog refers
to the idea that too much information can create a barrier in our lives. Especially students and
society require a particular skill to handle this fast increasing information to use their educational
and economic purposes more effectively. Information literacy is considered as the solution for
the data smog. ACRL (2000).

Andrenetta (2005) states that information literacy allows us to cope with the data smog by
equipping us with the necessary skills to recognize when we need information, where to locate it,
and how to use it effectively and efficiently. Consequently, it will help decision-making and
productivity, which is beneficial to society (Davis,2021). Due to the information explosion and
data smog, all students and the community face many difficulties locating, evaluating, using, and
communicating information. Due to the expansion of internet services, we receive a lot of
information that is not assessed, unlike printed sources. Hence the authenticity, validity, and
reliability of this information are in doubt.

A student-centered, inquiry-based, problem-solving, and critical thinking proactive

learning environment with the help of information literacy skills will develop deep learners in
society (Davis,2021). Furthermore, information skills are vital to the success in education,
occupation, and day-to-day communication of all citizens. In the twenty-first century, lifelong
learning has become one of the main themes in the higher education sector. Therefore, he
concluded that the students need to be educated concerning the abilities and skills of learning, or
learning to learn, by developing the aspects of reasoning and critical thinking. Information
literacy skills will help students achieve this target in a broader sense in student-centered
learning (Davis,2021). Traditionally, we assume that the students will gain information literacy
skills automatically by themselves. But it is not. Information literacy skills need to be taught
among the students by the teachers and librarians.

Learning mainly focuses on achieving knowledge, skills, and attitudes associated with
particular subject areas. Irrespective of the disciplinary stream, each student should be able to
access, use and communicate information in an innovative manner (Davis,2021). The
Information literacy curriculum plays a significant role in cultivating these skills among the
university and school students. The library professionals can implement the curriculum with the
help of academic and administrative staff.

Information literate individuals improve society's quality of life in general and

academically. Information literacy helps us in our day-to-day life, such as buying a house,
choosing a school, making an investment, voting for the election, and many more. Information
literacy skills are of prime importance to achieve everybody's academic goals (Ranaweraa,
2008).

A society capable of accessing, evaluating, using, and communicating information

effectively and efficiently is called an information literate society (Ranaweraa, 2008). When we
educate children with the necessary information literacy skills consequently, society becomes
information literate.